Odra
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Wirus odry (MeV) to wysoce zakaźny wirus RNA z rodziny Paramyxoviridae, który infekuje wyłącznie ludzi, powodując ogólnoustrojowe zakażenie z charakterystyczną plamisto-grudkową wysypką oraz przejściową immunosupresją. Kluczowe białka osłonki, F (fuzyjne) i H (hemaglutyninowe), umożliwiają fuzję z komórkami gospodarza i wiązanie z receptorami CD150 (SLAM) na komórkach immunologicznych oraz nektyną-4 na komórkach nabłonkowych. Po początkowej replikacji w nabłonku dróg oddechowych i regionalnych węzłach chłonnych, wirus rozprzestrzenia się do układu limfoidalnego i różnych narządów, wywołując dwie fazy wiremii. Adaptacyjna odpowiedź immunologiczna usuwa wirusa i prowadzi do dożywotniej odporności, jednak infekcja wywołuje głęboką immunosupresję, w tym tzw. amnezję immunologiczną, trwającą średnio 27 miesięcy, podczas której dochodzi do deplecji komórek pamięci CD150+ T i B, co zwiększa podatność na zakażenia oportunistyczne i powikłania bakteryjne.

Odra (Measles) – Patogeneza i mechanizm działania

Wirus odry (MeV) jest wysoce zakaźnym wirusem RNA z rodziny Paramyxoviridae i rodzaju Morbillivirus. Wielkość wirusa wynosi 120-250 nm, z genomem jednoniciowego RNA o ujemnej polarności. Jest on blisko spokrewniony z wirusem pomoru bydła i nosówki psów. Wirus odry infekuje wyłącznie ludzi i powoduje ogólnoustrojowe zakażenie prowadzące do charakterystycznej wysypki oraz przejściowej immunosupresji.123

Struktura wirusa i białka wirusa odry

Wirus odry posiada dwa kluczowe białka błonowe osłonki, które odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie choroby:13

  • Białko F (fuzyjne) – odpowiedzialne za fuzję wirusa z błonami komórki gospodarza, penetrację wirusa oraz hemolizę
  • Białko H (hemaglutyninowe) – odpowiedzialne za wiązanie wirusa z receptorami na komórkach gospodarza

Genom wirusa koduje również cztery białka wewnętrzne: białko macierzy (M), nukleoproteina (N), fosfoproteinę (P) i dużą polimerazę (L). Dodatkowo wirus wytwarza dwa białka niestrukturalne, V i C, które uczestniczą w hamowaniu wrodzonej odpowiedzi immunologicznej.123

Receptory komórkowe i wniknięcie wirusa

Wirus odry wykorzystuje dwa główne receptory komórkowe do infekcji:12

  • CD150 (SLAM) – znajduje się na powierzchni komórek immunologicznych, w tym makrofagów, komórek dendrytycznych, limfocytów T i B
  • Nektyna-4 (PVRL4) – obecna na komórkach nabłonkowych

Proces infekcji rozpoczyna się, gdy wirus kontaktuje się z błoną śluzową dróg oddechowych. Białko H wiąże się z receptorem SLAM na powierzchni makrofagów i komórek dendrytycznych, co powoduje zmianę konformacji białka F, umożliwiając fuzję osłonki wirusa z błoną komórkową i wprowadzenie RNA wirusa oraz białek wirusowych do wnętrza komórki.12

Po wniknięciu, białko L (polimeraza RNA zależna od RNA) transkrybuje ujemny genom wirusowy na mRNA o dodatniej polarności, które następnie jest tłumaczone przez rybosomy komórki gospodarza na białka wirusowe.1

Fazy infekcji wirusem odry

Pierwotne zakażenie i lokalny rozwój

Wirus odry początkowo infekuje komórki nabłonkowe i wewnątrznabłonkowe komórki immunologiczne (głównie makrofagi i komórki dendrytyczne) w drogach oddechowych. Pierwotna replikacja wirusa odbywa się w komórkach nabłonka tchawicy i oskrzeli.12

Początkowy okres infekcji w płucach trwa od dwóch do trzech dni i kończy się pierwszą fazą wiremii. Zakażone komórki immunologiczne przenoszą wirusa do regionalnych tkanek limfoidalnych, co prowadzi do zakażenia tymocytów, limfocytów T i B oraz krwiotwórczych komórek macierzystych.123

Rozprzestrzenianie się ogólnoustrojowe

Po namnożeniu wirusa w regionalnych węzłach chłonnych, następuje rozprzestrzenienie wirusa do różnych narządów przed pojawieniem się wysypki. Pięć do siedmiu dni po rozpoczęciu infekcji następuje druga wiremia, podczas której wirus infekuje komórki nabłonkowe.123

W tej fazie zakażone limfocyty i komórki dendrytyczne migrują do warstwy podpodnabłonkowej i przenoszą wirusa odry do komórek nabłonkowych. Po namnożeniu w nabłonku, wirus jest uwalniany do dróg oddechowych.12

Wirus rozprzestrzenia się wzdłuż komórek nabłonkowych, początkowo w drzewie oddechowym poprzez pory międzykomórkowe, a następnie w nabłonku innych narządów poprzez receptory nektyny-4. To powoduje kaszel obserwowany klinicznie, który ułatwia rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa.12

MeV rozprzestrzenia się ogólnoustrojowo do innych narządów i tkanek, takich jak przewód pokarmowy, nerki, wątroba i skóra poprzez zakażone krążące komórki immunologiczne CD150+. Wirus stymuluje ekspresję i aktywację integryn leukocytów, co wspomaga proces rozprzestrzeniania.12

Mechanizm powstawania wysypki

Charakterystyczna plamisto-grudkowa wysypka (wykwity) w odrze pojawia się u osób z prawidłowym układem odpornościowym jako konsekwencja adaptacyjnej odpowiedzi immunologicznej na rozprzestrzenionego wirusa i sygnalizuje początek jego eliminacji. W momencie ustąpienia wysypki, zakaźne wiriony zostają zazwyczaj całkowicie usunięte, chociaż RNA wirusa może być wykrywalne we krwi przez kilka tygodni po zakażeniu.1

Badania na modelach zwierzęcych pokazują, że zakażenie MeV komórek limfoidalnych i mieloidalnych w powierzchownej skórze właściwej poprzedza rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa do leukocytów naskórkowych i keratynocytów. Model ten opisuje progresję zakażenia skóry wirusem odry:12

  1. Zakażone komórki wnikają do powierzchownej skóry właściwej przez naczynia krwionośne
  2. Zakażenie rozprzestrzenia się na mieszkające w skórze właściwej limfocyty T, komórki prezentujące antygen (APC) i komórki wrzecionowate lub podobne do dendrytycznych około 7 dni po zakażeniu
  3. Zakażenie postępuje kilka dni później do przyległych obszarów naskórka, gdzie wirus jest przenoszony do podstawnych keratynocytów
  4. Zakażenie rozprzestrzenia się bocznie i szczytowo do naskórka w sposób zależny od nektyny-4
  5. Infekcja jest eliminowana kilka dni później przez infiltrujące komórki immunologiczne, czemu towarzyszy pojawienie się obrzęku i przekrwienia, co daje wygląd rumieniowatej odropodobnej wysypki

Adaptacyjna odpowiedź immunologiczna na zakażenie MeV jest również odpowiedzialna za przekrwienie i obrzęk, podczas gdy zapalenie rogówki i spojówek występuje z powodu zakażenia keratynocytów.1

Immunopatogeneza odry

Odpowiedź immunologiczna na zakażenie

U osób z prawidłowym układem odpornościowym zakażenie dzikim typem wirusa odry wywołuje skuteczną odpowiedź immunologiczną, która usuwa wirusa i prowadzi do dożywotniej odporności.1

