Malaria
Etiologia i przyczyny

Malaria jest chorobą pasożytniczą wywoływaną przez pierwotniaki z rodzaju Plasmodium, przenoszoną głównie przez ukłucia zakażonych samic komarów Anopheles. Pięć gatunków Plasmodium wywołuje malarię u ludzi, z czego Plasmodium falciparum jest najbardziej patogenny i odpowiada za około 75% zakażeń oraz większość zgonów, szczególnie w Afryce. Cykl życiowy pasożyta obejmuje fazę wątrobową i erytrocytarną, podczas której dochodzi do namnażania merozoitów i niszczenia erytrocytów, co prowadzi do objawów klinicznych i aktywacji układu immunologicznego. Okres inkubacji różni się w zależności od gatunku, np. 8-11 dni dla P. falciparum i 8-17 dni dla P. vivax. Patogeneza ciężkiej malarii wiąże się z sekwestracją zakażonych erytrocytów, anemią, aktywacją cytokin prozapalnych (TNF-α, IFN-γ) oraz supresją erytropoezy. Oporność na leki, w tym częściowa oporność na artemizyniny, stanowi poważne wyzwanie terapeutyczne.

Etiopatogeneza malarii

Malaria jest poważną, potencjalnie śmiertelną chorobą pasożytniczą wywoływaną przez jednokomórkowe pierwotniaki z rodzaju Plasmodium. Choroba ta jest przenoszona na ludzi głównie poprzez ukłucia zakażonych samic komarów z rodzaju Anopheles, które są jedynymi wektorami zdolnymi do przenoszenia tego pasożyta12. Pasożyty te, wprowadzone do organizmu człowieka przez ślinę komara podczas ukłucia, przedostają się do krwiobiegu, a następnie do wątroby, gdzie dojrzewają i namnażają się34.

Gatunki pasożytów powodujące malarię

Wśród rodzaju Plasmodium występuje pięć głównych gatunków pasożytów, które wywołują malarię u ludzi56:

  • Plasmodium falciparum – najbardziej niebezpieczny gatunek, odpowiedzialny za większość ciężkich przypadków i zgonów z powodu malarii, szczególnie w Afryce78
  • Plasmodium vivax – drugi najczęstszy gatunek, może pozostawać uśpiony w wątrobie, powodując nawroty choroby po miesiącach lub latach od pierwotnego zakażenia910
  • Plasmodium ovale – podobnie jak P. vivax może pozostawać w stanie uśpienia w wątrobie, powodując nawroty1112
  • Plasmodium malariae – wywołuje łagodniejszą formę malarii, ale może powodować przewlekłe zakażenie, które nieleczone może trwać przez całe życie13
  • Plasmodium knowlesi – gatunek występujący głównie u małp (makaków), ale coraz częściej identyfikowany jako przyczyna zakażeń u ludzi, szczególnie w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej1415

P. falciparum i P. vivax stanowią największe zagrożenie dla zdrowia publicznego – P. falciparum jest odpowiedzialny za około 75% wszystkich zakażeń malarycznych, podczas gdy P. vivax stanowi około 20%16. P. falciparum jest najbardziej śmiertelny, ponieważ może szybko namnażać się i infekować dużą liczbę krwinek czerwonych, powodując ich zniszczenie17.

Cykl życiowy pasożyta

Cykl życiowy Plasmodium jest złożony i składa się z kilku etapów1819:

  1. Wprowadzenie sporozoitów – samica komara Anopheles podczas ukłucia wprowadza sporozoity (forma pasożyta) z gruczołów ślinowych do skóry i krwiobiegu człowieka
  2. Faza wątrobowa – w ciągu ok. 60 minut sporozoity docierają do wątroby, gdzie atakują hepatocyty, namnażają się i przekształcają w merozoity
  3. Uwolnienie merozoitów – po dojrzewaniu w wątrobie, merozoity uwalniane są do krwiobiegu
  4. Faza erytrocytarna – merozoity atakują krwinki czerwone, namnażają się wewnątrz nich, a następnie powodują ich rozpad, uwalniając nowe merozoity, które infekują kolejne krwinki
  5. Powstanie gametocytów – część merozoitów przekształca się w gametocyty męskie i żeńskie, które mogą zostać pobrane przez kolejnego komara podczas ukłucia

W zależności od gatunku Plasmodium, okres inkubacji (czas od zakażenia do pojawienia się objawów) wynosi2021:

  • P. falciparum: 8-11 dni
  • P. vivax: 8-17 dni
  • P. ovale: 10-17 dni
  • P. malariae: 18-40 dni (czasem nawet latami)
  • P. knowlesi: 9-12 dni

Patogeneza malarii

Wszystkie objawy kliniczne malarii związane są z fazą erytrocytarną pasożyta, gdy merozoity atakują i niszczą krwinki czerwone22. Rozpad zakażonych erytrocytów powoduje uwolnienie pasożytów oraz ich produktów metabolicznych, co prowadzi do aktywacji układu immunologicznego i reakcji zapalnej23.

Mechanizmy patologiczne

Główne mechanizmy patologiczne w malarii obejmują242526:

  • Sekwestracja zakażonych erytrocytów – P. falciparum powoduje adherencję zakażonych krwinek czerwonych do śródbłonka naczyń, co prowadzi do zatorów mikronaczyniowych i upośledzenia perfuzji tkanek
  • Niszczenie erytrocytów – zarówno zakażone, jak i niezakażone krwinki czerwone ulegają destrukcji, prowadząc do anemii
  • Aktywacja odpowiedzi immunologicznej – uwolnienie cytokin prozapalnych, m.in. TNF-α i IFN-γ, odpowiada za gorączkę, dreszcze i inne objawy ogólnoustrojowe
  • Produkcja hemozoiny – toksyczny produkt rozkładu hemoglobiny przez pasożyta, który przyczynia się do objawów choroby, m.in. dreszczy
  • Zahamowanie erytropoezy – supresja szpiku kostnego dodatkowo pogłębia anemię

Patogeneza ciężkiej malarii związana jest głównie z zakażeniem P. falciparum ze względu na jego zdolność do infekowania dużej liczby erytrocytów oraz powodowania sekwestracji w naczyniach krwionośnych różnych narządów27. Pacjenci zakażeni tym gatunkiem mogą wykazywać nawet dziesięciokrotnie większą liczbę pasożytów na milimetr sześcienny krwi w porównaniu do zakażeń innymi gatunkami Plasmodium28.

Alternatywne drogi zakażenia

Chociaż ukłucie zakażonego komara jest główną drogą transmisji malarii, istnieją również inne, rzadsze drogi zakażenia2930:

  • Transmisja wertykalna – z matki na płód (malaria wrodzona)
  • Transfuzja zakażonej krwi – podczas przetoczenia krwi od osoby zakażonej
  • Współdzielenie zakażonych igieł – podczas iniekcji narkotyków
  • Przeszczep narządów – od zakażonego dawcy

Te alternatywne drogi zakażenia stanowią mniejszość przypadków, jednak są istotne w kontekście zdrowia publicznego, szczególnie w regionach gdzie malaria nie jest endemiczna31.

Czynniki ryzyka i epidemiologia

Malaria dotyka obecnie około 85 krajów, z największym obciążeniem w regionach tropikalnych i subtropikalnych32. Według danych Światowej Organizacji Zdrowia (WHO), w 2023 roku odnotowano 263 miliony przypadków malarii na świecie, w porównaniu do 252 milionów w 2022 roku33.

Grupy szczególnie narażone

Niektóre grupy są szczególnie narażone na ciężki przebieg malarii i jej powikłania3435:

  • Dzieci poniżej 5 roku życia – stanowią największą grupę ofiar śmiertelnych malarii, szczególnie w Afryce
  • Kobiety ciężarne – malaria zwiększa ryzyko poronienia, przedwczesnego porodu i niskiej masy urodzeniowej noworodka
  • Osoby podróżujące z obszarów nieendemicznych – brak nabytej odporności zwiększa ryzyko ciężkiego przebiegu
  • Osoby z obniżoną odpornością – w tym pacjenci z HIV/AIDS
  • Osoby po splenektomii – brak śledziony zmniejsza zdolność organizmu do walki z zakażeniem

Czynniki środowiskowe

Występowanie malarii jest ściśle związane z określonymi czynnikami środowiskowymi363738:

  • Klimat – wysoka temperatura i wilgotność sprzyjają rozmnażaniu komarów Anopheles
  • Wody stojące – stawy, rozlewiska i zbiorniki wodne stanowią idealne miejsca lęgowe dla komarów
  • Warunki mieszkaniowe – brak siatek na oknach i drzwiach zwiększa ekspozycję na komary
  • Zmiany klimatyczne – cieplejsze zimy przyczyniają się do wcześniejszego rozpoczęcia reprodukcji komarów i wzrostu ich populacji
  • Wylesianie – prowadzi do powstawania zbiorników wody deszczowej, które stają się miejscami lęgowymi komarów

Mechanizmy obronne i nawroty choroby

Organizm człowieka posiada pewne naturalne mechanizmy obronne przeciwko malarii. Jednym z przykładów adaptacji genetycznej jest częstsze występowanie anemii sierpowatej w regionach endemicznych dla malarii. Gen powodujący tę chorobę krwi zapewnia jednocześnie pewną odporność na zakażenie malarią39.

