Norowirus (zakażenie jelit)
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Norowirusy, należące do rodziny Caliciviridae, to nieosłonkowe, jednoniciowe wirusy RNA o dodatniej polarności, będące główną przyczyną ostrego zapalenia żołądka i jelit. Objawy kliniczne pojawiają się 12-48 godzin po ekspozycji i trwają zwykle 24-72 godziny, obejmując nudności, wymioty, wodnistą biegunkę oraz bóle brzucha. Wirus wykazuje wysoki stopień zakaźności, z minimalną dawką zakaźną wynoszącą około 10 cząstek wirusowych. Replikacja zachodzi głównie w jelicie cienkim, zwłaszcza w jelicie czczym, gdzie wirus infekuje różne typy komórek, w tym enterocyty, komórki pęczelkowe (tuft cells) oraz komórki układu odpornościowego (makrofagi, komórki dendrytyczne, limfocyty B i T). Patogeneza obejmuje uszkodzenie mikrokosmków, prowadzące do dysfunkcji enzymatycznej na poziomie rąbka szczoteczkowego, co skutkuje biegunką, a także stymulację komórek enterochromaffinowych do uwalniania serotoniny, aktywującej ośrodek wymiotny w mózgu. Genetyczna ekspresja antygenów grup krwi (HBGA) determinuje podatność na zakażenie, gdyż norowirusy wiążą się z tymi oligosacharydami na powierzchni komórek jelitowych.

Patogeneza norowirusów – wprowadzenie

Norowirusy to nieosłonkowe, jednoniciowe wirusy RNA o dodatniej polarności z rodziny Caliciviridae, stanowiące główną przyczynę ostrego zapalenia żołądka i jelit na całym świecie. Wywołują one chorobę, która cechuje się ostrymi objawami żołądkowo-jelitowymi, takimi jak nudności, wymioty, wodnista biegunka i bóle brzucha, rozwijającymi się 12-48 godzin po ekspozycji i trwającymi zwykle 24-72 godziny12. Pomimo znacznego obciążenia chorobą wywołaną przez norowirusy oraz potencjału do pojawiania się wysoce zjadliwych szczepów, patogeneza zakażenia nie jest dobrze poznana z powodu braku systemów hodowli komórkowych i historycznego braku modeli zwierzęcych3.

Norowirusy są stosunkowo prostymi patogenami – każda cząstka wirusowa niesie zaledwie dziewięć genów kodujących białka. Pomimo tej prostoty, wirus z łatwością omija ludzki układ odpornościowy i instruuje komórki jelitowe do replikacji cząstek wirusowych. W ciągu jednego dnia „przeprogramowuje” wyściółkę jelitową, powodując uwalnianie płynów i nowo zreplikowanego materiału wirusowego do środowiska4. Co istotne, norowirusy są wysoce zakaźne, a zakażenie może nastąpić już po ekspozycji na zaledwie 10 cząstek wirusowych5.

Wnikanie i replikacja wirusa w organizmie

Mechanizm zakażenia norowirusem nie jest w pełni poznany. Wirus dostaje się do organizmu najczęściej drogą pokarmową. Norowirusy są stabilne w środowisku kwaśnym, co umożliwia im przetrwanie przejścia przez żołądek67. Replikacja wirusa zachodzi głównie w jelicie cienkim, a dokładniej w jego części zwanej jelitem czczym (jejunum)8.

Cykl replikacyjny norowirusów

Cykl replikacyjny norowirusów rozpoczyna się od przyłączenia wirusa do węglowodanów na powierzchni komórki. Ludzkie norowirusy wiążą się z antygenami grup krwi (HBGA, histo-blood group antigens), podczas gdy mysie norowirusy wiążą się z innymi węglowodanami, w tym kwasami sialowymi9. Po przyłączeniu kapsydu wirusowego (VP1) do antygenów grup krwi obecnych na powierzchni komórki, wirus zostaje internalizowany, rozebrany i rozłożony10.

Następnie dochodzi do transkrypcji i translacji wirusowego RNA (+) w cytoplazmie komórki gospodarza. Proces ten umożliwiają czynniki translacji gospodarza rekrutowane przez niestrukturalne białko wirusowe VPg. Po translacji, poliproteina kodowana przez ORF1 jest cięta przez wirusową proteazę (Pro, znaną również jako NS6 lub podobną do 3C) na 6 indywidualnych białek niestrukturalnych11.

Podczas replikacji, RNA (+) jest przepisywane na RNA o negatywnej polarności (RNA (-)). Te stanowią matryce do syntezy nowych genomowych i subgenomowych RNA (+). Subgenomowe RNA (+) zawierają tylko ORF2 i ORF3 i są wykorzystywane do produkcji białek VP1 i VP2. Nowo zsyntetyzowane wirusowe RNA są składane w nowe wiriony w procesie znanym jako enkapsydacja. Następnie nowo zsyntetyzowane wiriony są uwalniane z zainfekowanych komórek gospodarza poprzez mechanizm, który nie jest jeszcze w pełni poznany12.

Komórki docelowe norowirusów

Norowirusy wykazują podwójny tropizm, atakując i infekując zarówno komórki nabłonka jelitowego, jak i komórki układu odpornościowego w jelicie13. Przez długi czas uważano, że norowirusy infekują tylko enterocyty (komórki nabłonkowe wyścielające jelito), jednak nowsze badania sugerują, że zakażenie jest złożone i obejmuje wiele typów komórek w ludzkim jelicie14.

Badania potwierdziły, że norowirusy infekują i replikują się w komórkach układu odpornościowego, w tym makrofagach, komórkach dendrytycznych i limfocytach B15. W enterocytach ludzkich, jak pokazano w biopsjach jelitowych od pacjentów z niedoborami odporności, można wykryć białko VP1 w enterocytach, makrofagach, limfocytach T i komórkach dendrytycznych, co wskazuje na możliwą aktywną infekcję tych typów komórek16.

Niedawne badania wykazały, że norowirusy infekują rzadki typ komórek zwanych komórkami pęczelkowymi (tuft cells), które mają na powierzchni charakterystyczne kosmki przypominające włosy. Mimo że komórki te są nieliczne, odkrycia naukowców wskazują, że po zakażeniu wirusem, szybko namnażają one wirusa i inicjują ciężkie zakażenia1718. Badacze wykazali, że aby wniknąć do komórek, norowirusy potrzebują specyficznego białka, które występuje tylko na komórkach pęczelkowych w wyściółce jelita19.

Komórki pęczelkowe mogą być ważnym celem dla norowirusów, ponieważ mają one białko bramkujące niezbędne do wpuszczenia wirusa. Co ciekawe, zakażenia pasożytami jelitowymi i robakami powodują zwiększenie liczby komórek pęczelkowych od pięcio- do dziesięciokrotnie, co prowadzi do bardziej wydajnej replikacji norowirusów20.

Rola mikrobioty w patogenezie norowirusów

Bakterie w mikrobiocie gospodarza mogą wpływać na zakażenia ludzkim norowirusem poprzez dostarczanie cukrów podobnych do HBGA dla przyłączenia norowirusów i poprzez modulowanie odporności gospodarza21. Limfocyty B wspierają replikację norowirusów w obecności bakterii, które wykazują cukry podobne do antygenów grup krwi (HBGA)22.

Eksperymentalne modyfikacje mikrobioty drastycznie zmieniają zakażenie mysim norowirusem – wstępne traktowanie myszy koktajlem antybiotyków zapobiega zakażeniu jelita zarówno przez ostry szczep MNV-1, jak i przez uporczywe szczepy MNV-3 i CR623. Kwasy żółciowe okazały się również niezbędne dla efektywnej replikacji świńskiego kaliciwirusa jelitowego in vitro i służą jako kofaktory dla wiązania komórkowego i zakaźności mysich norowirusów2425.