Infekcja wywołuje rozległą fazę efektorową, prowadzącą do eliminacji zakażonych komórek przez cytotoksyczne limfocyty T, a następnie dożywotnią odpowiedź immunologiczną specyficzną dla odry.1

Odpowiedź komórkowa (CMI) jest znacznie ważniejsza niż odpowiedź humoralna w usuwaniu zakażenia wirusem odry. Ta niezwykła trwałość odporności sugeruje, że wirus odry może normalnie utrzymywać się w organizmie, prawdopodobnie w limfocytach, dzięki czemu odporność jest restymulowana od wewnątrz.1

Immunosupresja związana z odrą

Zakażenie wirusem odry powoduje przejściową, ale głęboką immunosupresję, charakteryzującą się zmniejszeniem opóźnionej nadwrażliwości typu komórkowego, produkcji interleukiny-12 (IL-12) oraz specyficznych dla antygenu odpowiedzi limfoproliferacyjnych, które utrzymują się przez tygodnie do miesięcy po ostrym zakażeniu.12

Ta immunosupresja prowadzi do zwiększonej podatności na zakażenia oportunistyczne. U pacjentów z niedoborami odporności komórkowej, wirus odry może powodować postępujące i często śmiertelne zapalenie płuc z komórek olbrzymich.12

Amnezja immunologiczna

Jedną z najbardziej unikalnych i niebezpiecznych cech patogenezy odry jest jej zdolność do resetowania układu odpornościowego zakażonych pacjentów. Podczas ostrej fazy zakażenia, odra wywołuje immunosupresję poprzez proces zwany „amnezją immunologiczną”.1

Na podstawie obserwacji u eksperymentalnie zakażonych naczelnych zaproponowano alternatywny model wyjaśniający immunosupresję związaną z odrą, oparty na preferencyjnym zakażeniu i następnie mediowanej immunologicznie deplecji komórek pamięci CD150+ T i B, co prowadzi do „amnezji immunologicznej”.12

Najnowsze badania wykazały, że wirus odry niszczy 11-73% różnych przeciwciał, które chronią przed szczepami wirusowymi i bakteryjnymi, na które dana osoba była wcześniej odporna – od grypy po herpeswirusy i bakterie powodujące zapalenie płuc i zakażenia skóry.12

Mechanizm amnezji immunologicznej:123

  1. Wirus odry infekuje komórki pamięci
  2. Układ odpornościowy uczy się rozpoznawać sam wirus odry
  3. Po zidentyfikowaniu wirusa, komórki odpornościowe specyficzne dla odry podróżują po organizmie, polując na zakażone komórki pamięci
  4. W rezultacie komórki, które potrafią rozpoznać odrę, systematycznie niszczą komórki, które potrafią rozpoznać inne wirusy
  5. Ostatecznie odra zastępuje wszystkie normalne komórki pamięci immunologicznej takimi, które potrafią rozpoznać tylko ją, a nic innego

Średni czas trwania amnezji immunologicznej wywołanej przez odrę wynosił 27 miesięcy. Oznacza to, że po przebyciu odry układ odpornościowy musi ponownie nauczyć się rozpoznawać patogeny, na które wcześniej był odporny.12

Powikłania odry i zaburzenia neurologiczne

Powikłania ostrej fazy zakażenia

Powikłania odry, w tym zapalenie płuc i zapalenie ucha środkowego, zwykle nie są spowodowane replikacją wirusa lub jego usuwaniem, ale raczej wtórnymi zakażeniami bakteryjnymi wynikającymi z osłabionej odporności.1

Ostre zakażenie charakteryzuje się również głęboką immunosupresją, co sprawia, że pacjent jest wysoce podatny na zakażenia wtórne. Oprócz powodowania ostrej immunosupresji, odra może również powodować przedłużoną immunosupresję, zwaną amnezją immunologiczną, która jest związana ze wzrostem ogólnej zachorowalności i śmiertelności przez miesiące, a nawet lata po zakażeniu.1

U pacjentów z niedoborami odporności komórkowej, wirus odry może powodować postępujące i często śmiertelne zapalenie płuc z komórek olbrzymich.1

Zaburzenia neurologiczne związane z odrą

Wirus odry może w rzadkich przypadkach zakażać komórki nerwowe, powodując poważne powikłania neurologiczne:1

  • Podostre stwardniające zapalenie mózgu (SSPE) – postępująca śmiertelna choroba demielinizacyjna spowodowana utrzymującą się infekcją wirusem odry w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym
  • Zapalenie mózgu z ciałkami wtrętowymi odry – rzadkie powikłanie, które może wystąpić u osób z upośledzoną odpornością

W SSPE wirus najpierw dostaje się do OUN podczas wiremii, a następnie ustanawia zakażenie przewlekłe o niskim stopniu nasilenia. Wolne cząstki zakaźne wirusa nigdy nie zostały wyizolowane z mózgu ani płynu mózgowo-rdzeniowego, chociaż niektóre antygeny wirusowe mogą być obecne. Komórki olbrzymie, charakterystyczne dla ostrego zakażenia odrą, również są nieobecne. Jednak nukleokapsydy wirusowe są obecne w cytoplazmie.1

Wirus utrzymuje się w neuronach jako defektywny wariant, który rozprzestrzenia się bezpośrednio z neuronu do neuronu, bez przechodzenia przez środowisko pozakomórkowe. W ten sposób wirus unika wykrycia i eliminacji przez krążące wysokie miana swoistych przeciwciał neutralizujących.1

Białko M nie jest rozpoznawane przez przeciwciała obecne w płynie mózgowo-rdzeniowym. W zmianach mózgowych SSPE w zakażonych komórkach obecne są białka M, N i P, podczas gdy białka osłonkowe są nieobecne. MRNA odry wyizolowane od pacjentów z SSPE wykazały wysoką częstość mutacji, najwyższy wskaźnik mutacji w genie M, a następnie w genach F, H, P i N.1

Mechanizmy demielinizacji

Przetrwałe zakażenie wirusem odry może niszczyć zakażone komórki, w tym oligodendrocyty, i uszkadzać odpowiedzi zapalne, co prowadzi do demielinizacji. Uszkodzenia wynikające z zakażenia wirusem odry mogą prowadzić do rozprzestrzeniania się epitopów, co może skutkować generowaniem odpowiedzi autoimmunologicznych.1

Chociaż indukcja tej odpowiedzi autoimmunologicznej jest słabo zrozumiana, mimikra molekularna oparta na podobieństwach strukturalnych między białkami MeV a mieliną została zasugerowana jako mechanizm patogenny. Choroba charakteryzuje się demielinizacją, która prowadzi do ataksji, utraty funkcji motorycznych i sensorycznych oraz zmian stanu psychicznego i może prowadzić do śmierci.1

Szybka replikacja wirusa odry, który był uśpiony przez lata, jest wyzwalana przez jakieś zdarzenie reaktywacyjne i powoduje nadreaktywne odpowiedzi immunologiczne. Demielinizacja w przetrwałych zakażeniach wirusem odry wynika z złożonej kombinacji wirusowych efektów cytopatycznych na komórki nerwowe i mechanizmów immunologicznych.1

Nowe odkrycia w patogenezie odry

Aktywacja osi cGAS/STING

Najnowsze prace wykazały nowy aspekt wrodzonej odpowiedzi immunologicznej skierowanej przeciwko wirusowi odry, nieoczekiwanie obejmujący wyczuwanie związanego z DNA poprzez aktywację osi cGAS/STING, nawet w przypadku braku jakiegokolwiek pośredniego DNA wirusowego.1