Przyczyny nawrotów malarii

Nawroty malarii mogą występować z kilku powodów4041:

  • Formy uśpione w wątrobie – P. vivax i P. ovale mogą tworzyć hipnozoity (uśpione formy) w wątrobie, które aktywują się po miesiącach lub latach, powodując nawrót choroby
  • Niedostateczne leczenie – niepełne lub niewłaściwe leczenie może prowadzić do przetrwania form aseksualnych pasożyta w krwinkach czerwonych
  • Lekooporność – niektóre szczepy Plasmodium, szczególnie P. falciparum, rozwinęły oporność na leki przeciwmalaryczne
  • Ponowne zakażenie – w obszarach endemicznych ponowne ukłucie przez zakażonego komara prowadzi do nowego zakażenia

Według WHO, pojawienie się częściowej oporności na artemizyniny (kluczowe składniki nowoczesnych terapii przeciwmalarycznych) w regionie Wielkiego Mekongu, a także potwierdzone przypadki częściowej oporności w Erytrei, Rwandzie, Ugandzie i Tanzanii, stanowią poważne zagrożenie dla skutecznego leczenia malarii42.

Powikłania malarii

Ciężka malaria, szczególnie wywołana przez P. falciparum, może prowadzić do poważnych powikłań zagrażających życiu4344.

Najczęstsze powikłania

  • Malaria mózgowa – odpowiada za 80% śmiertelnych przypadków malarii. Charakteryzuje się obrzękiem mózgu, drgawkami i śpiączką, powstaje wskutek sekwestracji zakażonych erytrocytów w naczyniach mózgowych4546
  • Ciężka anemia – wynika z niszczenia krwinek czerwonych przez pasożyty oraz zahamowania erytropoezy w szpiku kostnym. Mechanizmy obejmują lizę komórek podczas replikacji i wychodzenia pasożytów, usuwanie przez śledzionę erytrocytów oznaczonych przez układ immunologiczny oraz supresję szpiku kostnego4748
  • Zespół nerczycowy – powstaje w wyniku odkładania się kompleksów immunologicznych w kłębuszkach nerkowych, powodując białkomocz i upośledzenie funkcji nerek, mogące prowadzić do niewydolności nerek4950
  • Kwasica mleczanowa – wynika z niedotlenienia tkanek spowodowanego sekwestracją zakażonych erytrocytów w naczyniach i upośledzeniem perfuzji51
  • Obrzęk płuc – spowodowany zwiększoną przepuszczalnością naczyń płucnych i akumulacją płynu w pęcherzykach płucnych52
  • Hipoglikemia – może wynikać z zwiększonego zużycia glukozy przez pasożyty oraz zaburzeń metabolicznych u pacjenta53
  • Żółtaczka – powstaje w wyniku hemolizy i uszkodzenia wątroby54

Ciężka malaria może również przyczyniać się do rozwoju niektórych nowotworów. Międzynarodowa Agencja Badań nad Rakiem (IARC) sklasyfikowała malarię wywołaną przez P. falciparum jako prawdopodobny czynnik rakotwórczy (grupa 2A), szczególnie w kontekście związku z chłoniakiem Burkitta, nowotworem komórek krwi (limfocytów)55.

Zmiany w mikrobiomie jelitowym

Najnowsze badania wskazują, że malaria może wpływać również na mikrobiotę jelitową, powodując dysbiozę (zaburzenie równowagi mikroorganizmów). Zmiana składu mikrobioty może przyczyniać się do objawów żołądkowo-jelitowych często obserwowanych u pacjentów z malarią, takich jak ból brzucha i biegunka5657.

Molekularne podstawy patogenezy

Na poziomie molekularnym, patogeneza malarii wiąże się z kilkoma kluczowymi mechanizmami5859:

  • Adhezja zakażonych erytrocytów – P. falciparum wytwarza białka powierzchniowe, które umożliwiają przyleganie zakażonych krwinek czerwonych do śródbłonka naczyń
  • Siatki zewnątrzkomórkowe neutrofili (NETs) – neutrofile uwalniane przez układ immunologiczny tworzą struktury przypominające sieci, które mogą przyczyniać się do uszkodzeń narządów w przebiegu malarii
  • Uwalnianie cytokin – zarówno TNF-α, jak i IFN-γ odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie, powodując gorączkę i inne objawy ogólnoustrojowe
  • Aktywacja układu dopełniacza – prowadzi do wzmożonej odpowiedzi zapalnej
  • Fagocytoza przez monocyty i makrofagi – stanowi główną odpowiedź immunologiczną na zakażenie

Badania wykazały, że hemozoina, produkt degradacji hemoglobiny przez pasożyta, może przenosić DNA pasożyta do kompartmentu endosomalnego, gdzie stymuluje receptor TLR9, co prowadzi do uwalniania cytokin i wywołania gorączki60.

Wpływ cywilizacyjny i epidemiologiczny

Malaria ma ogromny wpływ na społeczeństwa, systemy opieki zdrowotnej i gospodarkę globalną6162. W historii ludzkości malaria przyczyniła się do upadku społeczeństw, osłabienia armii i hamowania wzrostu gospodarczego63.

Według danych WHO, najwięcej przypadków malarii występuje w Afryce, gdzie P. falciparum jest dominującym gatunkiem. P. vivax dominuje w większości krajów poza Afryką Subsaharyjską64. Szczególnie niepokojący jest fakt, że około 95% zgonów z powodu malarii dotyczy dzieci poniżej 5 roku życia w Afryce65.

W krajach rozwiniętych, w tym w Stanach Zjednoczonych, malaria została wyeliminowana w latach 50. XX wieku dzięki industrializacji, osuszaniu terenów podmokłych, stosowaniu insektycydów i siatek na okna, a także dzięki środkom zapobiegawczym, takim jak leki przeciwmalaryczne i ulepszona diagnostyka66. Jednak zmiany klimatyczne i zwiększona mobilność ludzi stwarzają ryzyko ponownego pojawienia się malarii w tych regionach67.

Podsumowanie etiopatogenezy malarii

Malaria jest złożoną chorobą pasożytniczą, której etiopatogeneza obejmuje wzajemne oddziaływania między pasożytem Plasmodium, komarem Anopheles jako wektorem oraz organizmem człowieka. Najbardziej niebezpieczny gatunek, P. falciparum, odpowiada za większość ciężkich przypadków i zgonów, szczególnie w Afryce. Pasożyt ma zdolność do infekowania krwinek czerwonych, powodując ich rozpad i uwalnianie toksyn, które prowadzą do ogólnoustrojowej reakcji zapalnej68.

