Grzybica różowata
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Grzybica różowata (tinea versicolor) to powierzchowne zakażenie skóry wywołane przez dimorficzne, lipofilne drożdżaki z rodzaju Malassezia, głównie M. globosa, M. furfur i M. sympodialis. Patogeneza choroby opiera się na transformacji formy drożdżakowej do formy strzępkowej, co jest indukowane przez czynniki środowiskowe (ciepło, wilgoć), osobnicze (tłusta skóra, zaburzenia endokrynologiczne, immunosupresja) oraz immunologiczne (upośledzenie funkcji limfocytów, zmniejszona produkcja IL-2, IL-10, IFN-γ). Malassezia produkuje liczne czynniki wirulencji, takie jak fosfolipazy, lipazy, hemolizyny oraz kwas azelainowy, który hamuje tyrozynazę i przyczynia się do hipopigmentacji. Charakterystyczny obraz mikroskopowy to „spaghetti z klopsikami” widoczny w preparacie KOH 10-20%. Diagnostyka wspomagana jest przez lampę Wooda, która ujawnia złocisto-białą fluorescencję zmian skórnych.

Grzybica różowata (Tinea versicolor) – wprowadzenie

Grzybica różowata (tinea versicolor, pityriasis versicolor) jest powszechnym powierzchownym zakażeniem grzybiczym skóry, charakteryzującym się występowaniem przebarwionych, odbarwionych lub rumieniowych plam, najczęściej zlokalizowanych na tułowiu i proksymalnych częściach kończyn górnych. Choroba ta jest wynikiem nadmiernego wzrostu drożdżaków z rodzaju Malassezia, które są naturalnym składnikiem flory skórnej człowieka.12 Termin „versicolor” odnosi się do faktu, że zakażenie często zmienia kolor zajętej skóry.3 Zrozumienie mechanizmów patogenezy tej choroby jest kluczowe dla efektywnej diagnostyki i leczenia.

Etiologia grzybicy różowatej

Grzybica różowata jest spowodowana przez dimorficzne, lipofilne grzyby z rodzaju Malassezia (dawniej znane jako Pityrosporum). Do tej pory zidentyfikowano 14 gatunków Malassezia.4 Główne gatunki odpowiedzialne za grzybicę różowatą to Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa i Malassezia sympodialis, przy czym M. globosa jest najczęściej izolowanym gatunkiem.56 Grzyby te stanowią normalny składnik flory skórnej, szczególnie w miejscach bogatych w sebum, takich jak twarz, skóra głowy i plecy.7

Transformacja Malassezia – kluczowy element patogenezy

Choroba kliniczna rozwija się, gdy Malassezia przekształca się z formy drożdżakowej w patogenną formę mycelialną (strzępkową).89 W przypadkach grzybicy różowatej organizm występuje zarówno w formie drożdżakowej (zarodnikowej), jak i strzępkowej (grzybniowej).10 Pod mikroskopem widoczny jest charakterystyczny obraz przypominający „spaghetti z klopsikami”.11 Transformacja z formy komensalnej do patogennej jest kluczowym elementem patogenezy grzybicy różowatej.12

Czynniki ryzyka i czynniki sprzyjające rozwojowi zakażenia

Istnieje wiele czynników, które mogą przyczyniać się do nadmiernego wzrostu Malassezia i rozwoju grzybicy różowatej. Można je podzielić na czynniki środowiskowe, osobnicze i immunologiczne.1314

Czynniki środowiskowe

  • Ciepła i wilgotna pogoda – klimat tropikalny sprzyja rozwojowi choroby1516
  • Nadmierna potliwość (hyperhidrosis)1718
  • Stosowanie tłustych emolientów i kosmetyków1920
  • Noszenie okluzyjnych ubrań i stosowanie opatrunków21
  • Używanie masek ochronnych na twarz22

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Czynniki osobnicze

  • Predyspozycje genetyczne – badania wskazują, że 21% pacjentów z grzybicą różowatą zgłaszało dodatni wywiad rodzinny2324
  • Tłusta skóra (seborrhoea) – Malassezia występuje głównie w miejscach bogatych w sebum2526
  • Zaburzenia endokrynologiczne, w tym ciąża i zespół Cushinga2728
  • Stosowanie doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych2930
  • Niedożywienie3132
  • Cukrzyca i inne choroby ogólnoustrojowe33

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Czynniki immunologiczne

  • Osłabiony układ odpornościowy – pacjenci z immunosupresją są bardziej narażeni na rozwój grzybicy różowatej3435
  • Stosowanie kortykosteroidów – zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju choroby3637
  • Zaburzenia funkcji limfocytów – badania wykazały upośledzenie funkcji limfocytów po stymulacji grzybem u pacjentów z grzybicą różowatą3839

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Patogeneza grzybicy różowatej

Mechanizm transformacji Malassezia

Transformacja Malassezia z formy drożdżakowej do strzępkowej jest kluczowym elementem patogenezy grzybicy różowatej. Chociaż dokładne mechanizmy tej transformacji nie są w pełni poznane, zidentyfikowano kilka ważnych czynników:4041