Zakażenie MeV aktywuje stymulator genów interferonowych (STING) zarówno poprzez fosforylację, jak i ubikwitynację, a ekspansja MeV jest faworyzowana w przypadku braku cyklicznej syntetazy GMP-AMP (cGAS) i/lub STING, co demonstruje kluczową rolę osi cGAS/STING i otwiera nowe okno dla dalszych badań.1

Mechanizmy przeciwdziałania odporności wrodzonej

Zgromadzono znaczną wiedzę na temat interakcji MeV z wrodzonym układem odpornościowym poprzez dwa antagonistyczne aspekty: rozpoznawanie wirusa przez czujniki komórkowe i zdolność wirusa do hamowania indukcji kaskady interferonowej.1

Zaledwie osiem białek wirusowych zapewnia cały arsenał środków przeciwdziałających, zdolnych do silnego zmniejszenia kaskady interferonowej na różnych poziomach, pomagając w rozprzestrzenianiu się MeV.1

MeV wykazuje wzorce molekularne związane z patogenami (PAMP), rozpoznawane przez receptory rozpoznające wzorce (PRR), zdolne do wyzwalania wrodzonej odpowiedzi immunologicznej. Cytoplazmatyczne PRR, receptory Toll-podobne (TLR) i cząsteczki przeciwwirusowe indukowane przez IFN rozpoznają struktury wirusowe oparte na kwasach nukleinowych i wywołują obrony komórkowe poprzez ekspresję IFN-I i konsekutywnych ISG w celu stworzenia środowiska przeciwwirusowego.2

Kompleks receptorowy nektyna-1/nektyna-4 w mechanizmie neuroinwazji

Badania prowadzone przez Roberto Cattaneo wykazały, że komórki nerwowe były zakażane za pośrednictwem kompleksu receptorowego nektyna-1/nektyna-4. Zespół badawczy śledził fluorescencyjny wirus odry przemieszczający się z komórek nabłonkowych ekspresjonujących nektynę-4 do neuronów ekspresjonujących nektynę-1 poprzez nowo odkryty proces transferu.1

Dr Cattaneo wyjaśnił potencjalne znaczenie, mówiąc, że odkrycie może wyjaśnić nieuwzględnione aspekty patogenezy chorób zakaźnych: „Pokazujemy, że gdy pewne komórki zestawią się obok siebie, jedna odrywa kawałek drugiej. Komórka 'akceptująca’ nie tylko pobiera fragment błony komórek 'dawcy’, ale także ich cytoplazmę. Jeden wirus, odra, może wykorzystać ten proces do rozprzestrzeniania się z komórek nabłonkowych do neuronów”.1

Faza zakażenia Miejsce replikacji Czas od zakażenia Główne procesy patogenetyczne Objawy kliniczne
Pierwotne zakażenie Nabłonek dróg oddechowych, makrofagi pęcherzykowe, komórki dendrytyczne 0-3 dni Wiązanie wirusa do receptorów CD150 (SLAM) Brak (okres inkubacji)
Pierwsza wiremia Regionalne węzły chłonne 2-3 dni Rozprzestrzenianie się do układu siateczkowo-śródbłonkowego Brak (okres inkubacji)
Druga wiremia Układowe tkanki limfoidalne, skóra, nerki, przewód pokarmowy, wątroba 5-7 dni Zakażenie komórek nabłonkowych przez receptor nektyny-4 Prodromalne (gorączka, kaszel, katar, zapalenie spojówek)
Faza wysypkowa Skóra, błony śluzowe 10-14 dni Odpowiedź immunologiczna, eliminacja wirusa Wysypka plamisto-grudkowa, plamki Koplika
Okres zdrowienia Brak aktywnej replikacji 14+ dni Eliminacja wirusa, amnezja immunologiczna Ustępowanie wysypki, zwiększona podatność na zakażenia oportunistyczne

Implikacje kliniczne dla praktyki medycznej

Diagnostyka zakażenia wirusem odry

Potwierdzenie laboratoryjne jest niezbędne dla wszystkich sporadycznych przypadków odry i wszystkich ognisk choroby. Najczęstsze metody potwierdzania zakażenia odrą to:1

  • Wykrywanie swoistych przeciwciał IgM przeciwko odrze w surowicy
  • Wykrywanie RNA wirusa odry techniką RT-PCR w próbce z dróg oddechowych

Można również przeprowadzić analizę molekularną w celu określenia genotypu wirusa odry. Genotypowanie jest używane do mapowania dróg przenoszenia wirusów odry. Dane genetyczne mogą pomóc w powiązaniu lub odrzuceniu powiązania przypadków i mogą sugerować źródło przypadków importowanych. Genotypowanie jest jedynym sposobem odróżnienia zakażenia dzikim typem wirusa odry od wysypki spowodowanej niedawnym szczepieniem przeciwko odrze.1

Leczenie i zapobieganie powikłaniom

Warto odnotować rolę witaminy A w leczeniu odry. Podczas zakażenia odrą, wirus wyczerpuje witaminę A w organizmie. Niedobór witaminy A może prowadzić do uszkodzenia oczu i ślepoty. Gdy organizm nie ma wystarczającej ilości witaminy A, może to również zwiększać ryzyko poważnej choroby i śmierci z powodu odry.1

Leczenie witaminą A w odrze może pomóc tylko wtedy, gdy dziecko jest już chore. Nie pomaga, gdy jest stosowane zamiast szczepionki. Jeśli dziecko nie ma odry, nie należy podawać mu witaminy A w nadziei na zapobieżenie chorobie. Nie ma takiej dawki witaminy A, która ochroni je lub kogokolwiek innego w rodzinie przed zakażeniem odrą.1

Znaczenie szczepień w kontekście patogenezy

Szczepionka przeciwko odrze jest wysoce skuteczna w ochronie nie tylko przed samym wirusem odry, ale także przed wieloma patogenami oportunistycznymi, które są gotowe wykorzystać amnezję immunologiczną wywołaną przez odrę.1

Inokulacja szczepionką MMR (odra, świnka, różyczka) nie upośledzała ogólnej odporności dzieci, co potwierdzają dziesięciolecia badań.1

Zapewnienie powszechnego szczepienia przeciwko odrze nie tylko pomogłoby zapobiec 120 000 zgonów, które co roku będą bezpośrednio przypisywane odrze, ale mogłoby również zapobiec potencjalnie setkom tysięcy dodatkowych zgonów wynikających z trwałego uszkodzenia układu odpornościowego.1

Warto podkreślić, że odra spełnia trzy ważne kryteria, które czynią ją dobrym kandydatem do eradykacji: zakaża tylko ludzi, jest genetycznie stabilna oraz dostępna jest bezpieczna i skuteczna szczepionka.1