Postęp w zrozumieniu patogenezy malarii daje podstawy do przyszłych działań mających na celu zapobieganie ciężkim przypadkom choroby i jej powikłaniom69. Nowe strategie, takie jak szczepionka RTS,S, zalecana przez WHO od 2021 roku, oferują nadzieję na zmniejszenie obciążenia tą chorobą, która nadal stanowi jedno z największych wyzwań zdrowia publicznego na świecie7071.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15014-malaria
    Malaria is a life-threatening illness caused by parasites that you get through the bite of an infected mosquito. […] Malaria is a serious disease that spreads when you’re bitten by a mosquito infected by Plasmodium parasites. When it bites, the mosquito injects malaria parasites into your bloodstream. […] Malaria causes Plasmodium parasites. There are five types that can infect humans. […] A mosquito gets infected when it bites someone who’s infected with the parasites. When that mosquito bites someone else, it transfers a parasite to the other person’s bloodstream. There, the parasites multiply. […] If malaria isn’t treated properly, it can cause serious health problems, including permanent organ damage and death.
  • #2 About Malaria | Malaria | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/index.html
    Malaria is a serious disease caused by a parasite that infects a certain type of mosquito. […] Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. Anopheles mosquitoes are the type of mosquito that transmit malaria from one person to another. […] You get malaria when bitten by an infective mosquito.
  • #3 Malaria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria
    Malaria is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the genus Plasmodium. […] It is spread exclusively through bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. […] The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito’s saliva into the blood. […] The parasites travel to the liver, where they mature and reproduce. […] Five species of Plasmodium commonly infect humans. […] The three species associated with more severe cases are P. falciparum (which is responsible for the vast majority of malaria deaths), P. vivax, and P. knowlesi (a simian malaria that spills over into thousands of people a year). […] P. ovale and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria. […] Malaria is caused by infection with parasites in the genus Plasmodium. […] In humans, malaria is caused by six Plasmodium species: P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale curtisi, P. ovale wallikeri, P. vivax and P. knowlesi.
  • #4 Malaria – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/malaria/symptoms-causes/syc-20351184
    Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is transmitted to humans most commonly through mosquito bites. […] Malaria is caused by a single-celled parasite of the genus plasmodium. The parasite is transmitted to humans most commonly through mosquito bites. […] Malaria spreads when a mosquito becomes infected with the disease after biting an infected person, and the infected mosquito then bites a noninfected person. The malaria parasites enter that person’s bloodstream and travel to the liver. When the parasites mature, they leave the liver and infect red blood cells. […] Because the parasites that cause malaria affect red blood cells, people can also catch malaria from exposure to infected blood, including: From mother to unborn child, Through blood transfusions, By sharing needles used to inject drugs.
  • #5
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
    Malaria is a life-threatening disease spread to humans by some types of mosquitoes. […] The infection is caused by a parasite and does not spread from person to person. […] There are 5 Plasmodium parasite species that cause malaria in humans and 2 of these species P. falciparum and P. vivax pose the greatest threat. P. falciparum is the deadliest malaria parasite and the most prevalent on the African continent. P. vivax is the dominant malaria parasite in most countries outside of sub-Saharan Africa. The other malaria species which can infect humans are P. malariae, P. ovale and P. knowlesi. […] Malaria infection during pregnancy can also cause premature delivery or delivery of a baby with low birth weight. […] According to the latest World malaria report, there were 263 million cases of malaria in 2023 compared to 252 million cases in 2022.
  • #6 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Five Plasmodium species possess the ability to infect humans: P. falciparum, P. ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. […] The female Anopheles mosquito ingests gametes during a blood meal, which form sporozoites that replicate in the gut. […] During subsequent bloodmeals, saliva containing sporozoites gets released into a human host’s bloodstream. […] Within 60 minutes, sporozoites reach the liver, invade hepatocytes, and then rapidly divide, forming merozoites. […] In an active infection, organisms reenter the bloodstream and invade erythrocytes. […] Pathogenesis stems from toxin-induced IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secretion. […] The innate immune response is dominated by monocyte and macrophage phagocytosis within the splenic red pulp. […] Parasitemia dictates symptom onset and severity: symptoms typically develop with 0.002% parasitemia in nave patients and 0.2% parasitemia in previously exposed patients.
  • #7 Plasmodium falciparum – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum
    Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans. […] The parasite is transmitted through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito and causes the disease’s most dangerous form, falciparum malaria. […] Nearly all malarial deaths are caused by P. falciparum, and 95% of such cases occur in Africa. […] The species originated from the malarial parasite Laverania found in gorillas, around 10,000 years ago. […] The British physician Patrick Manson formulated the mosquito-malaria theory in 1894; until that time, malarial parasites were believed to be spread in air as miasma. […] The zygote can undergo another round of chromosome replication to form an ookinete (4N).
  • #8 Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment
    https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/malaria
    Malaria is caused by a group of parasites called plasmodium. These parasites are carried by female anopheles mosquitos. You get infected when an infected mosquito bites you and injects the parasites into your bloodstream. […] Several species of plasmodium can cause malaria in humans, including: […] Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum). This is the species that causes the most severe form of malaria. […] P. vivax. This species can live in your liver and cause a relapse months or years after you were bitten by an infected mosquito. […] P. ovale. This species is very similar to P. vivax, but it can’t infect people who have a specific blood group called the Duffy blood group. […] P. malariae. When left untreated, this species can cause a long-lasting, chronic infection that can last a lifetime. […] P. knowlesi. This species mostly infects a couple of monkey species: long-tailed and pig-tailed macaques. However, researchers have recently found that it can infect humans too.
  • #9 Malaria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria
    Among those infected, P. falciparum is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by P. vivax (~20%). […] Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths, recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection. […] The Anopheles mosquitoes initially get infected by Plasmodium by taking a blood meal from a previously Plasmodium infected person or animal. […] Parasites are then typically introduced by the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. […] The liver infection causes no symptoms; all symptoms of malaria result from the infection of red blood cells. […] Symptoms develop once there are more than around 100,000 parasites per milliliter of blood.
  • #10 Causes of malaria | Medicines for Malaria Venture
    https://www.mmv.org/malaria/about-malaria/causes-malaria
    Malaria is caused by a parasite that spreads to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. The Plasmodium parasites that infect people with malaria cannot survive outside of their hosts: humans and Anopheles mosquitoes. […] Only five species of malaria parasites cause significant disease in humans: Plasmodium falciparum the most prevalent, causes the majority of severe malaria cases and deaths. […] Severe malaria is usually caused by a P. falciparum infection, and typically occurs when treatment of uncomplicated malaria is inefficacious, delayed or absent. […] P. vivax is the second most significant parasite causing malaria (approximately 2% of all cases) and is prevalent in Southeast Asia and Latin America. […] For many years, P. vivax malaria was considered relatively benign. However, evidence has emerged that it can also lead to severe disease and death, with young children and pregnant women at highest clinical risk. […] A fifth species, P. knowlesi, primarily infects primates, but has also led to human malaria, though the exact mode of transmission remains unclear.
  • #11 Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, treatments, how long does it last? | MedPark Hospital
    http://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/malaria
    There are five species of parasites that cause malaria in humans, including: Plasmodium falciparum is the most severe form of malaria that can lead to cerebral malaria and death. […] Plasmodium vivax is a less severe type of malaria, but it can cause severe symptoms if left untreated. […] Plasmodium malaria is a type of malaria parasite that can cause chronic infection. […] Plasmodium ovale is a type of malaria parasite that can remain latent in the liver for many years after infection. […] Plasmodium knowlesi is a type of malaria parasite that rapidly progresses and remains dormant for many years. […] Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that can cause organ damage and death. […] Malaria is curable with medications against the specific type of malaria and should be taken continuously under the supervision of a doctor.
  • #12 Malaria | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, & Prevention | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/malaria
    Malaria, serious relapsing infection in humans, characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anemia, splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen), and often fatal complications. It is caused by one-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium that are transmitted to humans by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. […] Malaria in humans is caused by five related protozoan (single-celled) parasites: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. The most common worldwide is P. vivax. The deadliest is P. falciparum. […] Plasmodium parasites are spread by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which feed on human blood in order to nourish their own eggs. […] The greater virulence of P. falciparum is associated with its tendency to infect a large proportion of the red blood cells; patients infected with that species will exhibit ten times the number of parasites per cubic millimeter of blood than patients infected with the other three malaria species. […] Infections of P. vivax and P. ovale differ from the other two types of malaria in that some of the sporozoites may remain dormant in the liver in a hypnozoite stage for months or even years before emerging to attack red blood cells and cause a relapse of the disease.