Zmiany histopatologiczne w przebiegu zakażenia norowirusem

Analiza histologiczna próbek biopsji z proksymalnej części jelita od ochotników, którzy zachorowali po podaniu norowirusów z grupy GI (Norwalk; GI.1) lub GII (Hawaii; GII.1), wykazuje nienaruszoną błonę śluzową jelita ze specyficznymi zmianami histologicznymi, w tym26:

  • Poszerzenie i stępienie kosmków jelitowych
  • Skrócenie mikrokosmków
  • Powiększone i blade mitochondria
  • Zwiększona wakuolizacja cytoplazmatyczna
  • Obrzęk międzykomórkowy

26

Zakażenie norowirusem powoduje następujące zmiany w błonie śluzowej jelita27:

  • Częściowe spłaszczenie i poszerzenie kosmków, z dezorganizacją nabłonka błony śluzowej
  • Nacieczenie blaszki właściwej przez komórki jednojądrowe i wakuolizacja nabłonka błony śluzowej
  • Hiperplazja komórek krypt
  • Gładka i szorstka siateczka śródplazmatyczna oraz zwiększenie liczby ciałek wielopęcherzykowych w komórkach nabłonka błony śluzowej
  • Znaczne zmniejszenie liczby mikrokosmków i obecność amorficznej masy elektronowo-gęstej w poszerzonych przestrzeniach międzykomórkowych

27

Kilka badań sugeruje, że norowirusy powodują apoptozę enterocytów u ludzi, świń i myszy28. Nie jest jednak jasne, czy zakażenie wirusowe enterocytów bezpośrednio indukuje apoptozę, czy też składnik wirusowy wydzielany z innych komórek działa na enterocyty obserwatorskie, wywołując ich zaprogramowaną śmierć komórkową29.

Mechanizmy objawów klinicznych w zakażeniu norowirusem

Wirus powoduje uszkodzenie mikrokosmków jelita cienkiego, co prowadzi do dysfunkcji enzymatycznej na poziomie rąbka szczoteczkowego, powodując biegunkę30. Ponadto wirus powoduje opóźnione opróżnianie żołądka i zaburzenia motoryki, co skutkuje wymiotami31.

Zakażenie granicy przewodu pokarmowego utrudnia wchłanianie wody i składników odżywczych, co może powodować biegunkę z wodą32. Oprócz zmian fizjologicznych i strukturalnych w jelicie, zakażenie norowirusem jest również związane z infiltracją zapalną do blaszki właściwej u ludzi po zakażeniu wirusami Norwalk i Hawaii, co wskazuje, że cytokiny prozapalne mogą odgrywać rolę w objawach zakażenia norowirusem33.

Najnowsze badania zespołu naukowców kierowanego przez profesora Lennarta Svenssona z Uniwersytetu w Linköping wykazały po raz pierwszy, jak wirusy wywołują wymioty. Badacze odkryli, że zakażenie wirusowe i toksyna wydzielana z zakażonych komórek stymulują typ komórek czuciowych zwanych komórkami enterochromaffinowymi w ścianach przewodu pokarmowego. Komórki te mogą komunikować się z mózgiem za pośrednictwem nerwu błędnego34.

„Wykazaliśmy, że toksyna wirusowa stymuluje komórki do uwalniania serotoniny, substancji sygnałowej, która z kolei aktywuje ośrodek wymiotny w mózgu” – wyjaśnia Maria Hagbom, inżynier laboratoryjny w Zakładzie Wirusologii Molekularnej na Uniwersytecie w Linköping35. Wzorzec ten był badany zarówno w hodowlach komórkowych, gdzie naukowcy wykazali, że toksyna wirusowa powodowała uwalnianie serotoniny, jak i u myszy, gdzie zaobserwowano, że zakażenie rotawirusem w jelitach aktywowało obszary mózgu, w których znajduje się ośrodek wymiotny36.

Rola czynników genetycznych gospodarza w zakażeniu norowirusem

Znaczenie antygenów grup krwi (HBGA)

Po ekspozycji na norowirusy grupa krwi w dużej mierze determinuje, czy dana osoba zachoruje37. Te same oligosacharydy obecne na krwinkach czerwonych występują również na powierzchni komórek wyścielających jelito cienkie. Norowirusy wykorzystują te oligosacharydy do przyłączania się i zakażania komórek jelitowych. To specyficzna struktura tych oligosacharydów decyduje, czy dany szczep wirusa może się przyłączyć i wniknąć do komórki38.

Obecność jednego oligosacharydu, zwanego antygenem H1, jest wymagana do przyłączenia się wielu szczepów norowirusów39. Badania wykazały związek między ekspresją ludzkich antygenów grup krwi (HBGA) a podatnością na zakażenie norowirusem. Badania sugerują, że kapsyd norowirusów mógł ewoluować pod selektywną presją ludzkich HBGA40.

Warto zauważyć, że obecność podobnych do HBGA substancji zidentyfikowano w wielu różnych powierzchniach żywności, w tym w skrzelach skorupiaków oraz ścianach komórkowych, liściach i żyłkach sałaty. Może to wyjaśniać, dlaczego ogniska norowirusów są często związane z żywnością41.

Inne czynniki genetyczne

Białko MDA-5 może być głównym sensorem immunologicznym, który wykrywa obecność norowirusów w organizmie42. Niektóre osoby mają powszechne warianty genu MDA-5, które mogą czynić je bardziej podatnymi na zakażenie norowirusem43.

Mechanizmy unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej przez norowirusy

Norowirusy mogą zakażać swoich gospodarzy przez tygodnie lub miesiące, nawet w obecności w pełni funkcjonalnego układu odpornościowego44. Mechanizmy, dzięki którym norowirusy utrzymują długotrwałe zakażenie, pozostają niekompletnie zrozumiane, ale mogą one odgrywać kluczową rolę w osłabianiu adaptacyjnych odpowiedzi immunologicznych, tak że nie chronią one przed wtórnym zakażeniem45.

Chociaż skuteczne w hamowaniu i regulowaniu replikacji wirusa, endogenne odpowiedzi interferonowe są przeciwdziałane przez szereg mechanizmów unikania odpowiedzi przez wirusa46. Cząsteczka unikania odporności VF1 jest kodowana przez dodatkową ramkę odczytu (ORF4), która jest obecna w genomie mysiego norowirusów, ale nieobecna w ludzkich norowirusach47.

Interesujące jest to, że norowirusy ukryte w komórkach pęczelkowych są skutecznie schowane przed układem odpornościowym, co może wyjaśniać, dlaczego niektóre osoby nadal wydzielają wirusa długo po ustąpieniu objawów choroby48.

Odpowiedź immunologiczna na zakażenie norowirusem

Zakażenie norowirusem wywołuje silną odpowiedź immunologiczną, która eliminuje wirusa w ciągu kilku dni. Jednakże odpowiedź ta wydaje się krótkotrwała49. Większość badań wykazała, że odporność chroniąca przed ponownym zakażeniem tym samym szczepem norowirusów trwa mniej niż sześć miesięcy. Ponadto zakażenie jednym szczepem norowirusów daje niewielką ochronę przed zakażeniem innym5051.

Po zakażeniu norowirusem rozwijają się specyficzne przeciwciała IgG i IgA52. Immunologiczna rola różnorodności antygenowej norowirusów pozostaje niepewna, a sprzeczne dane dotyczące czasu trwania odporności zostały zgłoszone, wahając się od kilku tygodni do kilku lat53.

Trwałe zakażenie mysim norowirusem prowadzi do zróżnicowania specyficznych dla norowirusów rezydujących w tkankach limfocytów T CD8+ do stanu podobnego do tego zaangażowanego w odpowiedź przeciwko latentnym cytomegalowirusom54.

Potencjalne następstwa zakażenia norowirusem

Oprócz ostrych objawów zakażenia norowirusem, istnieją pewne dowody łączące zakażenia norowirusem z następstwami, w tym poinfekcyjnym zespołem jelita drażliwego (IBS) i nieswoistymi zapaleniami jelit (IBD)55.

Wykazano, że zakażenie myszy Atg16l1HM przetrwałym szczepem CR6 mysiego norowirusów prowadzi do zmienionego transkryptomu, unikalnej morfologii komórek Panetha i nieprawidłowego pakowania ziarnistości56. Zarówno mutacja gospodarza, specyficznie w nabłonku jelitowym, jak i zakażenie wirusowe są wymagane dla fenotypu podobnego do choroby Crohna, co rodzi możliwość, że zakażenia jelitowe mogą przyczyniać się do IBD u ludzi57.

Wydalanie wirusa i zakażenie przewlekłe

Średni okres od inokulacji wirusem do wystąpienia objawów klinicznych wynosi 1,2 dnia, a objawy norowirusów zwykle ustępują w ciągu 1-3 dni. Chociaż objawy mogą ustąpić, ludzie mogą nadal wydalać wirusa z kałem przez dłuższy czas, nawet do 60 dni w niektórych przypadkach58.