Zależność od lipidów

Malassezia jest grzybem lipofilnym, a lipidy są niezbędne do jego wzrostu zarówno in vitro, jak i in vivo.42 Forma strzępkowa może być indukowana in vitro przez dodanie cholesterolu i estrów cholesterolu do odpowiedniego podłoża.4344 Ze względu na fakt, że grzyb ten szybciej kolonizuje ludzi w okresie dojrzewania, gdy stężenie lipidów skórnych jest zwiększone, oraz że grzybica różowata manifestuje się w obszarach bogatych w sebum (np. klatka piersiowa, plecy), sugerowano, że indywidualne różnice w lipidach powierzchni skóry odgrywają główną rolę w patogenezie choroby.45 Jednakże, pacjenci z grzybicą różowatą i osoby z grupy kontrolnej nie wykazują żadnych ilościowych ani jakościowych różnic w lipidach powierzchni skóry.46

Rola aminokwasów

Coraz więcej dowodów sugeruje, że aminokwasy, a nie lipidy, są kluczowe dla wystąpienia stanu chorobowego.47 W warunkach in vitro aminokwas asparagina stymuluje wzrost organizmu, podczas gdy inny aminokwas, glicyna, indukuje tworzenie strzępek.4849 W warunkach in vivo wykazano, że poziom aminokwasów jest zwiększony w niezmienionej skórze pacjentów z grzybicą różowatą.50 Gen MGL_3741 został wskazany jako odgrywający rolę w szlakach biosyntezy aminokwasów w M. globosa, które są ważnym źródłem węgla i azotu dla drożdży. Ten gen może potencjalnie zwiększać patogeniczność M. globosa.51

Czynniki wirulencji Malassezia

Malassezia produkuje różne czynniki wirulencji i toksyny, które przyczyniają się do jej patogenności.52 Wśród nich można wymienić:53

  • Fosfolipazy – umożliwiają przyleganie do skóry, co jest pierwszym krokiem w zakażeniu5455
  • Lipazy – odpowiedzialne za degradację lipidów sebum56
  • Kwaśne sfingomielinazy57
  • Hemolizyny58
  • Zdolność do tworzenia biofilmu – przyczynia się do przewlekłości zakażenia5960
  • Produkcja kwasu azelainowego – związana z depigmentacją skóry6162
  • MGL_1304 produkowany przez M. globosa – główny antygen uwalniający histaminę63

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Odpowiedź immunologiczna gospodarza

Istotnym czynnikiem patogenetycznym jest także odpowiedź układu odpornościowego pacjenta.64 Chociaż uczulenie na antygeny M. furfur rutynowo występuje w populacji ogólnej (co potwierdzają badania transformacji limfocytów), u pacjentów z grzybicą różowatą wykazano upośledzenie funkcji limfocytów po stymulacji organizmu.65 Wynik ten jest podobny do sytuacji uczulenia na Candida albicans.66

Badania wykazały również defekty w produkcji limfokin i komórek NK; zmniejszoną stymulację fitohemaglutyniny (PHA) i konkawaliny A (Con A); oraz zmniejszoną produkcję interleukiny (IL)-2, IL-10 i interferonu (IFN) gamma przez limfocyty u pacjentów z grzybicą różowatą.67 Zaburzenia te mogą przyczyniać się do zmniejszonej odpowiedzi obronnej organizmu na zakażenie Malassezia.

Stres oksydacyjny, wyrażający się ekspresją zredukowanego glutationu, przyczynia się również do patogenezy tej choroby.68

Mechanizmy zmian pigmentacyjnych

Charakterystyczną cechą grzybicy różowatej są zmiany w pigmentacji skóry, które mogą objawiać się jako odbarwienia (hipopigmentacja), przebarwienia (hiperpigmentacja) lub zmiany rumieniowe.6970 Chociaż dokładne przyczyny tych zmian pigmentacyjnych nie są w pełni poznane, istnieje kilka teorii wyjaśniających te zjawiska.

Mechanizm hipopigmentacji

Pacjenci z hipopigmentacyjną postacią grzybicy różowatej często zauważają, że zaburzenie jest najbardziej widoczne latem, gdy zajęte obszary nie opalają się po ekspozycji na słońce.7172 Proponowane mechanizmy hipopigmentacji obejmują:

  • Produkcję kwasu azelainowego przez Malassezia – kwas ten jest dwukarboksylowym kwasem, który może hamować tyrozynazę, enzym niezbędny do produkcji melaniny737475
  • Hamowanie lub uszkadzanie melanocytów7677
  • Ekspozycja na światło słoneczne stymuluje produkcję kwasu azelainowego, co powoduje pojawienie się odbarwionych plam78
  • Dyfuzja substancji chemicznej produkowanej przez Malassezia do naskórka, zaburzającej funkcję melanocytów79