  • #13 Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment
    https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/malaria
    Malaria is caused by a group of parasites called plasmodium. These parasites are carried by female anopheles mosquitos. You get infected when an infected mosquito bites you and injects the parasites into your bloodstream. […] Several species of plasmodium can cause malaria in humans, including: […] Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum). This is the species that causes the most severe form of malaria. […] P. vivax. This species can live in your liver and cause a relapse months or years after you were bitten by an infected mosquito. […] P. ovale. This species is very similar to P. vivax, but it can’t infect people who have a specific blood group called the Duffy blood group. […] P. malariae. When left untreated, this species can cause a long-lasting, chronic infection that can last a lifetime. […] P. knowlesi. This species mostly infects a couple of monkey species: long-tailed and pig-tailed macaques. However, researchers have recently found that it can infect humans too.
  • #14 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Five Plasmodium species possess the ability to infect humans: P. falciparum, P. ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. […] The female Anopheles mosquito ingests gametes during a blood meal, which form sporozoites that replicate in the gut. […] During subsequent bloodmeals, saliva containing sporozoites gets released into a human host’s bloodstream. […] Within 60 minutes, sporozoites reach the liver, invade hepatocytes, and then rapidly divide, forming merozoites. […] In an active infection, organisms reenter the bloodstream and invade erythrocytes. […] Pathogenesis stems from toxin-induced IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secretion. […] The innate immune response is dominated by monocyte and macrophage phagocytosis within the splenic red pulp. […] Parasitemia dictates symptom onset and severity: symptoms typically develop with 0.002% parasitemia in nave patients and 0.2% parasitemia in previously exposed patients.
  • #15 Malaria: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/221134-overview
    Malaria is an ancient and continuously unmatched parasitic cause of human suffering throughout the world. Plasmodium spp, an obligate intracellular protozoon using the mosquito as its vector, permeates the tropical and subtropical world. Historically, it has crushed societies, devastated militaries, and hampered economic growth. […] The most common human-infecting Plasmodium species are P falciparum, P vivax, P malariae, and P ovale, with P falciparum being the most dangerous. In addition, the zoonotic species P knowlesi, primarily infecting non-human primates, increasingly is affecting humans in forested regions of certain countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. […] There are four common Plasmodium species that primarily affect humans, with a fifth species in Southeast Asia, known as Plasmodium knowlesi, which can rarely infect humans and lead to severe disease. However, this species generally infects monkeys. The majority of malaria cases worldwide are caused by P falciparum, followed by P vivax.
  • #16 Malaria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria
    Among those infected, P. falciparum is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by P. vivax (~20%). […] Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths, recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection. […] The Anopheles mosquitoes initially get infected by Plasmodium by taking a blood meal from a previously Plasmodium infected person or animal. […] Parasites are then typically introduced by the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. […] The liver infection causes no symptoms; all symptoms of malaria result from the infection of red blood cells. […] Symptoms develop once there are more than around 100,000 parasites per milliliter of blood.
  • #17 Malaria | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, & Prevention | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/malaria
    Malaria, serious relapsing infection in humans, characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anemia, splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen), and often fatal complications. It is caused by one-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium that are transmitted to humans by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. […] Malaria in humans is caused by five related protozoan (single-celled) parasites: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. The most common worldwide is P. vivax. The deadliest is P. falciparum. […] Plasmodium parasites are spread by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which feed on human blood in order to nourish their own eggs. […] The greater virulence of P. falciparum is associated with its tendency to infect a large proportion of the red blood cells; patients infected with that species will exhibit ten times the number of parasites per cubic millimeter of blood than patients infected with the other three malaria species. […] Infections of P. vivax and P. ovale differ from the other two types of malaria in that some of the sporozoites may remain dormant in the liver in a hypnozoite stage for months or even years before emerging to attack red blood cells and cause a relapse of the disease.
  • #18 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Five Plasmodium species possess the ability to infect humans: P. falciparum, P. ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. […] The female Anopheles mosquito ingests gametes during a blood meal, which form sporozoites that replicate in the gut. […] During subsequent bloodmeals, saliva containing sporozoites gets released into a human host’s bloodstream. […] Within 60 minutes, sporozoites reach the liver, invade hepatocytes, and then rapidly divide, forming merozoites. […] In an active infection, organisms reenter the bloodstream and invade erythrocytes. […] Pathogenesis stems from toxin-induced IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secretion. […] The innate immune response is dominated by monocyte and macrophage phagocytosis within the splenic red pulp. […] Parasitemia dictates symptom onset and severity: symptoms typically develop with 0.002% parasitemia in nave patients and 0.2% parasitemia in previously exposed patients.
  • #19 Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, treatments, how long does it last? | MedPark Hospital
    http://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/malaria
    Malaria is a disease caused by protozoa infection, a parasite in the plasmodium genus spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes, a carrier of the malaria parasite to humans when entering the forest. […] Malaria spreads by the mosquito vector — female Anopheles mosquitoes, a daytime feeding insect from dusk to early morning biting and spreading the infection among humans. […] The malaria life cycle begins with anopheles mosquitoes biting and sucking the blood of a malaria-infected person at the gametocyte stage, where the parasites disseminate in the mosquito; the male and female forms of gametocytes mate in the gut, where they live for about 10-12 days, develops into sporozoites and travels to mosquito salivary glands. […] At this stage, if a malaria-infected mosquito bites a person, the parasites in the saliva will spread into the bloodstream, go to, and incubate in the liver for 10-14 days before invading the red blood cells with manifested symptoms of high fever and chills.
  • #20 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Malaria is a parasitic infection transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito that leads to acute life-threatening disease and poses a significant global health threat. […] The Plasmodium parasite has a multistage lifecycle, which leads to characteristic cyclical fevers. […] The incubation period, and therefore time to symptom development, varies by species: 8 to 11 days for P. falciparum, 8 to 17 days for P. vivax, 10 to 17 days for P. ovale, 18 to 40 days for P. malariae (though possibly up to several years), and 9 to 12 days for P. knowlesi. […] The periodicity of the Plasmodium lifecycle creates the classic „malarial paroxysm” of rigors, followed by several hours of fever, followed by diaphoresis, and a drop to normal body temperature (P. vivax infection establishes a 48-hour cycle), though this is less commonly seen today due to rapid identification and treatment.
  • #21 Malaria Symptoms, Causes, Types, Complications & Prevention PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Numbe
    https://www.pacehospital.com/malaria-symptoms-causes
    Malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite named Plasmodium, and it is spread by the Anopheles (female) mosquito that causes acute life-threatening disease. […] The causing agent of malaria is Plasmodium (protozoan). […] When the causative agent of malaria (Anopheles-malaria mosquito) infects (bites) a healthy person, the Plasmodium sporozoites are transferred from the mosquito’s saliva into the capillary bed of the host (the human). […] The malaria incubation (time taken to initiate symptoms) period varies between different subspecies of Plasmodium (P) as follows: P. falciparum: 8 to 11 days, P. vivax: 8 to 17 days, P. ovale: 10 to 17 days, P. malariae: 18 to 40 days, P. knowlesi: 9 to 12 days. […] The sporozoite invades the liver cells within one hour, multiplies there, and then leaves as a merozoite to infect the rest of the body. […] This merozoite invades new healthy blood cells (erythrocytes) and infects the blood cells, forming trophozoites. […] These trophozoites in the red blood cells replicate and form schizonts that disrupt erythrocyte cell membrane integrity, which further undergo a phagocytosis process by the spleen.
  • #22 Malaria – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8584/
    Malaria is caused by protozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Four species cause disease in humans: P falciparum, P vivax, P ovale and P malariae. Other species of plasmodia infect reptiles, birds and other mammals. Malaria is spread to humans by the bite of female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. […] The first symptoms and signs of malaria are associated with the rupture of erythrocytes when erythrocytic-stage schizonts mature. This release of parasite material presumably triggers a host immune response. The cytokines, reactive oxygen intermediates, and other cellular products released during the immune response play a prominent role in pathogenesis, and are probably responsible for the fever, chills, sweats, weakness, and other systemic symptoms associated with malaria. […] Clinical illness is caused by the erythrocytic stage of the parasite. No disease is associated with sporozoites, the developing liver stage of the parasite, the merozoites released from the liver, or gametocytes.
  • #23 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Five Plasmodium species possess the ability to infect humans: P. falciparum, P. ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. […] The female Anopheles mosquito ingests gametes during a blood meal, which form sporozoites that replicate in the gut. […] During subsequent bloodmeals, saliva containing sporozoites gets released into a human host’s bloodstream. […] Within 60 minutes, sporozoites reach the liver, invade hepatocytes, and then rapidly divide, forming merozoites. […] In an active infection, organisms reenter the bloodstream and invade erythrocytes. […] Pathogenesis stems from toxin-induced IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secretion. […] The innate immune response is dominated by monocyte and macrophage phagocytosis within the splenic red pulp. […] Parasitemia dictates symptom onset and severity: symptoms typically develop with 0.002% parasitemia in nave patients and 0.2% parasitemia in previously exposed patients.