Pacjenci z niedoborami odporności mogą wydalać wirusa przez miesiące lub lata5960. Chociaż nie są znane zakażenia przewlekłe, to u pacjentów z obniżoną odpornością odnotowano wydalanie wirusa przez ponad 8 miesięcy61.

Podsumowanie patogenezy norowirusów

Patogeneza norowirusów jest złożonym procesem, który rozpoczyna się od wniknięcia wirusa do organizmu drogą pokarmową. Po przejściu przez żołądek, wirus infekuje jelito cienkie, gdzie atakuje różne typy komórek, w tym enterocyty, komórki pęczelkowe i komórki układu odpornościowego. Zakażenie prowadzi do uszkodzenia błony śluzowej jelita, zaburzeń wchłaniania wody i składników odżywczych oraz aktywacji ośrodka wymiotnego w mózgu poprzez uwalnianie serotoniny z komórek enterochromaffinowych.

Podatność na zakażenie norowirusem jest w dużej mierze determinowana przez czynniki genetyczne gospodarza, szczególnie przez ekspresję antygenów grup krwi. Norowirusy wykazują zdolność do unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej, co umożliwia im długotrwałe utrzymywanie się w organizmie gospodarza. Odpowiedź immunologiczna na zakażenie, choć silna, jest krótkotrwała i nie zapewnia długoterminowej ochrony przed ponownym zakażeniem.

Zaawansowana wiedza na temat patogenezy norowirusów ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii zapobiegania i leczenia zakażeń. Celowanie w komórki pęczelkowe za pomocą szczepionki lub leku może być skuteczną strategią zapobiegania lub leczenia zakażeń norowirusem62.