Kolejne rozdziały

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Chapter 13: Measles | Pink Book | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/pinkbook/hcp/table-of-contents/chapter-13-measles.html
    Measles is a systemic infection. The primary site of infection is alveolar macrophages or dendritic cells. Two to three days after replication in the lung, measles virus spreads to regional lymphoid tissues followed by a systemic infection. Following further viral replication in regional and distal reticuloendothelial sites, a second viremia occurs 5 to 7 days after initial infection. During this phase, infected lymphocytes and dendritic cells migrate into the subepithelial cell layer and transmit measles to epithelial cells. Following amplification in the epithelia, the virus is released into the respiratory tract. […] The measles virus is a paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. It is 120 to 250 nm in diameter, with a genome of single-stranded, negative sense RNA, and is closely related to the rinderpest and canine distemper viruses. Two membrane envelope proteins are important in pathogenesis. They are the F (fusion) protein, which is responsible for fusion of virus and host cell membranes, viral penetration, and hemolysis, and the H (hemagglutinin) protein, which is responsible for binding of virus to receptors on host cells.
  • #1 Measles virus: Infectious substances pathogen safety data sheet – Canada.ca
    https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/measles-virus.html
    Following exposure, measles virus infects immune cells (dendritic cells, macrophages, thymocytes, T and B cells) in the respiratory tract through binding of the H protein to the signalling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM, also known as CD150) on the surface of target cells, which triggers a modification of the F protein that associates with the H protein and fuses the viral envelope and the host cell membrane. […] The viral genome also encodes two non-structural proteins, V and C, which are primarily involved in inhibition of the innate immune response. […] Acute infection is also characterized by a profound immunosuppression, rendering the patient highly susceptible to secondary infections. […] In addition to causing profound acute immunosuppression, measles can also cause prolonged immunosuppression, termed immune amnesia, which is associated with increases in overall morbidity and mortality for months to years post-infection.
  • #1 Measles Virus Host Invasion and Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4997572/
    Measles virus is a highly contagious negative strand RNA virus that is transmitted via the respiratory route and causes systemic disease in previously unexposed humans and non-human primates. […] Identification of CD150 and nectin-4 as cellular receptors for measles virus has led to new perspectives on tropism and pathogenesis. […] The abilities of the virus to cause systemic infection, to transmit to numerous new hosts via droplets or aerosols and to suppress the host immune response for several months or even years after infection make measles a remarkable disease. […] Both CD150 and nectin-4 play crucial roles in the pathogenesis of measles. […] The infection induces an expansive effector phase, leading to the clearance of MV-infected cells by cytotoxic T-cells and subsequently a lifelong measles-specific immune response. […] However, while the lymphopenia lasts for a week, the immune suppression may last variably from several weeks to up to more than two years. […] This finding thus revives the importance of immune cell depletion as a key mechanism for measles-associated immune suppression.
  • #1 Measles – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles
    Once the measles virus contacts the mucosa lining the respiratory tract, it binds to SLAM (signaling lymphocyte activation molecule, also known as CD150) on the surface of macrophages and dendritic cells. These cells then take up the virus. This process is mediated by the hemagglutinin protein (H) on the surface of the measles virus binding to SLAM and causing the fusion protein in the viral capsule (F) to change shape, allowing the envelope to fuse with the viral RNA and viral proteins entry. The L protein, an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, then transcribes the viral negative-sense genome into a positive-sense mRNA, which is translated by the cell’s native ribosomes into viral proteins. These immune cells pass the virus on to other groups of immune cells, including B cells, T cells, thymocytes, and hematopoietic stem cells, which disseminate the virus to other organs during the incubation period.[5][39]
  • #1 Measles: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/966220-overview
    Measles virus infection causes a generalized immunosuppression marked by decreases in delayed-type hypersensitivity, interleukin (IL)-12 production, and antigen-specific lymphoproliferative responses that persist for weeks to months after the acute infection. […] In patients with deficiencies in cellular immunity, measles virus can cause a progressive and often fatal giant cell pneumonia. […] In immunocompetent individuals, wild-type measles virus infection induces an effective immune response, which clears the virus and results in lifelong immunity. […] Infection is transmitted via respiratory droplets, which can remain active and contagious, either airborne or on surfaces, for up to 2 hours. […] Initial infection and viral replication occur locally in tracheal and bronchial epithelial cells. […] Following the amplification of measles virus in regional lymph nodes, a predominantly cell-associated viremia disseminates the virus to various organs prior to the appearance of rash.
  • #1 Measles – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles
    The initial period of infection in the lung lasts for two to three days, and ends with the first period of viremia. Five to seven days after infection begins, the second viremia occurs, and the virus infects epithelial cells.[5] The virus spreads along epithelial cells, initially in the respiratory tree via intercellular pores, and later in the linings of other organs and the respiratory tree via nectin-4 receptors. This causes the cough seen clinically, which aerosolizes the virus and enables it to spread.[5][6]
  • #1 Measles Virus Host Invasion and Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/8/8/210
    Infection of NHPs with recombinant MV (rMV) derived from the wild-type Japanese IC323 strain and engineered to express a fluorescent reporter protein identified CD150+ lymphocytes and DCs as predominant target cells of MV infection in vivo. […] Nectin cell adhesion molecule 4 (nectin-4, previously also known as poliovirus receptor-related 4 or PVRL4) has been identified as another cellular receptor for MV that is expressed by epithelial cells. […] MV spreads systemically to other organs and tissues, such as the gastrointestinal tract, kidney, liver and skin through infected circulating CD150+ immune cells. […] MV infection stimulates the expression and activation of the leukocyte integrins lymphocyte function associated antigen-1 and very late activation antigen-4. […] MV can also infect permissive cells through receptor-independent mechanisms, although these mechanisms are much less efficient than receptor-mediated entry.
  • #1
    https://www.healio.com/clinical-guidance/measles/pathogenesis-overview
    The maculopapular exanthema (eruptive rash) that characterizes measles in immunocompetent hosts occurs as a consequence of the adaptive immune response to the disseminated MeV and signals the beginning of viral clearance. By the time the rash subsides, infectious virions have typically been fully cleared, although viral RNA may be detectable in the blood for a number of weeks thereafter. […] The adaptive immune response to MeV infection is also responsible for hyperemia and edema, while keratoconjunctivitis occurs due to infection of keratinocytes. Complications of measles, including pneumonia and otitis media, are typically not caused by viral replication or clearance, but rather secondary bacterial infections.
  • #1 Measles skin rash: Infection of lymphoid and myeloid cells in the dermis precedes viral dissemination to the epidermis | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1008253
    Measles is characterized by fever and a maculopapular skin rash, which is accompanied by immune clearance of measles virus (MV)-infected cells. […] Here, we address the pathogenesis of measles skin rash by combining data from experimentally infected NHPs, ex vivo infection of human skin sheets and in vitro infection of primary human keratinocytes. Analysis of NHP skin samples collected at different time points following MV inoculation demonstrated that infection in the skin precedes onset of rash by several days. MV infection was detected in lymphoid and myeloid cells in the dermis before dissemination to the epidermal leukocytes and keratinocytes. […] We show that MV infection of dermal myeloid and lymphoid cells precedes viral dissemination to the epidermal leukocytes and keratinocytes.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of Measles Virus Infection, Pathogenesis of Measles, Pathogenesis of SSPE
    http://virology-online.com/viruses/MEASLES4.htm
    CMI is much more important than the humoral response in clearing measles virus infection. There is no evidence to suggest that the CMI is impaired in patients who develop SSPE. […] This unusual persistence of immunity suggests that measles virus may normally persist inside the body, possibly in lymphocytes so that immunity is restimulated from within.
  • #1 Measles and Immune Amnesia
    https://asm.org/articles/2019/may/measles-and-immune-amnesia