  • #24 Malaria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria
    Many of the symptoms associated with severe malaria are caused by the tendency of P. falciparum to bind to blood vessel walls, resulting in damage to the affected vessels and surrounding tissue. […] The destruction of red blood cells during infection often results in anemia, exacerbated by reduced production of new red blood cells during infection.
  • #25 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Severe infection usually exhibits parasitemia of 5%. […] The significant complications of malaria are cerebral malaria, severe malarial anemia, and nephrotic syndrome (NS). […] Cerebral malaria accounts for 80% of fatal malaria cases, most often occurring with P. falciparum infection. […] Severe malarial anemia stems from TNF-alpha-mediated mechanisms involving both increased destruction and decreased production of erythrocytes, including cell lysis as parasites replicate and exit erythrocytes, splenic removal and autoimmune lysis of immune-marked erythrocytes, poor iron incorporation into new heme molecules, and bone marrow suppression during severe infection leading to decreased production. […] Nephrotic syndrome occurs secondary to glomerular antigen-antibody complex deposition and presents similarly to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis with proteinuria and decreased renal function, which may lead to renal failure.
  • #26 What causes severe malaria and its complications in children? Lessons learned over the past 15 years | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1291-z
    SM is a multi-system disease characterized by a systemic inflammatory response. A central feature in SM is the sequestration of parasitized red blood cells (pRBCs) in vascular beds, leading to impaired tissue perfusion and lactic acidosis. […] The etiology of severe malarial anemia (SMA) is complex, involving increased destruction and removal of infected and uninfected RBCs, and reduced RBC production due to bone marrow dyserythropoiesis. […] SMA can occur in the absence of other SM complications in children with repeated or inadequately treated infections, and mortality is low with appropriate transfusion. […] However, SMA is not benign; it contributes to significant long-term morbidity, including impaired neurocognitive functioning, repeated hospitalizations, and post-discharge mortality.
  • #27 Malaria | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, & Prevention | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/malaria
    Malaria, serious relapsing infection in humans, characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anemia, splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen), and often fatal complications. It is caused by one-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium that are transmitted to humans by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. […] Malaria in humans is caused by five related protozoan (single-celled) parasites: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. The most common worldwide is P. vivax. The deadliest is P. falciparum. […] Plasmodium parasites are spread by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which feed on human blood in order to nourish their own eggs. […] The greater virulence of P. falciparum is associated with its tendency to infect a large proportion of the red blood cells; patients infected with that species will exhibit ten times the number of parasites per cubic millimeter of blood than patients infected with the other three malaria species. […] Infections of P. vivax and P. ovale differ from the other two types of malaria in that some of the sporozoites may remain dormant in the liver in a hypnozoite stage for months or even years before emerging to attack red blood cells and cause a relapse of the disease.
  • #28 Malaria | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, & Prevention | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/malaria
    Malaria, serious relapsing infection in humans, characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anemia, splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen), and often fatal complications. It is caused by one-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium that are transmitted to humans by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. […] Malaria in humans is caused by five related protozoan (single-celled) parasites: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. The most common worldwide is P. vivax. The deadliest is P. falciparum. […] Plasmodium parasites are spread by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which feed on human blood in order to nourish their own eggs. […] The greater virulence of P. falciparum is associated with its tendency to infect a large proportion of the red blood cells; patients infected with that species will exhibit ten times the number of parasites per cubic millimeter of blood than patients infected with the other three malaria species. […] Infections of P. vivax and P. ovale differ from the other two types of malaria in that some of the sporozoites may remain dormant in the liver in a hypnozoite stage for months or even years before emerging to attack red blood cells and cause a relapse of the disease.
  • #29 Malaria – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/malaria/symptoms-causes/syc-20351184
    Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is transmitted to humans most commonly through mosquito bites. […] Malaria is caused by a single-celled parasite of the genus plasmodium. The parasite is transmitted to humans most commonly through mosquito bites. […] Malaria spreads when a mosquito becomes infected with the disease after biting an infected person, and the infected mosquito then bites a noninfected person. The malaria parasites enter that person’s bloodstream and travel to the liver. When the parasites mature, they leave the liver and infect red blood cells. […] Because the parasites that cause malaria affect red blood cells, people can also catch malaria from exposure to infected blood, including: From mother to unborn child, Through blood transfusions, By sharing needles used to inject drugs.
  • #30 Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis
    https://www.healthline.com/health/malaria
    Malaria can occur if a mosquito infected with the Plasmodium parasite bites you. There are four kinds of malaria parasites that can infect humans: Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. falciparum. […] P. falciparum causes a more severe form of the disease and those who contract this form of malaria have a higher risk of death. An infected mother can also pass the disease to her baby at birth. This is known as congenital malaria. […] Malaria is transmitted by blood, so it can also be transmitted through: an organ transplant, a transfusion, use of shared needles or syringes.
  • #31 Malaria Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options
    https://www.drugs.com/health-guide/malaria.html
    Malaria is an infection caused by single-celled parasites that enter the blood through the bite of an Anopheles mosquito. These parasites, called plasmodia, belong to at least five species. Most human infections are caused by either Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium vivax. […] Most deaths from malaria are caused by P.falciparum, which causes severe disease. […] Malaria is one of the major causes of preventable death in the world today. It affects more than 500 million people worldwide and causes one to two million deaths every year. […] In regions where there is a high rate of malaria infection, malaria can be spread in other ways than through a mosquito bite, such as through contaminated blood transfusions, transplantation of contaminated organs, and shared drug needles. […] In the tropics, the particular species of Plasmodium varies from country to country. In some areas, new strains of malaria have emerged that are resistant to some antimalarial drugs. This emergence of drug-resistant strains has complicated the treatment and prevention of malaria in tropical countries and in travelers.
  • #32 Malaria: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/221134-overview
    P vivax infects reticulocytes preferentially via the Duffy antigen present on red blood cells. […] The WHO reports that, as of 2021, malaria was endemic in 85 countries, placing nearly half the worlds population at risk of contracting the disease. […] P falciparum and vivax are the most common species of malaria that cause disease in humans.
  • #33
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
    Malaria is a life-threatening disease spread to humans by some types of mosquitoes. […] The infection is caused by a parasite and does not spread from person to person. […] There are 5 Plasmodium parasite species that cause malaria in humans and 2 of these species P. falciparum and P. vivax pose the greatest threat. P. falciparum is the deadliest malaria parasite and the most prevalent on the African continent. P. vivax is the dominant malaria parasite in most countries outside of sub-Saharan Africa. The other malaria species which can infect humans are P. malariae, P. ovale and P. knowlesi. […] Malaria infection during pregnancy can also cause premature delivery or delivery of a baby with low birth weight. […] According to the latest World malaria report, there were 263 million cases of malaria in 2023 compared to 252 million cases in 2022.
  • #34 Malaria Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options
    https://www.drugs.com/health-guide/malaria.html
    The type of medications that are used to treat malaria depends on the severity of the disease and the likelihood of chloroquine resistance. […] Without treatment, malaria can be fatal, particularly P. falciparum. People with severe malaria have the greatest danger of death. From 10% to 40% of people with severe malaria die even with advanced medical treatment. P. falciparum is more likely to cause severe disease among young children, pregnant women, and travelers who are exposed to malaria for the first time.
  • #35 What Is Malaria? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/malaria/guide/
    Factors that tend to make malaria more severe and dangerous include: Infection with P. falciparum parasite (found in much of sub-Saharan Africa), Being an infant or young child, Being an older adult, Being pregnant, Traveling from an area without malaria. […] Malaria can be frustratingly difficult to recognize, in part due to how long it can take to cause symptoms. […] The parasite that causes malaria travels to your liver, where it can lie dormant for as long as a year. […] Malaria can be persistent if it isnt properly or successfully treated. […] After more than 30 years of research and development, the World Health Organization recommended the first vaccine for malaria in October 2021. […] The new vaccine could prevent the deaths of tens of thousands of children in sub-Saharan Africa each year.
  • #36 Malaria: Symptoms, Causes, Vaccine and Treatment | Ada
    https://ada.com/conditions/malaria/