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  1. 11.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. […] Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection. […] Reports have shown a link between the expression of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the susceptibility to norovirus infection. Studies have suggested the capsid of noroviruses may have evolved from selective pressure of human HBGAs. HBGAs are not, however, the receptor or facilitator of norovirus infection. Co-factors such as bile salts may facilitate the infection, making it more intense when introduced during or after the initial infection of the host tissue. […] It is not yet clear at what specific point in the Norovirus replication cycle bile salts facilitate infection: penetration, uncoating, or maintaining capsid stability.
  • #2 Norovirus: Causes, symptoms and treatment | Live ScienceLive Science
    https://www.livescience.com/42944-what-is-norovirus.html
    Norovirus is a virus that causes vomiting and diarrhea in humans. It is the leading cause of gastrointestinal illness worldwide and across all age groups, according to a 2022 review in the journal Viruses. […] The mechanism of norovirus infection is not fully understood, according to a 2012 review published in The Journal of Infectious Diseases. Norovirus is a relatively simple pathogen — each viral particle carries just nine protein-coding genes. […] However, norovirus can easily bypass the human immune system and instruct gut cells to replicate the viral particles. Within a day, it „rewires” the intestinal lining to dump on their fluids and release the newly-replicated viral load into the environment. […] Human norovirus binds to human cells via several specific receptors, such as histo-blood group antigens (HBGA), according to a 2019 review published in the journal Viruses. Studies have identified the presence of HBGA-like substances in many different food surfaces, including palps of shellfish and cell walls, leaves, and veins of lettuce. This could explain why norovirus outbreaks are often food-related, the review researchers noted. […] In addition to humans, norovirus can infect a broad range of hosts including livestock, pets, and wild animals like marine mammals and bats. Norovirus may not be restricted to one host and might be able to jump the species barrier, according to a 2019 review published in the journal Viruses.
  • #3 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Human noroviruses in the family Caliciviridae are a major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis. […] Despite the impact of human norovirus-induced disease and the potential for emergence of highly virulent strains, the pathogenic features of infection are not well understood due to the lack of a cell culture system and previous lack of animal models. This review summarizes the current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis from the histological to the molecular level, including contributions from new model systems. […] Because of the lack of a cell culture system and the historical lack of animal models of norovirus infection, the extent of our knowledge regarding pathogenesis of norovirus infection comes primarily from physical, histological, and biochemical studies of infected human volunteers. In recent years, work in porcine, bovine, and murine models has also begun to contribute to our understanding of norovirus pathogenesis.
  • #4 Norovirus: Causes, symptoms and treatment | Live ScienceLive Science
    https://www.livescience.com/42944-what-is-norovirus.html
    Norovirus is a virus that causes vomiting and diarrhea in humans. It is the leading cause of gastrointestinal illness worldwide and across all age groups, according to a 2022 review in the journal Viruses. […] The mechanism of norovirus infection is not fully understood, according to a 2012 review published in The Journal of Infectious Diseases. Norovirus is a relatively simple pathogen — each viral particle carries just nine protein-coding genes. […] However, norovirus can easily bypass the human immune system and instruct gut cells to replicate the viral particles. Within a day, it „rewires” the intestinal lining to dump on their fluids and release the newly-replicated viral load into the environment. […] Human norovirus binds to human cells via several specific receptors, such as histo-blood group antigens (HBGA), according to a 2019 review published in the journal Viruses. Studies have identified the presence of HBGA-like substances in many different food surfaces, including palps of shellfish and cell walls, leaves, and veins of lettuce. This could explain why norovirus outbreaks are often food-related, the review researchers noted. […] In addition to humans, norovirus can infect a broad range of hosts including livestock, pets, and wild animals like marine mammals and bats. Norovirus may not be restricted to one host and might be able to jump the species barrier, according to a 2019 review published in the journal Viruses.
  • #5 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus) Symptoms, Transmission, Prevention, Treatment – Biology Notes Online
    https://biologynotesonline.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus is introduced into the body most often through an oral pathway. […] They are acid-stable, and are which is consistent with their ability to withstand passage through the stomach. Replication is found inside the jejunum. […] A mere 10 viruses will cause disease for humans. […] Infection of the border of the intestinal tract hinders the absorption of water and nutrients, and can cause diarrhea with water. […] A partial flattening and widening of villi, with disorganization of mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria was infiltrated with mononuclear cell vacuolization and mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cells hyperplasia is quite common. […] The smooth and rough ER and an increase in the number of multivesicular bodies on mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly reduced and amorphous electron-dense was found in the intercellular spaces that were expanded. […] The viruss sheds can last for up to 2 weeks after symptoms have subsided. […] It is a common occurrence that immunity is short-lived. might not provide protection.
  • #6 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus) Symptoms, Transmission, Prevention, Treatment – Biology Notes Online
    https://biologynotesonline.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus is introduced into the body most often through an oral pathway. […] They are acid-stable, and are which is consistent with their ability to withstand passage through the stomach. Replication is found inside the jejunum. […] A mere 10 viruses will cause disease for humans. […] Infection of the border of the intestinal tract hinders the absorption of water and nutrients, and can cause diarrhea with water. […] A partial flattening and widening of villi, with disorganization of mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria was infiltrated with mononuclear cell vacuolization and mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cells hyperplasia is quite common. […] The smooth and rough ER and an increase in the number of multivesicular bodies on mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly reduced and amorphous electron-dense was found in the intercellular spaces that were expanded. […] The viruss sheds can last for up to 2 weeks after symptoms have subsided. […] It is a common occurrence that immunity is short-lived. might not provide protection.
  • #7 Norovirus (winter vomiting bug): life cycle, pathogenicity and prevention – ASK Scientific- English research manuscript editing, translation and research communications services
    https://www.askscientific.com/norovirus-winter-vomiting-bug-life-cycle-pathogenicity-prevention/
    As discussed earlier, infections are predominantly caused via the oral route. The virions withstand acidic pH, and therefore survive passage through the stomach. Previous studies reported the infectious nature of noroviruses to be a combination of low infecting doses (DI 50 20 virus particles), high virus excretion level (108 to 1010 copies of RNA per gram of feces), and extended excretion after clinical recovery. There have been reports of asymptomatic infections, and shedding of the virus can continue up to 2 weeks after symptoms have disappeared. Although chronic infections are unknown, immunosuppressed patients have been known to shed the virus for over 8 months. […] Studies indicate development of short-term homologous immunity, which correlates with the serum antibody levels. Although a candidate vaccine has been developed, it is as yet unknown whether it induces homotypic or heterotypic immunity. Due to the lack of suitable preventive or control methods, the development of a vaccine is the need of the hour.
  • #8 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus) Symptoms, Transmission, Prevention, Treatment – Biology Notes Online
    https://biologynotesonline.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus is introduced into the body most often through an oral pathway. […] They are acid-stable, and are which is consistent with their ability to withstand passage through the stomach. Replication is found inside the jejunum. […] A mere 10 viruses will cause disease for humans. […] Infection of the border of the intestinal tract hinders the absorption of water and nutrients, and can cause diarrhea with water. […] A partial flattening and widening of villi, with disorganization of mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria was infiltrated with mononuclear cell vacuolization and mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cells hyperplasia is quite common. […] The smooth and rough ER and an increase in the number of multivesicular bodies on mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly reduced and amorphous electron-dense was found in the intercellular spaces that were expanded. […] The viruss sheds can last for up to 2 weeks after symptoms have subsided. […] It is a common occurrence that immunity is short-lived. might not provide protection.
  • #9 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Following attachment to the cell surface, at least three MNoV strains (CW3, CR6, and S7) have been shown to use the CD300 family member CD300lf as a proteinaceous viral receptor. […] For HNoVs, a proteinaceous receptor has not yet been identified. […] The replication cycle of NoV begins with attachment (1) of the virus to carbohydrates on the cell surface, where human norovirus (HNoV) binds histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and murine norovirus (MNoV) binds other carbohydrates including sialic acids. […] Upon successful virus attachment, entry and viral particle uncoating occur, and NoV positive-sense RNA (+RNA) is then exposed in the cytoplasm where viral RNA translation takes place. […] It has been shown that NS1/2 is further cleaved by host caspases to produce NS1 and NS2 proteins.
  • #10 Norovirus (winter vomiting bug): life cycle, pathogenicity and prevention – ASK Scientific- English research manuscript editing, translation and research communications services
    https://www.askscientific.com/norovirus-winter-vomiting-bug-life-cycle-pathogenicity-prevention/
    Norovirus infection is a self-limiting illness, typically lasting for 2-3 days. […] The viral capsid (VP1) attaches to the host histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) present on the cell surface (step1). Subsequently, the virus is internalized, uncoated and disassembled (steps 2, 3). Host translation factors recruited by the non-structural VPg protein enables the transcription and translation of the viral (+)RNA in the cytoplasm of the host cell (step 4). Following translation, the polyprotein encoded by ORF1 is cleaved by the virus encoded protease (Pro, also known as NS6 or 3C-like) into 6 individual (non-structural) proteins (step 5). During replication, the (+)RNA is transcribed into negative-sense RNAs (()RNAs). These form the templates for the synthesis of new genomic and subgenomic (+)RNAs, respectively (step 6). The subgenomic (+)RNAs contain only ORF2 and ORF3, and are used for the production of VP1 and VP2. The newly synthesized viral RNAs are assembled into new virions, in the process known as encapsidation (step 7). The newly synthesized virions are then released from the infected host cells (step 8), by an unknown mechanism.
  • #11 Norovirus (winter vomiting bug): life cycle, pathogenicity and prevention – ASK Scientific- English research manuscript editing, translation and research communications services