    One of the most uniqueand most dangerousfeatures of measles pathogenesis is its ability to reset the immune systems of infected patients. […] During the acute phase of infection, measles induces immune suppression through a process called immune amnesia. […] However, the ability to destroy immunological memory and replace memory lymphocytes is unique to MV. […] MV causes infection by fusing with the plasma membranes of host cells in a receptor-dependent manner. […] Memory T-cells and B-cells contain SLAM surface receptors as well. […] Once infection is established, the virus spreads through the body by budding from infected cells. […] Immune-mediated destruction of memory T cells and B cells is initiated, and memories of past infections are destroyed along with them. […] We now know that the memory T-cells and B-cells that are produced immediately following infection are dramatically different from those that existed before the measles infection. […] The average duration of measles-induced immune amnesia was 27 months in all 3 countries. […] The measles vaccine is highly effective at protecting against not only MV but also many of the opportunistic pathogens that are eager to take advantage of measles-induced immune amnesia.
  • #1 Measles Virus Host Invasion and Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/8/8/210
    MV infection results in a transient and profound immune suppression, which leads to increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and increased childhood mortality. […] Based on observations in experimentally infected NHPs we proposed an alternative model explaining measles immune suppression, based on the preferential infection and subsequent immune-mediated depletion of CD150+ memory T- and B-cells, resulting in “immune amnesia”.
  • #1 Inside Immune Amnesia | Harvard Medical School
    https://hms.harvard.edu/news/inside-immune-amnesia
    Over the last decade, evidence has mounted that the measles vaccine protects in not one but two ways: Not only does it prevent the well-known acute illness with spots and fever that frequently sends children to the hospital, but it also appears to protect from other infections over the long term. […] Others have hypothesized that the vaccine’s extended protective effects stem from preventing measles infection itself. According to this theory, the virus can impair the body’s immune memory, causing so-called immune amnesia. By protecting against measles infection, the vaccine prevents the body from losing or “forgetting” its immune memory and preserves its resistance to other infections. […] Reporting Oct. 31 in Science, the researchers show that the measles virus wipes out 11 percent to 73 percent of the different antibodies that protect against viral and bacterial strains a person was previously immune to—anything from influenza to herpesvirus to bacteria that cause pneumonia and skin infections.
  • #1 Measles: The race to understand 'immune amnesia’
    https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211112-the-people-with-immune-amnesia
    Scientists have known for years that measles can alter the immune system but the latest evidence suggests it’s less of a mild tweaking, and more of a total reset. […] Enter „immune amnesia”, a mysterious phenomenon that’s been with us for millennia, though it was only discovered in 2012. Essentially, when you’re infected with measles, your immune system abruptly forgets every pathogen it’s ever encountered before every cold, every bout of flu, every exposure to bacteria or viruses in the environment, every vaccination. The loss is near-total and permanent. Once the measles infection is over, current evidence suggests that your body has to re-learn what’s good and what’s bad almost from scratch. […] „In a way, infection of the measles virus basically sets the immune system to default mode,” says Mansour Haeryfar, a professor of immunology at Western University, Canada, „as if it has never encountered any microbes in the past”.
  • #1 Measles | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201649
    Measles is an infectious disease in humans caused by the measles virus (MeV). […] MeV causes immunosuppression, and severe sequelae of measles include pneumonia, gastroenteritis, blindness, measles inclusion body encephalitis and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. […] Using statistical analysis of population data, this study demonstrates that measles has long-lasting (2-3 years) immunological effects that result in increased childhood mortality. […] A description of the model used to derive global measles mortality estimates. […] This paper describes the roles of the MeV epithelial receptor (nectin 4) in virus pathogenesis. […] This paper describes the structures of the MeV H protein complexed with SLAM. […] This paper describes the identification of the MeV receptor on epithelial cells.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of Measles Virus Infection, Pathogenesis of Measles, Pathogenesis of SSPE
    http://virology-online.com/viruses/MEASLES4.htm
    In SSPE, the virus is first thought to gain entry to the CNS during the viraemia. Once there, it establishes a low-grade persistent infection. It is not known whether viral replication itself, or immunopathological mechanisms are responsible for the development of lesions. In SSPE, free infectious virus particles have never been isolated from the brain or the CSF, although some viral antigens may be found. Giant cells which are characteristic of acute measles infection are also absent. However, viral nucleocapsids are present in the cytoplasm. Therefore, some defect must exist in the virus replication process that prevents maturation. In the absence of free infectious particles, the infection may spread slowly by infectious nucleocapsids from cell to cell. […] The M-protein is not recognized by the antibodies present in the CSF. SSPE brain lesions have M, N and P proteins present in infected cells whereas the envelope proteins are missing. The measles mRNAs isolated from SSPE patients showed a high rate of mutations, the highest rate of mutation in the M gene, followed by the F, H, P and N genes.
  • #1 Measles Virus- An Overview
    https://microbenotes.com/measles-virus/
    MeV spreads systemically to other organs and tissues through infected circulating CD150 immune cells and, in some rare cases, infects endothelial cells, neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in vivo. […] Although most measles cases resolve without complications, the measles virus is capable of persisting in neurons as a defective variant that spreads from neuron to neuron directly, without passage through the extracellular environment. […] In this way, the virus avoids detection and elimination by circulating high titers of measles virus-specific neutralizing antibody. […] The persistence of measles virus in the CNS can result in progressive fatal encephalitis called SSPE developing in immunocompetent individuals several months to years after infection and recovery from acute measles virus.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of Encephalitis Caused by Persistent Measles Virus Infection | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/41738
    It is known that persistent MV infection is asymptomatic but can eventually result in SSPE. The latent MV should be reactivated at the onset of disease, resulting in clinical signs of SSPE. However, the molecular mechanisms of MV persistence and reactivation are yet to be elucidated. […] MV infection induces clinically significant immunosuppression, which can continue for many weeks after an apparent recovery from measles. […] Long-lived cytokine imbalances and direct effects on the proliferation of lymphocytes are reportedly implicated with the immunosuppression. In contrast, a persistent brain infection leads to a hyperimmune antibody response, a pathogenic feature of SSPE. […] Persistent MV infection might destroy infected cells, including oligodendrocytes, and damage inflammatory responses, thereby resulting in demyelination. […] Damage resulting from MV infection can lead to a spreading of epitopes that may result in the generation of autoimmune responses.
  • #1 Measles Virus- An Overview
    https://microbenotes.com/measles-virus/
    Although the induction of this autoimmune response is poorly understood, molecular mimicry based on structural similarities between MeV proteins and myelin has been suggested as a pathogenic mechanism. […] The disease is hallmarked by demyelination, which results in ataxia, motor, and sensory loss and mental status changes and can result in death.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of Encephalitis Caused by Persistent Measles Virus Infection | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/41738
    Many previous studies have demonstrated that changes in host cell homeostasis contribute to the pathogenesis of persistent MV infections. Rapid replication of MV that has been quiescent for years is triggered by some reactivation event(s) and results in hyper-reactive immune responses. Demyelination in persistent MV infections is due to a complex combination of viral cytopathic effects on neuronal cells and immune-mediated mechanisms.
  • #1 Measles Virus-Induced Host Immunity and Mechanisms of Viral Evasion
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/12/2641
    The immune system deploys a complex network of cells and signaling pathways to protect host integrity against exogenous threats, including measles virus (MeV). However, throughout its evolutionary path, MeV developed various mechanisms to disrupt and evade immune responses. […] Considerable knowledge has been accumulated regarding MeV interactions with the innate immune system through two antagonistic aspects: recognition of the virus by cellular sensors and viral ability to inhibit the induction of the interferon cascade. […] Indeed, while the host could use several innate adaptors to sense MeV infection, the virus is adapted to unsettle defenses by obstructing host cell signaling pathways. […] Recent works have highlighted a novel aspect of innate immune response directed against MeV unexpectedly involving DNA-related sensing through activation of the cGAS/STING axis, even in the absence of any viral DNA intermediate.