    Malaria is caused by infection with a parasite called Plasmodium, which is spread through the bite of female mosquitoes that carry it. […] Human malaria is caused by a parasite known as Plasmodium, specifically species P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. vivax and P. knowlesi, which is normally spread through the bite of an infected mosquito. Just one bite from an infected mosquito can lead to malaria. […] Not every infectious mosquito bite will result in malaria. The number of parasites each mosquito carries influences the chance of successful malaria infection. […] Mosquito-transmitted malaria also depends on certain climatic features, such as sufficiently high temperatures and humidity for Anopheles mosquitoes to multiply and survive. This is why malaria occurs in warmer, tropical areas.
  • #37 Malaria’s Comeback in the U.S. | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health
    https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2023/malarias-comeback-in-the-us
    But conditions are becoming more favorable for malaria transmission. Warmer winters are giving the Anopheles mosquitoes an opportunity to start reproducing earliermeaning that their populations grow to the point where they have a higher probability of biting an infected person who has been to a malaria-endemic area. […] The post-COVID surge in travel has increased the reservoir for infection. Mosquitoes can reach new locations by hitching a ride on cargo planes or ships, or passenger planes, he says.
  • #38 What are the 10 Causes of Malaria?
    https://mangalprabhu.com/what-are-the-10-causes-of-malaria/
    Malaria is caused by a parasite that enters your body through a mosquito bite. […] As mentioned above, malaria is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium. […] Its caused by female Anopheles mosquitoes that are the primary vector of the plasmodium parasites. […] Malaria is more prevalent in countries with temperatures hot enough for the Anopheles mosquitos to thrive. […] Malaria risk is higher in areas with stagnant water, such as ponds or containers filled with water. […] People with weak immunity, such as young babies, elders, and those with existing medical issues, are at an increased risk of malaria, as their immunity might not fight off the infection as effectively as that of a healthy adult. […] Without trees, forests and other areas collect rainwater, which acts as the perfect breeding ground for malaria-causing mosquitoes.
  • #39 Malaria – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis – MedBroadcast.com
    https://medbroadcast.com/condition/getcondition/malaria
    Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic infection spread by Anopheles mosquitoes. The Plasmodium parasite that causes malaria is neither a virus nor a bacteria it is a single-celled parasite that multiplies in red blood cells of humans as well as in the mosquito intestine. […] You can only get malaria if you’re bitten by an infected mosquito or if you receive infected blood from someone during a blood transfusion. Malaria can also be transmitted from parent to fetus during pregnancy. […] There are 4 species of the Plasmodium parasite that can cause malaria in humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae. P. vivax is the most common, and Plasmodium falciparum is the most dangerous of these parasites; infection with it can kill rapidly (within several days), whereas the other species cause illness but usually not death. […] Malaria has been with us long enough to have changed our genes. The reason many people of African descent suffer from the blood disease sickle cell anemia is that the gene that causes it also offers some immunity against malaria.
  • #40 What causes malaria to return? | Vinmec
    https://www.vinmec.com/eng/blog/what-causes-malaria-to-return-en
    There are several cases where patients experience a relapse with malaria after receiving treatment at medical facilities and being sent home. The causes of malaria relapse are often due to improper treatment that does not follow established guidelines. […] To answer the question, „Can malaria relapse?”, doctors explain that improper and incomplete treatment will lead to relapse episodes of malaria. This causes many patients to misunderstand malaria as a chronic, difficult-to-cure disease. […] There are many different causes of malaria relapse, such as: Asexual malaria parasites in the red blood cells that remain from the previous infection continue to develop until they reach a threshold and cause relapse. Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax cause early relapses of malaria, typically occurring 7-14 days after the previous episode. This type of relapse is known as a „rebound” relapse. Plasmodium falciparum causes relapses of malaria that can reappear after 3-6 months in people who have had immunity once. Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale can form hypnozoites (sleeping forms) in the liver, which may activate, develop, and release merozoites (immature forms of the parasite) into the bloodstream, leading to malaria relapse weeks or even up to 9-10 months later. In rare cases, Plasmodium malariae can cause relapse due to the activation and development of the latent asexual cycle in red blood cells.
  • #41 Malaria | Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, & Prevention | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/malaria
    Malaria, serious relapsing infection in humans, characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anemia, splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen), and often fatal complications. It is caused by one-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium that are transmitted to humans by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. […] Malaria in humans is caused by five related protozoan (single-celled) parasites: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. The most common worldwide is P. vivax. The deadliest is P. falciparum. […] Plasmodium parasites are spread by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which feed on human blood in order to nourish their own eggs. […] The greater virulence of P. falciparum is associated with its tendency to infect a large proportion of the red blood cells; patients infected with that species will exhibit ten times the number of parasites per cubic millimeter of blood than patients infected with the other three malaria species. […] Infections of P. vivax and P. ovale differ from the other two types of malaria in that some of the sporozoites may remain dormant in the liver in a hypnozoite stage for months or even years before emerging to attack red blood cells and cause a relapse of the disease.
  • #42
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
    Malaria can be prevented by avoiding mosquito bites and by taking medicines. […] Preventive chemotherapy is the use of medicines, either alone or in combination, to prevent malaria infections and their consequences. […] Since October 2021, WHO has recommended broad use of the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine among children living in regions with moderate to high P. falciparum malaria transmission. […] Early diagnosis and treatment of malaria reduces disease, prevents deaths and contributes to reducing transmission. […] Malaria is a serious infection and always requires treatment with medicine. […] Subsequent to the emergence of partial artemisinin resistance in the Greater Mekong subregion, WHO is very concerned about confirmed partial artemisinin resistance in Eritrea, Rwanda, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. […] Malaria elimination is defined as the interruption of local transmission of a specified malaria parasite species in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate activities.
  • #43 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Severe infection usually exhibits parasitemia of 5%. […] The significant complications of malaria are cerebral malaria, severe malarial anemia, and nephrotic syndrome (NS). […] Cerebral malaria accounts for 80% of fatal malaria cases, most often occurring with P. falciparum infection. […] Severe malarial anemia stems from TNF-alpha-mediated mechanisms involving both increased destruction and decreased production of erythrocytes, including cell lysis as parasites replicate and exit erythrocytes, splenic removal and autoimmune lysis of immune-marked erythrocytes, poor iron incorporation into new heme molecules, and bone marrow suppression during severe infection leading to decreased production. […] Nephrotic syndrome occurs secondary to glomerular antigen-antibody complex deposition and presents similarly to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis with proteinuria and decreased renal function, which may lead to renal failure.
  • #44 What causes severe malaria and its complications in children? Lessons learned over the past 15 years | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1291-z
    Over the past 15 years, malaria mortality has reduced by approximately 50%. However, malaria still causes more than 400,000 deaths annually, most of which occur in African children under 5 years of age. Significant advances in understanding the pathogenesis of the disease provide a basis for future work to prevent severe malaria and its complications. […] Severe malaria (SM) is defined by the detection of Plasmodium falciparum by microscopy or a rapid diagnostic test and at least one criterion for severe disease (impaired consciousness, respiratory distress, multiple convulsions, prostration, shock, pulmonary edema, abnormal bleeding, jaundice, severe anemia, hypoglycemia, acidosis, hyperlactatemia, renal impairment, or hyperparasitemia). […] Further, mortality can exceed 50% when multiple prognostic factors are present.
  • #45 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Severe infection usually exhibits parasitemia of 5%. […] The significant complications of malaria are cerebral malaria, severe malarial anemia, and nephrotic syndrome (NS). […] Cerebral malaria accounts for 80% of fatal malaria cases, most often occurring with P. falciparum infection. […] Severe malarial anemia stems from TNF-alpha-mediated mechanisms involving both increased destruction and decreased production of erythrocytes, including cell lysis as parasites replicate and exit erythrocytes, splenic removal and autoimmune lysis of immune-marked erythrocytes, poor iron incorporation into new heme molecules, and bone marrow suppression during severe infection leading to decreased production. […] Nephrotic syndrome occurs secondary to glomerular antigen-antibody complex deposition and presents similarly to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis with proteinuria and decreased renal function, which may lead to renal failure.
  • #46 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Cerebral-Malaria.aspx
    Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium genus of unicellular protozoan parasites, the most deadly of which includes Plasmodium falciparum. […] Each year, malaria affects about 219 million people, with about 500,000 people dying each year from this disease. […] Humans typically acquire malaria after being bitten by an infected female mosquito of the Anopheles genus. […] In addition, blood-borne transmission through the transfusion of blood products, transplantation, or needle-sharing, as well as congenital transmission of malaria can also occur. […] Most of the severe complications of malaria will occur in individuals who have been infected with P. falciparum. […] Severe malaria is often defined as the presence of Plasmodium in peripheral blood. […] According to the World Health Organization (WHO), cerebral malaria is defined as a severe form of P. falciparum malaria that causes cerebral manifestations.