    https://www.askscientific.com/norovirus-winter-vomiting-bug-life-cycle-pathogenicity-prevention/
    Norovirus infection is a self-limiting illness, typically lasting for 2-3 days. […] The viral capsid (VP1) attaches to the host histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) present on the cell surface (step1). Subsequently, the virus is internalized, uncoated and disassembled (steps 2, 3). Host translation factors recruited by the non-structural VPg protein enables the transcription and translation of the viral (+)RNA in the cytoplasm of the host cell (step 4). Following translation, the polyprotein encoded by ORF1 is cleaved by the virus encoded protease (Pro, also known as NS6 or 3C-like) into 6 individual (non-structural) proteins (step 5). During replication, the (+)RNA is transcribed into negative-sense RNAs (()RNAs). These form the templates for the synthesis of new genomic and subgenomic (+)RNAs, respectively (step 6). The subgenomic (+)RNAs contain only ORF2 and ORF3, and are used for the production of VP1 and VP2. The newly synthesized viral RNAs are assembled into new virions, in the process known as encapsidation (step 7). The newly synthesized virions are then released from the infected host cells (step 8), by an unknown mechanism.
  • #12 Norovirus (winter vomiting bug): life cycle, pathogenicity and prevention – ASK Scientific- English research manuscript editing, translation and research communications services
    https://www.askscientific.com/norovirus-winter-vomiting-bug-life-cycle-pathogenicity-prevention/
    Norovirus infection is a self-limiting illness, typically lasting for 2-3 days. […] The viral capsid (VP1) attaches to the host histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) present on the cell surface (step1). Subsequently, the virus is internalized, uncoated and disassembled (steps 2, 3). Host translation factors recruited by the non-structural VPg protein enables the transcription and translation of the viral (+)RNA in the cytoplasm of the host cell (step 4). Following translation, the polyprotein encoded by ORF1 is cleaved by the virus encoded protease (Pro, also known as NS6 or 3C-like) into 6 individual (non-structural) proteins (step 5). During replication, the (+)RNA is transcribed into negative-sense RNAs (()RNAs). These form the templates for the synthesis of new genomic and subgenomic (+)RNAs, respectively (step 6). The subgenomic (+)RNAs contain only ORF2 and ORF3, and are used for the production of VP1 and VP2. The newly synthesized viral RNAs are assembled into new virions, in the process known as encapsidation (step 7). The newly synthesized virions are then released from the infected host cells (step 8), by an unknown mechanism.
  • #13 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    Noroviruses exhibit dual tropism as they target and infect the intestinal epithelial and nonepithelial (immune) cell types. […] The infection of gut-associated immune cells has a significant impact on the pathogenesis of norovirus and the immunological response of the host to viral infection. […] The pathogenic mechanisms of human norovirus infection are poorly understood because of the difficulty in cultivating the virus in the intestinal epithelial cells and the lack of an appropriate animal model that can perfectly express all aspects of human disease when challenged orally. […] The enteric mucosa of the small intestine is believed to be the focal point of localisation of human norovirus infection. […] In addition to the physiologic and structural changes in the gut enterocyte, norovirus infection has also been described in association with inflammatory infiltration into the human’s lamina propria following infection with the Norwalk and Hawaii viruses, an indication that the proinflammatory cytokines may be playing a role in the symptomatology of norovirus infection.
  • #14 Norovirus – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513265/
    Noroviruses are nonenveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses from the Caliciviridae family and are the leading cause of acute gastrointestinal illness worldwide. […] Noroviruses are difficult to culture in a lab setting, making it difficult to predict how they infect and replicate in humans. Studies suggest that infection is multifaceted and involves multiple cell types in the human gut. The predominant cell type lining the human gut is a single layer of intestinal epithelial cells called enterocytes. Lying deep to the enterocytes are numerous immune cells. Several studies have confirmed that norovirus infects and replicates in immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. […] Authors have postulated that noroviruses have a way of bypassing enterocytes to enter the human hosts. Proposed mechanisms include entering through M cells, a specialized type of cell in the gut that overlies the Peyer patches and lymphoid follicles in the gut. M cells lack microvilli and do not secrete mucus, making it easier for the norovirus to enter the host and invade immune cells. However, although definitive data are lacking, other studies suggest noroviruses may directly invade enterocytes lining the gut lumen.
  • #15 Norovirus – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513265/
    Noroviruses are nonenveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses from the Caliciviridae family and are the leading cause of acute gastrointestinal illness worldwide. […] Noroviruses are difficult to culture in a lab setting, making it difficult to predict how they infect and replicate in humans. Studies suggest that infection is multifaceted and involves multiple cell types in the human gut. The predominant cell type lining the human gut is a single layer of intestinal epithelial cells called enterocytes. Lying deep to the enterocytes are numerous immune cells. Several studies have confirmed that norovirus infects and replicates in immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. […] Authors have postulated that noroviruses have a way of bypassing enterocytes to enter the human hosts. Proposed mechanisms include entering through M cells, a specialized type of cell in the gut that overlies the Peyer patches and lymphoid follicles in the gut. M cells lack microvilli and do not secrete mucus, making it easier for the norovirus to enter the host and invade immune cells. However, although definitive data are lacking, other studies suggest noroviruses may directly invade enterocytes lining the gut lumen.
  • #16 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    In humans, as shown in intestinal biopsies from immunocompromised patients, VP1 can be detected in enterocytes, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells (DCs), indicating possible active infection of these cell types. […] The distinct infection phenotypes observed with different MNoV strains suggest differential immune regulation mechanisms employed depending on the strain of the virus and the mode of infection. […] An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms.
  • #17 How highly contagious norovirus infection gets its start – WashU Medicine
    https://medicine.washu.edu/news/how-fast-spreading-norovirus-infection-gets-its-start/
    Norovirus – the highly contagious gastrointestinal illness best known for spreading rapidly on cruise chips, in nursing homes, schools and other densely populated spaces – kills an estimated 200,000 people annually, mostly in the developing world. […] Now, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis have shown, in mice, that the virus infects a rare type of intestinal cell called a tuft cell, so named because each cell sports a cluster of hairlike extensions on its surface. While tuft cells are few in number, the scientists’ findings indicate that once the virus strikes, such cells multiply the virus quickly and set off severe infections. […] The research, published April 12 in Science, suggests that targeting tuft cells with a vaccine or a drug may be a viable strategy for preventing or treating norovirus infections.
  • #18 Scientists discover how norovirus hijacks the gut
    https://www.snexplores.org/article/scientists-discover-how-norovirus-hijacks-gut
    Norovirus is actually a family of viruses. One of its members emerged at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea. There, it sickened 275 people, including some of the athletes. […] Scientists had not known much about how these viruses do their dirty work. They didnt even know what cells the viruses targeted. Until now. […] Previously, his team had shown in mouse studies that to enter cells, noroviruses need a specific protein molecules that are important parts of all living things. They used that protein to home in on the viruses target. […] That key protein showed up on only one rare type of cell. It lives in the lining of the intestine. […] Tuft cells seemed like the prime targets for norovirus because they had the gate-keeper protein needed to let the virus in. […] If noroviruses also target tuft cells in people, maybe thats the cell type we need to be treating to stop the illness, says Wilen.
  • #19 Scientists discover how norovirus hijacks the gut
    https://www.snexplores.org/article/scientists-discover-how-norovirus-hijacks-gut
    Norovirus is actually a family of viruses. One of its members emerged at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea. There, it sickened 275 people, including some of the athletes. […] Scientists had not known much about how these viruses do their dirty work. They didnt even know what cells the viruses targeted. Until now. […] Previously, his team had shown in mouse studies that to enter cells, noroviruses need a specific protein molecules that are important parts of all living things. They used that protein to home in on the viruses target. […] That key protein showed up on only one rare type of cell. It lives in the lining of the intestine. […] Tuft cells seemed like the prime targets for norovirus because they had the gate-keeper protein needed to let the virus in. […] If noroviruses also target tuft cells in people, maybe thats the cell type we need to be treating to stop the illness, says Wilen.
  • #20 How highly contagious norovirus infection gets its start – WashU Medicine
    https://medicine.washu.edu/news/how-fast-spreading-norovirus-infection-gets-its-start/
    But, until now, scientists didn’t understand how norovirus could be linked to intestinal parasite and worm infections. The new study indicates that such infections in the mice cause the number of tuft cells to increase by five- to tenfold, leading the norovirus to replicate more efficiently. […] The researchers, including Herbert W. “Skip” Virgin, MD, PhD, now at Vir Biotechnology, also noted that noroviruses tucked inside tuft cells are effectively hidden from the immune system, which could explain why some people continue to shed virus long after they are no longer sick. […] “This raises important questions about whether human norovirus infects tuft cells and whether people who have chronic norovirus infections and continue to shed the virus long after infection do so because the virus remains hidden in tuft cells,” Wilen said. “If that’s the case, targeting tuft cells may be an important strategy to eradicate the virus.”
  • #21 Human norovirus transmission and evolution in a changing world | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro.2016.48
    Norovirus infections pose a substantial risk to human health worldwide. […] The recent emergence of genotype GII.P17-GII.17 noroviruses in Asia should serve as a warning that future risks from norovirus outbreaks might arise from genotypes other than those currently targeted by vaccine development. […] Bacteria in the host microbiota might influence human norovirus infections by providing HBGA-like sugars for norovirus attachment and by modulating host immunity. […] B cells support norovirus replication in the presence of bacteria that express histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-like sugars. […] In this Review, we describe recent advances in the study of the transmission, pathogenesis and evolution of human noroviruses, and consider the ongoing risk of norovirus outbreaks, together with the future prospects for therapeutics, in a rapidly changing world. […] Norovirus pathogenesis: mechanisms of persistence and immune evasion in human populations.
  • #22 Human norovirus transmission and evolution in a changing world | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro.2016.48