  • #1 Measles Virus-Induced Host Immunity and Mechanisms of Viral Evasion
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/12/2641
    Indeed, MeV infection activates the stimulator of IFN genes (STING) through both phosphorylation and ubiquitination, and MeV expansion is favored in the absence of cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate (GMP-AMP) synthase (cGAS) and/or STING, thus demonstrating the cGAS/STING axis’ crucial role and opening a new window for further investigations.
  • #1 Measles Virus-Induced Host Immunity and Mechanisms of Viral Evasion
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/12/2641
    Remarkably, only eight viral proteins confer an arsenal of countermeasures capable of strongly reducing the interferon cascade at different levels, thus helping MeV dissemination. […] However, host defenses remain effective in sensing nucleic acids and generating anti-MeV cellular immune responses to later control and clear the infection in the vast majority of cases. […] MeV displays pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), capable of triggering the innate immune response. […] Cytoplasmic PRRs, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and IFN-inducible antiviral molecules recognize nucleic acid-based viral structures and elicit cellular defenses through the expression of IFN-I and consecutive ISGs to implement an antiviral environment. […] While anti-MeV RNA-related innate sensing has been well deciphered, recent studies unveiled that DNA-related sensors are also engaged in the control of paramyxoviruses such as MeV, even though this viral family carries a single-strand RNA (ssRNA) genome without any DNA replication intermediate.
  • #1 Insight Into How Measles Might Reach the Brain – Mayo Clinic News Network
    https://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/insight-into-how-measles-might-reach-the-brain/
    Measles, our Longstanding Enemy […] In one very, very rare form of measles infection, the virus causes a disease of the central nervous system called “subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.” […] Now, however, a research team led by Roberto Cattaneo, Ph.D., report in the Journal of Cell Science that neuron cells were infected via the nectin-1/nectin-4 receptor complex. […] Dr. Cattaneo explained the potential significance saying that the finding may explain unaccounted aspects of infectious disease pathogenesis. “We show that when certain cells juxtapose, one rips a piece of the other off. The “acceptor” cell not only takes up a piece of the membrane of the “donor” cells, but also its cytoplasm. One virus, measles, can take advantage of this process to spread from epithelial cells to neurons,” he says. […] Dr. Cattaneo’s group tracked fluorescent measles virus moving from nectin-4 expressing epithelial cells into nectin-1 expressing neurons by the newly discovered transfer process. […] While this provides a plausible mechanism for neuronal entry of measles, it is not definitive.
  • #1 Clinical Overview of Measles | Measles (Rubeola) | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/measles/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html
    Measles is caused by a single-stranded, enveloped RNA virus with 1 serotype. It is classified as a member of the genus Morbillivirus in the Paramyxoviridae family. Humans are the only natural hosts of measles virus. […] Measles virus can remain infectious in the air for up to 2 hours after an infected person leaves an area. […] Laboratory confirmation is essential for all sporadic measles cases and all outbreaks. The most common methods for confirming measles infection are: Detection of measles-specific IgM antibody in serum. Measles RNA by RT-PCR in a respiratory specimen. […] Molecular analysis can also be conducted to determine the genotype of the measles virus. Genotyping is used to map the transmission pathways of measles viruses. The genetic data can help to link or unlink cases and can suggest a source for imported cases. Genotyping is the only way to distinguish between wild-type measles virus infection and a rash caused by a recent measles vaccination.
  • #1
    https://www.healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/ask-the-pediatrician/Pages/can-vitamin-a-prevent-or-cure-measles.aspx
    No, vitamin A does not prevent or cure measles. And it’s important to know that too much vitamin A can cause serious health problems. […] Vitamin A treatment for measles can only help if a child is already sick. It doesn’t help when used instead of the vaccine. […] During a measles infection, the virus depletes vitamin A in the body. Vitamin A deficiency can cause eye damage and blindness. When the body doesn’t have enough vitamin A, it may also increase the risk of serious illness and death from measles. […] If your child does not have measles, you should not give vitamin A to your child in the hopes of preventing the disease. There is no dose of vitamin A that will protect them or anyone else in your family from being infected with measles. […] Inhaled budesonide is an asthma medicine; it is not effective to treat measles. In fact, steroids given early in an infection like measles can interfere with the immune systems ability to fight the virus.
  • #1 Study details the mechanism and scope of measles-induced immune amnesia in the wake of infection
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-10-mechanism-scope-measles-induced-immune-amnesia.html
    The discovery that measles depletes people’s antibody repertoires, partially obliterating immune memory to most previously encountered pathogens, supports the immune amnesia hypothesis. […] This proved to be the first definitive evidence that measles affects the levels of protective antibodies themselves, providing a mechanism supporting immune amnesia. […] Further tests revealed that severe measles infection reduced people’s overall immunity more than mild infection. […] The authors stress that the effects observed in the current study occurred in previously healthy children. Because measles is known to hit malnourished children much harder, the degree of immune amnesia and its effects could be even more severe in less healthy populations. […] Inoculation with the MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccine did not impair children’s overall immunity, the researchers found. The results align with decades of research.
  • #1 Study suggests how measles depletes body’s immune memory — Harvard Gazette
    https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/10/how-measles-wipes-out-the-bodys-immune-memory/
    The discovery that measles depletes peoples antibody repertoires, partially obliterating immune memory to most previously encountered pathogens, supports the immune amnesia hypothesis. […] This proved to be the first definitive evidence that measles affects the levels of protective antibodies themselves, providing a mechanism supporting immune amnesia, said Elledge. […] The authors stress that the effects observed in the current study occurred in previously healthy children. Because measles is known to hit malnourished children much harder, the degree of immune amnesia and its effects could be even more severe in less-healthy populations. […] Ensuring widespread vaccination against measles would not only help prevent the 120,000 deaths that will be directly attributed to measles this year alone, but could also avert potentially hundreds of thousands of additional deaths attributable to the lasting damage to the immune system, the authors said.
  • #1 News and Views: Measles — the Virus, the Disease, the Vaccine | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-update-healthcare-professionals/newsletter/news-and-views-measles-virus-disease-vaccine
    Measles is an RNA virus of about 100 to 300 nm in size. In the scheme of viral size, measles is on the larger side. Related most closely to rinderpest virus (cow measles), measles is believed to have evolved in an environment in which cattle and people were in close proximity. The eradication of rinderpest, the only virus other than smallpox to be eradicated, increases hope that someday measles can be eradicated as well. Although we hear more about polio eradication, measles virus is a good candidate because it meets three important criteria. First, it only infects humans. Second, it is genetically stable. Third, a safe and effective vaccine is available. […] Measles virus can infect several different kinds of cells, including epithelial, endothelial, and immune system cells. Immune cells infected by measles virus include immature lymphocytes, T and B cells, activated monocytes, macrophages, and mature dendritic cells. Because measles virus buds from, rather than lyses, infected cells, it typically spreads through the body inside of infected cells. After infecting the lower respiratory tract and local lymph nodes, viral-infected cells travel through the blood to the spleen and lymph nodes, lungs, thymus, liver, skin, conjunctivae, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, and genital mucosa. It is rare for cells of the central nervous system to be infected, so the mechanism for complications that include involvement of the central nervous system has been studied. Working theories include altered presentation of myelin antigens, molecular mimicry, genetic susceptibility, or dysregulation of the immune response. This latter theory currently seems to be the most likely.
  • #2 Clinical Overview of Measles | Measles (Rubeola) | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/measles/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html