  • #47 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Severe infection usually exhibits parasitemia of 5%. […] The significant complications of malaria are cerebral malaria, severe malarial anemia, and nephrotic syndrome (NS). […] Cerebral malaria accounts for 80% of fatal malaria cases, most often occurring with P. falciparum infection. […] Severe malarial anemia stems from TNF-alpha-mediated mechanisms involving both increased destruction and decreased production of erythrocytes, including cell lysis as parasites replicate and exit erythrocytes, splenic removal and autoimmune lysis of immune-marked erythrocytes, poor iron incorporation into new heme molecules, and bone marrow suppression during severe infection leading to decreased production. […] Nephrotic syndrome occurs secondary to glomerular antigen-antibody complex deposition and presents similarly to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis with proteinuria and decreased renal function, which may lead to renal failure.
  • #48 Anemia in malaria – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/anemia-in-malaria
    Malaria is a parasitic infection caused by Plasmodium species. Malaria is a global health problem, causing disease on a vast scale. […] Plasmodium species infect red blood cells (RBCs), leading to hemolysis. Most infections are associated with some degree of anemia; the severity depends on patient-specific characteristics such as age, innate [heritable] and acquired resistance, and comorbid conditions, along with parasite-specific characteristics (species, drug resistance). Malarial anemia can cause severe morbidity and mortality, especially in children and pregnant individuals infected with Plasmodium falciparum.
  • #49 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Severe infection usually exhibits parasitemia of 5%. […] The significant complications of malaria are cerebral malaria, severe malarial anemia, and nephrotic syndrome (NS). […] Cerebral malaria accounts for 80% of fatal malaria cases, most often occurring with P. falciparum infection. […] Severe malarial anemia stems from TNF-alpha-mediated mechanisms involving both increased destruction and decreased production of erythrocytes, including cell lysis as parasites replicate and exit erythrocytes, splenic removal and autoimmune lysis of immune-marked erythrocytes, poor iron incorporation into new heme molecules, and bone marrow suppression during severe infection leading to decreased production. […] Nephrotic syndrome occurs secondary to glomerular antigen-antibody complex deposition and presents similarly to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis with proteinuria and decreased renal function, which may lead to renal failure.
  • #50 What causes severe malaria and its complications in children? Lessons learned over the past 15 years | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1291-z
    The recognition that small changes in kidney function independently predict mortality in critical illness led to the development of new guidelines to define acute kidney injury (AKI). […] In a prospective cohort of Ugandan children with SM, AKI was common, occurring in 46% of young children with SM. […] Additional studies are needed to evaluate the spectrum of AKI over hospitalization to define the etiology and pathophysiology of AKI in pediatric SM. […] Finally, a better understanding of the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental complications, as well as the long-term health costs of these complications, may lead to interventions to reduce neurodevelopmental disability in survivors.
  • #51 Etiology of lactic acidosis in malaria | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009122
    Etiology of hyperlactatemia in malaria. […] Malaria infection is characterized by a strong immune response with activated immune cells, which switch to aerobic glycolysis to rapidly generate ATP and metabolic intermediates for proliferation. […] Therefore, both liver and kidney pathology can contribute to hyperlactatemia and lactic acidosis in malaria.
  • #52 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Severe infection usually exhibits parasitemia of 5%. […] The significant complications of malaria are cerebral malaria, severe malarial anemia, and nephrotic syndrome (NS). […] Cerebral malaria accounts for 80% of fatal malaria cases, most often occurring with P. falciparum infection. […] Severe malarial anemia stems from TNF-alpha-mediated mechanisms involving both increased destruction and decreased production of erythrocytes, including cell lysis as parasites replicate and exit erythrocytes, splenic removal and autoimmune lysis of immune-marked erythrocytes, poor iron incorporation into new heme molecules, and bone marrow suppression during severe infection leading to decreased production. […] Nephrotic syndrome occurs secondary to glomerular antigen-antibody complex deposition and presents similarly to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis with proteinuria and decreased renal function, which may lead to renal failure.
  • #53 What causes severe malaria and its complications in children? Lessons learned over the past 15 years | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1291-z
    Over the past 15 years, malaria mortality has reduced by approximately 50%. However, malaria still causes more than 400,000 deaths annually, most of which occur in African children under 5 years of age. Significant advances in understanding the pathogenesis of the disease provide a basis for future work to prevent severe malaria and its complications. […] Severe malaria (SM) is defined by the detection of Plasmodium falciparum by microscopy or a rapid diagnostic test and at least one criterion for severe disease (impaired consciousness, respiratory distress, multiple convulsions, prostration, shock, pulmonary edema, abnormal bleeding, jaundice, severe anemia, hypoglycemia, acidosis, hyperlactatemia, renal impairment, or hyperparasitemia). […] Further, mortality can exceed 50% when multiple prognostic factors are present.
  • #54 What causes severe malaria and its complications in children? Lessons learned over the past 15 years | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1291-z
    Over the past 15 years, malaria mortality has reduced by approximately 50%. However, malaria still causes more than 400,000 deaths annually, most of which occur in African children under 5 years of age. Significant advances in understanding the pathogenesis of the disease provide a basis for future work to prevent severe malaria and its complications. […] Severe malaria (SM) is defined by the detection of Plasmodium falciparum by microscopy or a rapid diagnostic test and at least one criterion for severe disease (impaired consciousness, respiratory distress, multiple convulsions, prostration, shock, pulmonary edema, abnormal bleeding, jaundice, severe anemia, hypoglycemia, acidosis, hyperlactatemia, renal impairment, or hyperparasitemia). […] Further, mortality can exceed 50% when multiple prognostic factors are present.
  • #55 Plasmodium falciparum – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum
    The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified malaria due to P. falciparum as a Group 2A carcinogen, meaning that the parasite is probably a cancer-causing agent in humans. […] Its association with a blood cell (lymphocyte) cancer called Burkitt’s lymphoma is established.
  • #56 Plasmodium berghei ANKA causes intestinal malaria associated with dysbiosis | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/srep15699
    Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as abdominal pain and diarrhea, are frequently observed in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. […] This is the first report demonstrating that malaria affects intestinal microbiota and causes dysbiosis. […] Malaria caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium is the most prevalent infectious disease in tropical and subtropical regions. […] Malaria infections affect the intestinal tract and changes in the intestinal environment appear to influence the pathogenesis of malaria. […] Given the evidence described above, we speculated that severe malaria affecting the central nervous system and intestines might alter the intestinal microbiota. […] Our results revealed that intestinal pathology was more severe in B6 mice infected with PbA and was associated with marked changes in microbiota compared with BALB/c mice.
  • #57 Plasmodium berghei ANKA causes intestinal malaria associated with dysbiosis | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/srep15699
    16S rRNA gene sequencing of the microbiota clearly revealed that intestinal dysbiosis occurred in PbA-infected mice. […] The degree of dysbiosis was much higher in B6 mice that exhibited cerebral and intestinal pathologies than in BALB/c mice that exhibited minimum pathological changes in brain and intestines. […] Therefore, dysbiosis and pathological changes are closely correlated. […] However, we did not address whether dysbiosis caused the pathological changes or whether it was secondary to malaria pathologies. […] These results suggest that infection with PbA itself causes dysbiosis. […] In summary, we attempted to elucidate the influence of intestinal environments on host-pathogen interactions during malaria by focusing on intestinal pathology. We demonstrated, for the first time, marked changes in the intestinal microbiota following malaria infection.
  • #58 Malaria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551711/
    Five Plasmodium species possess the ability to infect humans: P. falciparum, P. ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. […] The female Anopheles mosquito ingests gametes during a blood meal, which form sporozoites that replicate in the gut. […] During subsequent bloodmeals, saliva containing sporozoites gets released into a human host’s bloodstream. […] Within 60 minutes, sporozoites reach the liver, invade hepatocytes, and then rapidly divide, forming merozoites. […] In an active infection, organisms reenter the bloodstream and invade erythrocytes. […] Pathogenesis stems from toxin-induced IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secretion. […] The innate immune response is dominated by monocyte and macrophage phagocytosis within the splenic red pulp. […] Parasitemia dictates symptom onset and severity: symptoms typically develop with 0.002% parasitemia in nave patients and 0.2% parasitemia in previously exposed patients.
  • #59 Immune reaction causes malaria organ damage
    https://www.mpg.de/14014501/1016-infe-105755-neutrophils-defenders-and-foes-in-malaria
    Malaria is one of the world’s deadliest infectious diseases: a small mosquito bite delivers numerous malaria parasites into the bloodstream. […] Researchers from the research groups led by Arturo Zychlinsky and Borko Amulic showed that NETs could cause organ damage in malaria. […] The findings expand our understanding of typical malaria complications such as liver and kidney failure, pulmonary edema and brain swelling, which can lead to the death of the patient. […] The researchers first observed a very high concentration of neutrophils and NETs in the blood of the infected mice. […] The results were clear despite the same parasite burden, the mice without NETs did not develop liver damage. […] „We were able to prove that a high concentration of NETs in the blood encourages the attachment of infected red blood cells to vessel walls as well as the recruitment of neutrophils both are important causes of organ damage in the infected animals,” explains the first author of the now published study, Lorenz Knackstedt. […] The lack of oxygen and bleeding from destroyed vessels can lead to total failure of the affected organ. […] A clear picture emerged here as well; the number of NETs in the blood increased immensely in cases of severe malaria.