    Norovirus infections pose a substantial risk to human health worldwide. […] The recent emergence of genotype GII.P17-GII.17 noroviruses in Asia should serve as a warning that future risks from norovirus outbreaks might arise from genotypes other than those currently targeted by vaccine development. […] Bacteria in the host microbiota might influence human norovirus infections by providing HBGA-like sugars for norovirus attachment and by modulating host immunity. […] B cells support norovirus replication in the presence of bacteria that express histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-like sugars. […] In this Review, we describe recent advances in the study of the transmission, pathogenesis and evolution of human noroviruses, and consider the ongoing risk of norovirus outbreaks, together with the future prospects for therapeutics, in a rapidly changing world. […] Norovirus pathogenesis: mechanisms of persistence and immune evasion in human populations.
  • #23 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    The microbiota also promotes mucosal barrier functions, and is required for maintenance of the mucus that serves as an efficient barrier against both pathogens and commensal bacteria. […] Invading NoVs encounter members of the host microbiota and are influenced by their presence. […] Experimental alteration of the microbiota dramatically alters MNoV infection, as pretreatment of mice with an antibiotic cocktail prevents infection of the intestine by both acute strain MNV-1 and by persistent MNoV strains MNV-3 and CR6. […] Bile acids have also been found to be essential for efficient replication of a porcine enteric calicivirus in vitro, and serve as cofactors for MNoV cell binding and infectivity. […] Because minor changes in the NoV genome can dramatically alter pathogenesis, development of effective vaccination and antiviral treatments to limit HNoV persistence and transmission are urgently needed to prevent emergence of novel pathogenic variants.
  • #24 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    The microbiota also promotes mucosal barrier functions, and is required for maintenance of the mucus that serves as an efficient barrier against both pathogens and commensal bacteria. […] Invading NoVs encounter members of the host microbiota and are influenced by their presence. […] Experimental alteration of the microbiota dramatically alters MNoV infection, as pretreatment of mice with an antibiotic cocktail prevents infection of the intestine by both acute strain MNV-1 and by persistent MNoV strains MNV-3 and CR6. […] Bile acids have also been found to be essential for efficient replication of a porcine enteric calicivirus in vitro, and serve as cofactors for MNoV cell binding and infectivity. […] Because minor changes in the NoV genome can dramatically alter pathogenesis, development of effective vaccination and antiviral treatments to limit HNoV persistence and transmission are urgently needed to prevent emergence of novel pathogenic variants.
  • #25 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. […] Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection. […] Reports have shown a link between the expression of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the susceptibility to norovirus infection. Studies have suggested the capsid of noroviruses may have evolved from selective pressure of human HBGAs. HBGAs are not, however, the receptor or facilitator of norovirus infection. Co-factors such as bile salts may facilitate the infection, making it more intense when introduced during or after the initial infection of the host tissue. […] It is not yet clear at what specific point in the Norovirus replication cycle bile salts facilitate infection: penetration, uncoating, or maintaining capsid stability.
  • #26 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Histological analysis of proximal intestinal biopsy samples from human volunteers that become ill after administration of either a GI (Norwalk; GI.1) or GII (Hawaii; GII.1) norovirus demonstrate an intact intestinal mucosa with specific histological changes, including broadening and blunting of the villi, shortening of the microvilli, enlarged and pale mitochondria, increased cytoplasmic vacuolization, and intercellular edema. […] Several recent studies suggest that noroviruses cause apoptosis of enterocytes in humans, pigs, and mice. […] It is unclear whether viral infection of enterocytes directly induces apoptosis or whether a viral component secreted from other cells acts upon bystander enterocytes to induce their programmed cell death. […] While it has long been assumed that norovirus infection is confined to the intestine, there is no direct proof for this claim and several recent findings suggest that this dogma be re-considered.
  • #27 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus) Symptoms, Transmission, Prevention, Treatment – Biology Notes Online
    https://biologynotesonline.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus is introduced into the body most often through an oral pathway. […] They are acid-stable, and are which is consistent with their ability to withstand passage through the stomach. Replication is found inside the jejunum. […] A mere 10 viruses will cause disease for humans. […] Infection of the border of the intestinal tract hinders the absorption of water and nutrients, and can cause diarrhea with water. […] A partial flattening and widening of villi, with disorganization of mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria was infiltrated with mononuclear cell vacuolization and mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cells hyperplasia is quite common. […] The smooth and rough ER and an increase in the number of multivesicular bodies on mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly reduced and amorphous electron-dense was found in the intercellular spaces that were expanded. […] The viruss sheds can last for up to 2 weeks after symptoms have subsided. […] It is a common occurrence that immunity is short-lived. might not provide protection.
  • #28 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Histological analysis of proximal intestinal biopsy samples from human volunteers that become ill after administration of either a GI (Norwalk; GI.1) or GII (Hawaii; GII.1) norovirus demonstrate an intact intestinal mucosa with specific histological changes, including broadening and blunting of the villi, shortening of the microvilli, enlarged and pale mitochondria, increased cytoplasmic vacuolization, and intercellular edema. […] Several recent studies suggest that noroviruses cause apoptosis of enterocytes in humans, pigs, and mice. […] It is unclear whether viral infection of enterocytes directly induces apoptosis or whether a viral component secreted from other cells acts upon bystander enterocytes to induce their programmed cell death. […] While it has long been assumed that norovirus infection is confined to the intestine, there is no direct proof for this claim and several recent findings suggest that this dogma be re-considered.
  • #29 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Histological analysis of proximal intestinal biopsy samples from human volunteers that become ill after administration of either a GI (Norwalk; GI.1) or GII (Hawaii; GII.1) norovirus demonstrate an intact intestinal mucosa with specific histological changes, including broadening and blunting of the villi, shortening of the microvilli, enlarged and pale mitochondria, increased cytoplasmic vacuolization, and intercellular edema. […] Several recent studies suggest that noroviruses cause apoptosis of enterocytes in humans, pigs, and mice. […] It is unclear whether viral infection of enterocytes directly induces apoptosis or whether a viral component secreted from other cells acts upon bystander enterocytes to induce their programmed cell death. […] While it has long been assumed that norovirus infection is confined to the intestine, there is no direct proof for this claim and several recent findings suggest that this dogma be re-considered.
  • #30
    https://step1.medbullets.com/microbiology/121540/norovirus
    the virus is highly contagious […] the virus causes damage to small intestine microvilli […] enzymatic dysfunction at the brush border causes diarrhea […] the virus also causes delayed gastric emptying and motility dysfunction, resulting in vomiting
  • #31
    https://step1.medbullets.com/microbiology/121540/norovirus
    the virus is highly contagious […] the virus causes damage to small intestine microvilli […] enzymatic dysfunction at the brush border causes diarrhea […] the virus also causes delayed gastric emptying and motility dysfunction, resulting in vomiting
  • #32 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus) Symptoms, Transmission, Prevention, Treatment – Biology Notes Online
    https://biologynotesonline.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus is introduced into the body most often through an oral pathway. […] They are acid-stable, and are which is consistent with their ability to withstand passage through the stomach. Replication is found inside the jejunum. […] A mere 10 viruses will cause disease for humans. […] Infection of the border of the intestinal tract hinders the absorption of water and nutrients, and can cause diarrhea with water. […] A partial flattening and widening of villi, with disorganization of mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria was infiltrated with mononuclear cell vacuolization and mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cells hyperplasia is quite common. […] The smooth and rough ER and an increase in the number of multivesicular bodies on mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly reduced and amorphous electron-dense was found in the intercellular spaces that were expanded. […] The viruss sheds can last for up to 2 weeks after symptoms have subsided. […] It is a common occurrence that immunity is short-lived. might not provide protection.
  • #33 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    Noroviruses exhibit dual tropism as they target and infect the intestinal epithelial and nonepithelial (immune) cell types. […] The infection of gut-associated immune cells has a significant impact on the pathogenesis of norovirus and the immunological response of the host to viral infection. […] The pathogenic mechanisms of human norovirus infection are poorly understood because of the difficulty in cultivating the virus in the intestinal epithelial cells and the lack of an appropriate animal model that can perfectly express all aspects of human disease when challenged orally. […] The enteric mucosa of the small intestine is believed to be the focal point of localisation of human norovirus infection. […] In addition to the physiologic and structural changes in the gut enterocyte, norovirus infection has also been described in association with inflammatory infiltration into the human’s lamina propria following infection with the Norwalk and Hawaii viruses, an indication that the proinflammatory cytokines may be playing a role in the symptomatology of norovirus infection.
  • #34 Mechanism behind virally-caused vomiting identified | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085218.htm
    Now a research team, led by Professor Lennart Svensson at Linkping University, has produced results that show for the first time how the viruses give rise to vomiting. […] What researchers have found is that the viral infection and the toxin excreted from infected cells stimulate a type of sensory cell called enterochromaffin cells in the walls of the digestive tract. These cells can communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve. […] „We have shown that the viral toxin stimulates the cells to release serotonin, a signalling substance that in turn activates the brain’s vomiting centre,” says Maria Hagbom, laboratory engineer in the Department of Molecular Virology at LiU and the chief author of the article in PLoS Pathogens. […] The pattern was studied both in cell cultures, where the researchers demonstrated that the viral toxin caused a release of serotonin, and in mice, where it was seen that a rotavirus infection in the intestines activated the areas in the brain where the vomiting centre is located. […] The researchers’ hypothesis is that the same medicine can relieve vomiting caused by rotavirus and norovirus.
  • #35 Mechanism behind virally-caused vomiting identified | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085218.htm