    Measles is caused by a single-stranded, enveloped RNA virus with 1 serotype. It is classified as a member of the genus Morbillivirus in the Paramyxoviridae family. Humans are the only natural hosts of measles virus. […] Measles virus can remain infectious in the air for up to 2 hours after an infected person leaves an area. […] Laboratory confirmation is essential for all sporadic measles cases and all outbreaks. The most common methods for confirming measles infection are: Detection of measles-specific IgM antibody in serum. Measles RNA by RT-PCR in a respiratory specimen. […] Molecular analysis can also be conducted to determine the genotype of the measles virus. Genotyping is used to map the transmission pathways of measles viruses. The genetic data can help to link or unlink cases and can suggest a source for imported cases. Genotyping is the only way to distinguish between wild-type measles virus infection and a rash caused by a recent measles vaccination.
  • #2 Measles Virus-Induced Host Immunity and Mechanisms of Viral Evasion
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/12/2641
    While MeV infection most often causes a mild disease and triggers a lifelong immunity, its tropism for invariant T-cells and memory T and B-cells provokes the elimination of one primary shield and the pre-existing immunity against previously encountered pathogens, known as “immune amnesia.” […] One of the main characteristics associated with MeV infection is the depletion of lymphocytes, accompanied by an increase in viremia. […] While MeV infection causes a mild disease and provides life-long immunity in immuno-competent hosts, it dismantles the host’s defenses by infecting and eliminating pre-existing memory B- and memory T-cell subsets and seemingly invariant lymphocyte sub-populations. […] The MeV genome codes for six structural proteins comprising two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (H) and fusion protein (F), along with four internal proteins: matrix (M), nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P) and large polymerase (L).
  • #2 Measles Virus Host Invasion and Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/8/8/210
    Measles virus is a highly contagious negative strand RNA virus that is transmitted via the respiratory route and causes systemic disease in previously unexposed humans and non-human primates. […] Identification of CD150 and nectin-4 as cellular receptors for measles virus has led to new perspectives on tropism and pathogenesis. […] The abilities of the virus to cause systemic infection, to transmit to numerous new hosts via droplets or aerosols and to suppress the host immune response for several months or even years after infection make measles a remarkable disease. […] Both CD150 and nectin-4 play crucial roles in the pathogenesis of measles. […] The following review of MV entry, dissemination, transmission and immune suppression is largely based on observations from experimental MV infections of NHPs.
  • #2 Studies into the mechanism of measles-associated immune suppression during a measles outbreak in the Netherlands | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-07515-0
    Measles causes a transient immune suppression, leading to increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. […] In experimentally infected non-human primates (NHPs) measles virus (MV) infects and depletes pre-existing memory lymphocytes, causing immune amnesia. […] These data support our immune amnesia hypothesis and offer an explanation for the previously observed long-term effects of measles on host resistance. […] MV infects cells after binding to cellular receptors CD150 or nectin-4, expressed on subsets of immune cells or the adherens junctions of epithelial cells, respectively. […] In experimentally infected non-human primates (NHPs), MV initially targets myeloid cells in the respiratory tract, which act as Trojan horses by transmitting MV to CD150+ lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues, leading to viraemia and systemic virus dissemination.
  • #2
    https://www.healio.com/clinical-guidance/measles/pathogenesis-overview
    The first host cells to be infected by measles morbillivirus (MeV) are epithelial cells and intraepithelial immune cells (primarily macrophages and dendritic cells) in the respiratory tract. From there, the virus is readily transmitted to neighboring lymphoid tissues, infecting thymocytes, T and B lymphocytes and hematopoietic stem cells. Infected lymphocytes then mediate the systemic spread of the virus, infecting immune, epithelial and endothelial cells in non-lymphoid tissues and organs throughout the body, while the total virus titer increases. Clinical symptoms are generally absent during the initial spread phase, but once the virus reaches the peripheral lymphoid organs, prodromal symptoms fever and one or more of cough, coryza, or conjunctivitis appear as a direct consequence of viral replication-induced epithelial cell damage.
  • #2 Measles – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles
    The initial period of infection in the lung lasts for two to three days, and ends with the first period of viremia. Five to seven days after infection begins, the second viremia occurs, and the virus infects epithelial cells.[5] The virus spreads along epithelial cells, initially in the respiratory tree via intercellular pores, and later in the linings of other organs and the respiratory tree via nectin-4 receptors. This causes the cough seen clinically, which aerosolizes the virus and enables it to spread.[5][6]
  • #2 Measles: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/966220-overview
    Measles virus infection causes a generalized immunosuppression marked by decreases in delayed-type hypersensitivity, interleukin (IL)-12 production, and antigen-specific lymphoproliferative responses that persist for weeks to months after the acute infection. […] In patients with deficiencies in cellular immunity, measles virus can cause a progressive and often fatal giant cell pneumonia. […] In immunocompetent individuals, wild-type measles virus infection induces an effective immune response, which clears the virus and results in lifelong immunity. […] Infection is transmitted via respiratory droplets, which can remain active and contagious, either airborne or on surfaces, for up to 2 hours. […] Initial infection and viral replication occur locally in tracheal and bronchial epithelial cells. […] Following the amplification of measles virus in regional lymph nodes, a predominantly cell-associated viremia disseminates the virus to various organs prior to the appearance of rash.
  • #2 Measles Virus Host Invasion and Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/8/8/210
    Infection of NHPs with recombinant MV (rMV) derived from the wild-type Japanese IC323 strain and engineered to express a fluorescent reporter protein identified CD150+ lymphocytes and DCs as predominant target cells of MV infection in vivo. […] Nectin cell adhesion molecule 4 (nectin-4, previously also known as poliovirus receptor-related 4 or PVRL4) has been identified as another cellular receptor for MV that is expressed by epithelial cells. […] MV spreads systemically to other organs and tissues, such as the gastrointestinal tract, kidney, liver and skin through infected circulating CD150+ immune cells. […] MV infection stimulates the expression and activation of the leukocyte integrins lymphocyte function associated antigen-1 and very late activation antigen-4. […] MV can also infect permissive cells through receptor-independent mechanisms, although these mechanisms are much less efficient than receptor-mediated entry.
  • #2 Factsheet about measles
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/measles/facts
    The measles virus is a single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Morbillivirus and the family Paramyxoviridae. […] The entire measles virus genome has been sequenced which has allowed for identification of distinct wild-virus lineages with different geographical distribution. This makes it possible to confirm or suggest the source of an outbreak. […] Invasion is through the respiratory epithelium and 2-3 days after exposure there is a primary viremia with replication in the inoculation site as well as in distant reticuloendothelial tissue. […] On days 5-7, there is an intense secondary viremia of 4-7 days with replication in the skin, conjunctivae, respiratory tract and internal organs.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of Measles Virus Infection, Pathogenesis of Measles, Pathogenesis of SSPE
    http://virology-online.com/viruses/MEASLES4.htm
    Measles first gains access to the body via the upper respiratory tract or the conjunctiva. The virus quickly spreads to the immediate lymph nodes. Destruction of the lymphoid tissues leads to a profound leucopenia. A primary viraemia ensues which is responsible for spreading the virus throughout the rest of the R-E system and the respiratory system. A secondary viraemia follows whereby the virus is further spread to involve the skin, the viscera, kidney and bladder. The Koplik’s spots and the rash in measles are thought to result from a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, the virus antigen being absent from the lesion itself. […] It is likely that CNS involvement, even in uncomplicated measles, is common. Transient EEG abnormalities are detected in 50% of patients. Measles virus is rarely isolated from the brain of a patient with acute measles panencephalitis. Therefore, current theories favour an autoimmune reaction as the possible cause of CNS damage.
  • #2 Measles skin rash: Infection of lymphoid and myeloid cells in the dermis precedes viral dissemination to the epidermis | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1008253