  • #60 How Does Malaria Cause Fever?logo-32logo-40logo-60NEJM Journal WatchnejmJW_1L_RGB-b
    https://www.jwatch.org/id200703140000007/2007/03/14/how-does-malaria-cause-fever
    A hemoglobin digestion product of malaria parasites promotes stimulation of TLR9 by malarial DNA. […] Although the hallmark of clinical malaria is cyclic fever, how fever and inflammatory responses are induced is unclear. […] These findings suggest that, in a mouse model, malaria causes cytokine stimulation (and fever) by using hemozoin to move malarial DNA into an endosomal compartment to stimulate TLR9.
  • #61 Malaria: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/221134-overview
    Malaria is an ancient and continuously unmatched parasitic cause of human suffering throughout the world. Plasmodium spp, an obligate intracellular protozoon using the mosquito as its vector, permeates the tropical and subtropical world. Historically, it has crushed societies, devastated militaries, and hampered economic growth. […] The most common human-infecting Plasmodium species are P falciparum, P vivax, P malariae, and P ovale, with P falciparum being the most dangerous. In addition, the zoonotic species P knowlesi, primarily infecting non-human primates, increasingly is affecting humans in forested regions of certain countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. […] There are four common Plasmodium species that primarily affect humans, with a fifth species in Southeast Asia, known as Plasmodium knowlesi, which can rarely infect humans and lead to severe disease. However, this species generally infects monkeys. The majority of malaria cases worldwide are caused by P falciparum, followed by P vivax.
  • #62 Malaria – Our World in Data
    https://ourworldindata.org/malaria
    Malaria is a disease that is spread between people via infected mosquitoes. The bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito transmits a Plasmodium parasite that enters the victims blood and travels into the persons liver, where it reproduces. The parasites then travel through the bloodstream and enter red blood cells, where they rapidly reproduce and burst red blood cells open; this repeats in cycles, leading to cycles of high fevers with shaking chills, and pain. In the worst cases, malaria leads to coma and death. […] The parasites are single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group. Plasmodium falciparum is the most lethal in humans, and responsible for most deaths. […] Over half a million people died from the disease each year in the 2010s. Most were children, and the disease is one of the leading causes of child mortality.
  • #63 Malaria: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/221134-overview
    Malaria is an ancient and continuously unmatched parasitic cause of human suffering throughout the world. Plasmodium spp, an obligate intracellular protozoon using the mosquito as its vector, permeates the tropical and subtropical world. Historically, it has crushed societies, devastated militaries, and hampered economic growth. […] The most common human-infecting Plasmodium species are P falciparum, P vivax, P malariae, and P ovale, with P falciparum being the most dangerous. In addition, the zoonotic species P knowlesi, primarily infecting non-human primates, increasingly is affecting humans in forested regions of certain countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. […] There are four common Plasmodium species that primarily affect humans, with a fifth species in Southeast Asia, known as Plasmodium knowlesi, which can rarely infect humans and lead to severe disease. However, this species generally infects monkeys. The majority of malaria cases worldwide are caused by P falciparum, followed by P vivax.
  • #64
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
    Malaria is a life-threatening disease spread to humans by some types of mosquitoes. […] The infection is caused by a parasite and does not spread from person to person. […] There are 5 Plasmodium parasite species that cause malaria in humans and 2 of these species P. falciparum and P. vivax pose the greatest threat. P. falciparum is the deadliest malaria parasite and the most prevalent on the African continent. P. vivax is the dominant malaria parasite in most countries outside of sub-Saharan Africa. The other malaria species which can infect humans are P. malariae, P. ovale and P. knowlesi. […] Malaria infection during pregnancy can also cause premature delivery or delivery of a baby with low birth weight. […] According to the latest World malaria report, there were 263 million cases of malaria in 2023 compared to 252 million cases in 2022.
  • #65 Malaria’s Comeback in the U.S. | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health
    https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2023/malarias-comeback-in-the-us
    The disease was endemic in the U.S. until the 1950s. In 1951, malaria was considered eliminated from the country. […] Many factors contributed to achieving that status. Industrialization, the clearing of wetlands where mosquitoes breed, the use of insecticides and window screenson top of public health measures like malaria-preventing drugs and improved diagnosticswere game changers in the U.S. and most other Western countries in terms of stamping out the disease, says Srinivasan. […] Malaria transmission is a relationship between a mosquito, a parasite, and a person, says Sinnis. A female Anopheles mosquito must be infected with the malaria parasite in order to pass on an infection. […] Another reason that not all malaria infections are the same: There are multiple malaria-causing parasites. The most deadly is Plasmodium falciparum, says Sinnis, which is most common in sub-Saharan Africa, where malaria kills over 600,000 people every year95% of them children under age 5.
  • #66 Malaria’s Comeback in the U.S. | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health
    https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2023/malarias-comeback-in-the-us
    The disease was endemic in the U.S. until the 1950s. In 1951, malaria was considered eliminated from the country. […] Many factors contributed to achieving that status. Industrialization, the clearing of wetlands where mosquitoes breed, the use of insecticides and window screenson top of public health measures like malaria-preventing drugs and improved diagnosticswere game changers in the U.S. and most other Western countries in terms of stamping out the disease, says Srinivasan. […] Malaria transmission is a relationship between a mosquito, a parasite, and a person, says Sinnis. A female Anopheles mosquito must be infected with the malaria parasite in order to pass on an infection. […] Another reason that not all malaria infections are the same: There are multiple malaria-causing parasites. The most deadly is Plasmodium falciparum, says Sinnis, which is most common in sub-Saharan Africa, where malaria kills over 600,000 people every year95% of them children under age 5.
  • #67 Malaria’s Comeback in the U.S. | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health
    https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2023/malarias-comeback-in-the-us
    But conditions are becoming more favorable for malaria transmission. Warmer winters are giving the Anopheles mosquitoes an opportunity to start reproducing earliermeaning that their populations grow to the point where they have a higher probability of biting an infected person who has been to a malaria-endemic area. […] The post-COVID surge in travel has increased the reservoir for infection. Mosquitoes can reach new locations by hitching a ride on cargo planes or ships, or passenger planes, he says.
  • #68 Malaria – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8584/
    Malaria is caused by protozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Four species cause disease in humans: P falciparum, P vivax, P ovale and P malariae. Other species of plasmodia infect reptiles, birds and other mammals. Malaria is spread to humans by the bite of female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. […] The first symptoms and signs of malaria are associated with the rupture of erythrocytes when erythrocytic-stage schizonts mature. This release of parasite material presumably triggers a host immune response. The cytokines, reactive oxygen intermediates, and other cellular products released during the immune response play a prominent role in pathogenesis, and are probably responsible for the fever, chills, sweats, weakness, and other systemic symptoms associated with malaria. […] Clinical illness is caused by the erythrocytic stage of the parasite. No disease is associated with sporozoites, the developing liver stage of the parasite, the merozoites released from the liver, or gametocytes.
  • #69 What causes severe malaria and its complications in children? Lessons learned over the past 15 years | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1291-z
    Over the past 15 years, malaria mortality has reduced by approximately 50%. However, malaria still causes more than 400,000 deaths annually, most of which occur in African children under 5 years of age. Significant advances in understanding the pathogenesis of the disease provide a basis for future work to prevent severe malaria and its complications. […] Severe malaria (SM) is defined by the detection of Plasmodium falciparum by microscopy or a rapid diagnostic test and at least one criterion for severe disease (impaired consciousness, respiratory distress, multiple convulsions, prostration, shock, pulmonary edema, abnormal bleeding, jaundice, severe anemia, hypoglycemia, acidosis, hyperlactatemia, renal impairment, or hyperparasitemia). […] Further, mortality can exceed 50% when multiple prognostic factors are present.
  • #70 Malaria – Our World in Data
    https://ourworldindata.org/malaria
    One of the most important contributors to the decline was the increased distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets. […] Charles Alphonse Laveran discovered in 1880 that the Plasmodium parasite was the cause of malaria. […] This has changed with the malaria vaccine RTS,S, the world’s first licensed malaria vaccine, which has been recommended for use by the WHO since 2021. […] Malaria was once prevalent in many of today’s richest countries, but it was eliminated there over the last century. Today, malaria still affects some of the poorest countries in the world, as the chart shows.
  • #71
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
    Malaria can be prevented by avoiding mosquito bites and by taking medicines. […] Preventive chemotherapy is the use of medicines, either alone or in combination, to prevent malaria infections and their consequences. […] Since October 2021, WHO has recommended broad use of the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine among children living in regions with moderate to high P. falciparum malaria transmission. […] Early diagnosis and treatment of malaria reduces disease, prevents deaths and contributes to reducing transmission. […] Malaria is a serious infection and always requires treatment with medicine. […] Subsequent to the emergence of partial artemisinin resistance in the Greater Mekong subregion, WHO is very concerned about confirmed partial artemisinin resistance in Eritrea, Rwanda, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. […] Malaria elimination is defined as the interruption of local transmission of a specified malaria parasite species in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate activities.