    Now a research team, led by Professor Lennart Svensson at Linkping University, has produced results that show for the first time how the viruses give rise to vomiting. […] What researchers have found is that the viral infection and the toxin excreted from infected cells stimulate a type of sensory cell called enterochromaffin cells in the walls of the digestive tract. These cells can communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve. […] „We have shown that the viral toxin stimulates the cells to release serotonin, a signalling substance that in turn activates the brain’s vomiting centre,” says Maria Hagbom, laboratory engineer in the Department of Molecular Virology at LiU and the chief author of the article in PLoS Pathogens. […] The pattern was studied both in cell cultures, where the researchers demonstrated that the viral toxin caused a release of serotonin, and in mice, where it was seen that a rotavirus infection in the intestines activated the areas in the brain where the vomiting centre is located. […] The researchers’ hypothesis is that the same medicine can relieve vomiting caused by rotavirus and norovirus.
  • #36 Mechanism behind virally-caused vomiting identified | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085218.htm
    Now a research team, led by Professor Lennart Svensson at Linkping University, has produced results that show for the first time how the viruses give rise to vomiting. […] What researchers have found is that the viral infection and the toxin excreted from infected cells stimulate a type of sensory cell called enterochromaffin cells in the walls of the digestive tract. These cells can communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve. […] „We have shown that the viral toxin stimulates the cells to release serotonin, a signalling substance that in turn activates the brain’s vomiting centre,” says Maria Hagbom, laboratory engineer in the Department of Molecular Virology at LiU and the chief author of the article in PLoS Pathogens. […] The pattern was studied both in cell cultures, where the researchers demonstrated that the viral toxin caused a release of serotonin, and in mice, where it was seen that a rotavirus infection in the intestines activated the areas in the brain where the vomiting centre is located. […] The researchers’ hypothesis is that the same medicine can relieve vomiting caused by rotavirus and norovirus.
  • #37 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus, the winter vomiting virus: 2020 News: News: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/news/2020/foster-norovirus.html
    In the last few months, schools all over the country have closed because of outbreaks of norovirus. Also known as stomach flu, norovirus infections cause watery diarrhea, low-grade fever and, most alarming of all, projectile vomiting, which is an extremely effective way of spreading the virus. […] Noroviruses are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis (infection of the stomach and intestines) in the United States. […] When norovirus is ingested, it initially infects the cells that line the small intestine. Researchers dont know exactly how this infection then causes the symptoms of the disease. But a fascinating aspect of norovirus is that, after exposure, blood type determines, in a large part, whether a person gets sick. […] The presence of one oligosaccharide, called the H1-antigen, is required for attachment by many norovirus strains.
  • #38 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus: BioNews: Spring 2020: Newsletters: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/newsletters/2020-spr-newsletter/norovirus.html
    Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus, the winter vomiting virus. […] Norovirus is very infectious and spreads rapidly through a confined population, such as at a school or on a cruise ship. […] When norovirus is ingested, it initially infects the cells that line the small intestine. Researchers dont know exactly how this infection then causes the symptoms of the disease. But a fascinating aspect of norovirus is that, after exposure, blood type determines, in a large part, whether a person gets sick. […] The same oligosaccharides on red blood cells also appear on the surface of cells that line the small intestine. Norovirus and a few other viruses use these oligosaccharides to grab onto and infect the intestinal cells. Its the specific structure of these oligosaccharides that determines whether a given strain of virus can attach and invade.
  • #39 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus, the winter vomiting virus: 2020 News: News: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/news/2020/foster-norovirus.html
    In the last few months, schools all over the country have closed because of outbreaks of norovirus. Also known as stomach flu, norovirus infections cause watery diarrhea, low-grade fever and, most alarming of all, projectile vomiting, which is an extremely effective way of spreading the virus. […] Noroviruses are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis (infection of the stomach and intestines) in the United States. […] When norovirus is ingested, it initially infects the cells that line the small intestine. Researchers dont know exactly how this infection then causes the symptoms of the disease. But a fascinating aspect of norovirus is that, after exposure, blood type determines, in a large part, whether a person gets sick. […] The presence of one oligosaccharide, called the H1-antigen, is required for attachment by many norovirus strains.
  • #40 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. […] Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection. […] Reports have shown a link between the expression of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the susceptibility to norovirus infection. Studies have suggested the capsid of noroviruses may have evolved from selective pressure of human HBGAs. HBGAs are not, however, the receptor or facilitator of norovirus infection. Co-factors such as bile salts may facilitate the infection, making it more intense when introduced during or after the initial infection of the host tissue. […] It is not yet clear at what specific point in the Norovirus replication cycle bile salts facilitate infection: penetration, uncoating, or maintaining capsid stability.
  • #41 Norovirus: Causes, symptoms and treatment | Live ScienceLive Science
    https://www.livescience.com/42944-what-is-norovirus.html
    Norovirus is a virus that causes vomiting and diarrhea in humans. It is the leading cause of gastrointestinal illness worldwide and across all age groups, according to a 2022 review in the journal Viruses. […] The mechanism of norovirus infection is not fully understood, according to a 2012 review published in The Journal of Infectious Diseases. Norovirus is a relatively simple pathogen — each viral particle carries just nine protein-coding genes. […] However, norovirus can easily bypass the human immune system and instruct gut cells to replicate the viral particles. Within a day, it „rewires” the intestinal lining to dump on their fluids and release the newly-replicated viral load into the environment. […] Human norovirus binds to human cells via several specific receptors, such as histo-blood group antigens (HBGA), according to a 2019 review published in the journal Viruses. Studies have identified the presence of HBGA-like substances in many different food surfaces, including palps of shellfish and cell walls, leaves, and veins of lettuce. This could explain why norovirus outbreaks are often food-related, the review researchers noted. […] In addition to humans, norovirus can infect a broad range of hosts including livestock, pets, and wild animals like marine mammals and bats. Norovirus may not be restricted to one host and might be able to jump the species barrier, according to a 2019 review published in the journal Viruses.
  • #42 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. […] Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection. […] Reports have shown a link between the expression of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the susceptibility to norovirus infection. Studies have suggested the capsid of noroviruses may have evolved from selective pressure of human HBGAs. HBGAs are not, however, the receptor or facilitator of norovirus infection. Co-factors such as bile salts may facilitate the infection, making it more intense when introduced during or after the initial infection of the host tissue. […] It is not yet clear at what specific point in the Norovirus replication cycle bile salts facilitate infection: penetration, uncoating, or maintaining capsid stability.
  • #43 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. […] Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection. […] Reports have shown a link between the expression of human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and the susceptibility to norovirus infection. Studies have suggested the capsid of noroviruses may have evolved from selective pressure of human HBGAs. HBGAs are not, however, the receptor or facilitator of norovirus infection. Co-factors such as bile salts may facilitate the infection, making it more intense when introduced during or after the initial infection of the host tissue. […] It is not yet clear at what specific point in the Norovirus replication cycle bile salts facilitate infection: penetration, uncoating, or maintaining capsid stability.
  • #44 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    The physiological relevance of these splenic changes is unclear. […] Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge.
  • #45 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    The physiological relevance of these splenic changes is unclear. […] Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge.
  • #46 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    In humans, as shown in intestinal biopsies from immunocompromised patients, VP1 can be detected in enterocytes, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells (DCs), indicating possible active infection of these cell types. […] The distinct infection phenotypes observed with different MNoV strains suggest differential immune regulation mechanisms employed depending on the strain of the virus and the mode of infection. […] An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms.
  • #47 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Immune evasion molecule VF1 is encoded by an extra ORF (ORF4) that is present in the MNoV genome but absent in HNoVs. […] Persistent MNoV infection drives MNoV-specific tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells to a differentiation state similar to that involved in responses against latent cytomegalovirus. […] In addition to the acute symptomatic manifestations of NoV infection, there has been some evidence linking NoV infections to sequelae including post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Infection of Atg16l1HM mice with persistent MNoV strain CR6 was shown to drive this altered transcriptome, unique Paneth cell morphology, and abnormal granule packaging. […] Thus, both the host mutation, specifically in the intestinal epithelium, and viral infection are required for the Crohns disease-like phenotype, raising the possibility that enteric infections could contribute to IBD in humans.
  • #48 How highly contagious norovirus infection gets its start – WashU Medicine
    https://medicine.washu.edu/news/how-fast-spreading-norovirus-infection-gets-its-start/
    But, until now, scientists didn’t understand how norovirus could be linked to intestinal parasite and worm infections. The new study indicates that such infections in the mice cause the number of tuft cells to increase by five- to tenfold, leading the norovirus to replicate more efficiently. […] The researchers, including Herbert W. “Skip” Virgin, MD, PhD, now at Vir Biotechnology, also noted that noroviruses tucked inside tuft cells are effectively hidden from the immune system, which could explain why some people continue to shed virus long after they are no longer sick. […] “This raises important questions about whether human norovirus infects tuft cells and whether people who have chronic norovirus infections and continue to shed the virus long after infection do so because the virus remains hidden in tuft cells,” Wilen said. “If that’s the case, targeting tuft cells may be an important strategy to eradicate the virus.”
  • #49 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus: BioNews: Spring 2020: Newsletters: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/newsletters/2020-spr-newsletter/norovirus.html
    Norovirus evolves rapidly. There are 29 different strains currently known to infect humans, and each strain has different variants. Each one has different abilities to bind to the variously shaped sugar molecules on the intestinal cell surface. These sugars are determined by blood type. […] A norovirus infection provokes a robust immune response that eliminates the virus in a few days. However, the response appears to be short-lived. Most studies have found that immunity guarding against reinfection with the same norovirus strain lasts less than six months. Also, infection with one strain of norovirus offers little protection against infection from another. Thus, you can have repeated bouts with norovirus.