    We demonstrate that MV infection of lymphoid and myeloid cells in the superficial dermis precedes dissemination to epidermal leukocytes and keratinocytes, which is followed by onset of the typical skin rash. […] We postulate a model that describes the progression of MV skin infection and the development of measles rash. The model takes viral tropism, location, interaction and motility of the susceptible cells, as well as the virus-specific immune responses into account. MV-infected cells enter the superficial dermis through the blood vessels and spread the infection to the tissue-resident dermal T cells, APCs and spindle- or dendritic-like cells around 7 days after infection. The infection progresses several days later to the adjacent epidermal areas, where the virus is transmitted to the basal keratinocytes. […] The infection spreads laterally and apically to the epidermis in a nectin-4-dependent manner. The infection is cleared several days later by infiltrating immune cells, accompanied by the appearance of edema and hyperemia that give the appearance of an erythematous morbilliform rash.
  • #2 Measles Virus Host Invasion and Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/8/8/210
    MV infection results in a transient and profound immune suppression, which leads to increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and increased childhood mortality. […] Based on observations in experimentally infected NHPs we proposed an alternative model explaining measles immune suppression, based on the preferential infection and subsequent immune-mediated depletion of CD150+ memory T- and B-cells, resulting in “immune amnesia”.
  • #2 Study details the mechanism and scope of measles-induced immune amnesia in the wake of infection
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-10-mechanism-scope-measles-induced-immune-amnesia.html
    Study details the mechanism and scope of measles-induced immune amnesia in the wake of infection […] Others have hypothesized that the vaccine’s extended protective effects stem from preventing measles infection itself. According to this theory, the virus can impair the body’s immune memory, causing so-called immune amnesia. […] Reporting Oct. 31 in Science, the researchers show that the measles virus wipes out 11 percent to 73 percent of the different antibodies that protect against viral and bacterial strains a person was previously immune to—anything from influenza to herpesvirus to bacteria that cause pneumonia and skin infections. […] The study is the first to measure the immune damage caused by the virus and underscores the value of preventing measles infection through vaccination, the authors said.
  • #2 Measles: The race to understand 'immune amnesia’
    https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211112-the-people-with-immune-amnesia
    Scientists have known for decades that even after they recover, children who have been infected with measles are significantly more likely to fall ill and die from other causes. […] Then in 2002, a group of Japanese scientists discovered that the receptor the measles virus binds to a kind of molecular lock that allows it to enter the body isn’t in the lungs, as you would expect for a respiratory virus. Instead, it’s on cells from the immune system. […] „It was really quite a surprise if you compare it to what we knew at that time from the textbooks of how measles virus would enter our host,” says Rik de Swart, an associate professor of Viroscience at Erasmus University Medical Center in the Netherlands. […] „Measles suppresses the immune system, and activates it at the same time,” says Swart. Though measles deletes immune memories, there is one exception to these losses. Oddly, the only virus you’ll definitely be able to recognise after falling sick with measles is measles itself.
  • #2 Measles: The race to understand 'immune amnesia’
    https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211112-the-people-with-immune-amnesia
    „Probably all those infections need to be experienced, again, to really repair all the damage there,” says Swart. „And every infection has another risk of disease development.” […] The findings explain why vaccinating children against measles has the unexpected, beneficial side-effect of reducing deaths among children, way beyond the numbers who were ever at risk of dying from measles itself. […] All this means that measles can have a profound impact on a population’s health, even years after an outbreak has disappeared. […] According to Swart, this is currently not standard practice though it wouldn’t be a bad idea. „In some cases that might be required. But on a programmatic basis, that is not being done now, as far as I’m aware,” he says.
  • #2 Measles Virus-Induced Host Immunity and Mechanisms of Viral Evasion
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/12/2641
    Remarkably, only eight viral proteins confer an arsenal of countermeasures capable of strongly reducing the interferon cascade at different levels, thus helping MeV dissemination. […] However, host defenses remain effective in sensing nucleic acids and generating anti-MeV cellular immune responses to later control and clear the infection in the vast majority of cases. […] MeV displays pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), capable of triggering the innate immune response. […] Cytoplasmic PRRs, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and IFN-inducible antiviral molecules recognize nucleic acid-based viral structures and elicit cellular defenses through the expression of IFN-I and consecutive ISGs to implement an antiviral environment. […] While anti-MeV RNA-related innate sensing has been well deciphered, recent studies unveiled that DNA-related sensors are also engaged in the control of paramyxoviruses such as MeV, even though this viral family carries a single-strand RNA (ssRNA) genome without any DNA replication intermediate.
  • #3 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Measles-Causes.aspx
    The measles virus is a paramyxovirus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus. The virus is 100200 nm in diameter and has a core of a single stranded RNA. […] It has two membrane envelope proteins that are important for pathogenesis of measles in humans. These proteins are the F (fusion) proteins that are responsible for fusion of virus and host cell membranes. This fusion further leads to penetration of the virus and eventually breakdown of the RBCs (hemolysis) in the host. […] There is also the H (hemagglutinin) protein that helps the virus to be adsorbed into the host cell. […] Once the measles virus enters the body, it multiples in the back of the throat and lungs and starts to spread throughout the body including the skin and respiratory system. The capability of infecting others lasts for two to four days before the rash appears and for about five days after it appears.
  • #3 Understanding measles virus: from isolation to immunological cellular mechanisms and immunisation 1954–2024
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/ei/Article/1003167
    The lack of antigenic variation of MeV is suggestive that eradication potential is possible. The significance of this review is that it provides key insights into MeV infection in both natural infection as well as studies of immunised individuals since MeV isolation. […] The MeV virion particle size is 15,894 kilobases (kb) from the 3 end of the negative (ve) sense single-stranded RNA genome. This encodes the nucleoprotein (N), followed by a conserved tetrameric H protein, F protein, matrix (M) protein followed by a trimer of phosphoproteins (P) combined with two non-structural proteins (C/V) with a larger polymerase (L) enzyme towards the 5 end of the RNA genome. […] Therefore, H protein nAbs evoked by attenuated MeV is the first key mechanism of restricting viral entry. MeV virions traverse cell membranes and replicate intracellularly within cell cytoplasm, followed by cell egression.
  • #3
    https://www.healio.com/clinical-guidance/measles/pathogenesis-overview
    The first host cells to be infected by measles morbillivirus (MeV) are epithelial cells and intraepithelial immune cells (primarily macrophages and dendritic cells) in the respiratory tract. From there, the virus is readily transmitted to neighboring lymphoid tissues, infecting thymocytes, T and B lymphocytes and hematopoietic stem cells. Infected lymphocytes then mediate the systemic spread of the virus, infecting immune, epithelial and endothelial cells in non-lymphoid tissues and organs throughout the body, while the total virus titer increases. Clinical symptoms are generally absent during the initial spread phase, but once the virus reaches the peripheral lymphoid organs, prodromal symptoms fever and one or more of cough, coryza, or conjunctivitis appear as a direct consequence of viral replication-induced epithelial cell damage.
  • #3 Measles – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles
    The initial period of infection in the lung lasts for two to three days, and ends with the first period of viremia. Five to seven days after infection begins, the second viremia occurs, and the virus infects epithelial cells.[5] The virus spreads along epithelial cells, initially in the respiratory tree via intercellular pores, and later in the linings of other organs and the respiratory tree via nectin-4 receptors. This causes the cough seen clinically, which aerosolizes the virus and enables it to spread.[5][6]
  • #3 Measles: The race to understand 'immune amnesia’
    https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211112-the-people-with-immune-amnesia
    First measles infects memory cells, then somehow the immune system learns how to identify the virus itself. Once it’s started producing immune cells specific to measles, they travel around the body, hunting down infected memory cells So you end up with cells that can identify measles systematically killing off cells that can identify other viruses. The virus leads us to destroy our own immune memories. […] Eventually, measles ends up replacing all your normal immune memory cells with ones that can identify it, and nothing else. This means you’re only immune to measles while all other pathogens are forgotten. […] In fact, though HIV damages the immune system, the amnesia generated by measles is unique among human infections. […] Once the immune system has lost its memory cells, it has to painstakingly re-learn everything it once knew.