  • #50 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus: BioNews: Spring 2020: Newsletters: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/newsletters/2020-spr-newsletter/norovirus.html
    Norovirus evolves rapidly. There are 29 different strains currently known to infect humans, and each strain has different variants. Each one has different abilities to bind to the variously shaped sugar molecules on the intestinal cell surface. These sugars are determined by blood type. […] A norovirus infection provokes a robust immune response that eliminates the virus in a few days. However, the response appears to be short-lived. Most studies have found that immunity guarding against reinfection with the same norovirus strain lasts less than six months. Also, infection with one strain of norovirus offers little protection against infection from another. Thus, you can have repeated bouts with norovirus.
  • #51 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus, the winter vomiting virus: 2020 News: News: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/news/2020/foster-norovirus.html
    Norovirus evolves rapidly. There are 29 different strains currently known to infect humans, and each strain has different variants. Each one has different abilities to bind to the variously shaped sugar molecules on the intestinal cell surface. These sugars are determined by blood type. […] A norovirus infection provokes a robust immune response that eliminates the virus in a few days. However, the response appears to be short-lived. Most studies have found that immunity guarding against reinfection with the same norovirus strain lasts less than six months. Also, infection with one strain of norovirus offers little protection against infection from another. Thus, you can have repeated bouts with norovirus.
  • #52 Norovirus – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513265/
    The average period from inoculation with the virus until clinical symptoms develop is 1.2 days, and norovirus symptoms usually resolve within 1 to 3 days. Although symptoms may resolve, humans can continue to shed the virus in their stool for extended periods, up to 60 days in some cases. Immunocompromised patients can continue to shed the virus for months or years. […] Host genetic factors appear to play a role in the susceptibility to norovirus, and specific IgG and IgA antibodies develop after infection. The immunologic role of norovirus antigenic diversity remains uncertain, and conflicting data on the duration of immunity has been reported, ranging from a few weeks to several years.
  • #53 Norovirus – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513265/
    The average period from inoculation with the virus until clinical symptoms develop is 1.2 days, and norovirus symptoms usually resolve within 1 to 3 days. Although symptoms may resolve, humans can continue to shed the virus in their stool for extended periods, up to 60 days in some cases. Immunocompromised patients can continue to shed the virus for months or years. […] Host genetic factors appear to play a role in the susceptibility to norovirus, and specific IgG and IgA antibodies develop after infection. The immunologic role of norovirus antigenic diversity remains uncertain, and conflicting data on the duration of immunity has been reported, ranging from a few weeks to several years.
  • #54 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Immune evasion molecule VF1 is encoded by an extra ORF (ORF4) that is present in the MNoV genome but absent in HNoVs. […] Persistent MNoV infection drives MNoV-specific tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells to a differentiation state similar to that involved in responses against latent cytomegalovirus. […] In addition to the acute symptomatic manifestations of NoV infection, there has been some evidence linking NoV infections to sequelae including post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Infection of Atg16l1HM mice with persistent MNoV strain CR6 was shown to drive this altered transcriptome, unique Paneth cell morphology, and abnormal granule packaging. […] Thus, both the host mutation, specifically in the intestinal epithelium, and viral infection are required for the Crohns disease-like phenotype, raising the possibility that enteric infections could contribute to IBD in humans.
  • #55 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Immune evasion molecule VF1 is encoded by an extra ORF (ORF4) that is present in the MNoV genome but absent in HNoVs. […] Persistent MNoV infection drives MNoV-specific tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells to a differentiation state similar to that involved in responses against latent cytomegalovirus. […] In addition to the acute symptomatic manifestations of NoV infection, there has been some evidence linking NoV infections to sequelae including post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Infection of Atg16l1HM mice with persistent MNoV strain CR6 was shown to drive this altered transcriptome, unique Paneth cell morphology, and abnormal granule packaging. […] Thus, both the host mutation, specifically in the intestinal epithelium, and viral infection are required for the Crohns disease-like phenotype, raising the possibility that enteric infections could contribute to IBD in humans.
  • #56 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Immune evasion molecule VF1 is encoded by an extra ORF (ORF4) that is present in the MNoV genome but absent in HNoVs. […] Persistent MNoV infection drives MNoV-specific tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells to a differentiation state similar to that involved in responses against latent cytomegalovirus. […] In addition to the acute symptomatic manifestations of NoV infection, there has been some evidence linking NoV infections to sequelae including post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Infection of Atg16l1HM mice with persistent MNoV strain CR6 was shown to drive this altered transcriptome, unique Paneth cell morphology, and abnormal granule packaging. […] Thus, both the host mutation, specifically in the intestinal epithelium, and viral infection are required for the Crohns disease-like phenotype, raising the possibility that enteric infections could contribute to IBD in humans.
  • #57 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Immune evasion molecule VF1 is encoded by an extra ORF (ORF4) that is present in the MNoV genome but absent in HNoVs. […] Persistent MNoV infection drives MNoV-specific tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells to a differentiation state similar to that involved in responses against latent cytomegalovirus. […] In addition to the acute symptomatic manifestations of NoV infection, there has been some evidence linking NoV infections to sequelae including post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Infection of Atg16l1HM mice with persistent MNoV strain CR6 was shown to drive this altered transcriptome, unique Paneth cell morphology, and abnormal granule packaging. […] Thus, both the host mutation, specifically in the intestinal epithelium, and viral infection are required for the Crohns disease-like phenotype, raising the possibility that enteric infections could contribute to IBD in humans.
  • #58 Norovirus – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513265/
    The average period from inoculation with the virus until clinical symptoms develop is 1.2 days, and norovirus symptoms usually resolve within 1 to 3 days. Although symptoms may resolve, humans can continue to shed the virus in their stool for extended periods, up to 60 days in some cases. Immunocompromised patients can continue to shed the virus for months or years. […] Host genetic factors appear to play a role in the susceptibility to norovirus, and specific IgG and IgA antibodies develop after infection. The immunologic role of norovirus antigenic diversity remains uncertain, and conflicting data on the duration of immunity has been reported, ranging from a few weeks to several years.
  • #59 Norovirus – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513265/
    The average period from inoculation with the virus until clinical symptoms develop is 1.2 days, and norovirus symptoms usually resolve within 1 to 3 days. Although symptoms may resolve, humans can continue to shed the virus in their stool for extended periods, up to 60 days in some cases. Immunocompromised patients can continue to shed the virus for months or years. […] Host genetic factors appear to play a role in the susceptibility to norovirus, and specific IgG and IgA antibodies develop after infection. The immunologic role of norovirus antigenic diversity remains uncertain, and conflicting data on the duration of immunity has been reported, ranging from a few weeks to several years.
  • #60 Norovirus (winter vomiting bug): life cycle, pathogenicity and prevention – ASK Scientific- English research manuscript editing, translation and research communications services
    https://www.askscientific.com/norovirus-winter-vomiting-bug-life-cycle-pathogenicity-prevention/
    As discussed earlier, infections are predominantly caused via the oral route. The virions withstand acidic pH, and therefore survive passage through the stomach. Previous studies reported the infectious nature of noroviruses to be a combination of low infecting doses (DI 50 20 virus particles), high virus excretion level (108 to 1010 copies of RNA per gram of feces), and extended excretion after clinical recovery. There have been reports of asymptomatic infections, and shedding of the virus can continue up to 2 weeks after symptoms have disappeared. Although chronic infections are unknown, immunosuppressed patients have been known to shed the virus for over 8 months. […] Studies indicate development of short-term homologous immunity, which correlates with the serum antibody levels. Although a candidate vaccine has been developed, it is as yet unknown whether it induces homotypic or heterotypic immunity. Due to the lack of suitable preventive or control methods, the development of a vaccine is the need of the hour.
  • #61 Norovirus (winter vomiting bug): life cycle, pathogenicity and prevention – ASK Scientific- English research manuscript editing, translation and research communications services
    https://www.askscientific.com/norovirus-winter-vomiting-bug-life-cycle-pathogenicity-prevention/
    As discussed earlier, infections are predominantly caused via the oral route. The virions withstand acidic pH, and therefore survive passage through the stomach. Previous studies reported the infectious nature of noroviruses to be a combination of low infecting doses (DI 50 20 virus particles), high virus excretion level (108 to 1010 copies of RNA per gram of feces), and extended excretion after clinical recovery. There have been reports of asymptomatic infections, and shedding of the virus can continue up to 2 weeks after symptoms have disappeared. Although chronic infections are unknown, immunosuppressed patients have been known to shed the virus for over 8 months. […] Studies indicate development of short-term homologous immunity, which correlates with the serum antibody levels. Although a candidate vaccine has been developed, it is as yet unknown whether it induces homotypic or heterotypic immunity. Due to the lack of suitable preventive or control methods, the development of a vaccine is the need of the hour.
  • #62 How highly contagious norovirus infection gets its start – WashU Medicine
    https://medicine.washu.edu/news/how-fast-spreading-norovirus-infection-gets-its-start/
    Norovirus – the highly contagious gastrointestinal illness best known for spreading rapidly on cruise chips, in nursing homes, schools and other densely populated spaces – kills an estimated 200,000 people annually, mostly in the developing world. […] Now, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis have shown, in mice, that the virus infects a rare type of intestinal cell called a tuft cell, so named because each cell sports a cluster of hairlike extensions on its surface. While tuft cells are few in number, the scientists’ findings indicate that once the virus strikes, such cells multiply the virus quickly and set off severe infections. […] The research, published April 12 in Science, suggests that targeting tuft cells with a vaccine or a drug may be a viable strategy for preventing or treating norovirus infections.