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Mechanizm hiperpigmentacji

Mechanizm powstawania zmian hiperpigmentacyjnych jest mniej poznany. Proponowane teorie obejmują:80

  • Pogrubienie warstwy rogowej naskórka8182
  • Obecność nasilonego nacieku zapalnego, który działa jako bodziec dla melanocytów do produkcji większej ilości pigmentu83
  • Zwiększenie rozmiaru melanosomów i zmiany w ich dystrybucji w naskórku848586
  • Reakcja zapalna na drożdżaki8788

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Mechanizm zmian rumieniowych

Różowe lub rumieniowe zmiany w grzybicy różowatej są łagodnie zapalne, wynikające z zapalenia skóry wywołanego przez Malassezia lub jej metabolity.89 Reakcja zapalna może być konsekwencją odpowiedzi immunologicznej na obecność grzyba w naskórku.90

Tworzenie biofilmu jako mechanizm patogenezy

Ostatnie badania sugerują, że tworzenie biofilmu przez Malassezia może być potencjalnym mechanizmem jej transformacji z normalnej flory skórnej do patogenu oraz przyczyniać się do przewlekłości zakażenia.91 Biofilm to zorganizowana struktura składająca się z mikroorganizmów otoczonych macierzą pozakomórkową, która chroni je przed działaniem układu odpornościowego i leków przeciwgrzybiczych.92

W przeciwieństwie do biofilmów tworzonych w innych chorobach skóry, biofilmy w grzybicy różowatej wydają się nie wyzwalać wrodzonego układu odpornościowego i tym samym nie inicjują patologicznego stanu zapalnego.93 Ta hipoteza może wyjaśniać, dlaczego grzybica różowata często nawraca po skutecznym leczeniu – biofilm chroni grzyby przed całkowitą eradykacją.94

Szczególne formy grzybicy różowatej

Atroficzna grzybica różowata związana ze steroidami

W przypadku grzybicy różowatej związanej ze steroidami, Malassezia infekująca naskórek może zaburzać funkcję barierową skóry, umożliwiając lepszą penetrację miejscowych kortykosteroidów. Może to prowadzić do nasilonego zaniku skóry indukowanego kortykosteroidami w zajętych obszarach.95

Jednakże, ponieważ atroficzna grzybica różowata była również zgłaszana u pacjentów, którzy nie stosowali miejscowych steroidów, zaproponowano, że odpowiedź immunologiczna z udziałem limfocytów T na organizm Malassezia może być odpowiedzialna za obserwowany zanik. Teoria ta sugeruje, że cytokiny Th1 rekrutują histiocyty do miejsca zakażenia naskórka. Te histiocyty są źródłem elastaz i zwiększają aktywność metaloproteinaz, co ostatecznie prowadzi do zaniku zajętego naskórka.96

Najnowsze kierunki badań

Badanie z 2020 roku wykazało statystycznie istotny związek między zakażeniem Helicobacter pylori a grzybicą różowatą, proponując zakażenie H. pylori jako czynnik etiologiczny dla tego zakażenia grzybiczego. Jednak te doniesienia nie zostały jeszcze zweryfikowane w większych badaniach, a populacja kontrolna z telogen effluvium nie była jednoznacznie dopasowana demograficznie.97

Trwają również badania nad rolą różnych gatunków Malassezia w patogenezie grzybicy różowatej oraz nad mechanizmami genetycznymi, które mogą przyczyniać się do zwiększonej podatności na tę chorobę. Lepsze zrozumienie tych mechanizmów może prowadzić do rozwoju bardziej skutecznych metod leczenia i zapobiegania nawrotom.98

Diagnostyka grzybicy różowatej

Rozpoznanie grzybicy różowatej opiera się na wyglądzie klinicznym i identyfikacji strzępek i pączkujących komórek (obraz „spaghetti i klopsików”) w preparacie bezpośrednim ze zeskrobin skórnych badanych w 10-20% roztworze wodorotlenku potasu (KOH).99

Badanie w lampie Wooda ujawnia złocisto-białą fluorescencję zmian skórnych, co może pomóc w potwierdzeniu diagnozy.100101 Hodowla Malassezia wymaga specjalnych podłoży wzbogaconych w lipidy, takich jak podłoże CHROMagar Malassezia.102

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patogenezy

Patogeneza grzybicy różowatej jest złożonym procesem, obejmującym interakcję między drożdżakami Malassezia a skórą gospodarza. Kluczowe elementy tego procesu to:

  • Transformacja Malassezia z formy drożdżakowej do strzępkowej pod wpływem czynników środowiskowych i osobniczych103104
  • Zależność od lipidów skórnych i rola aminokwasów w stymulacji wzrostu i inwazji grzyba105106
  • Produkcja czynników wirulencji, w tym enzymów i kwasu azelainowego107108
  • Zaburzenia odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza109110
  • Mechanizmy prowadzące do zmian pigmentacyjnych skóry111112
  • Potencjalna rola biofilmu w przewlekłości zakażenia113114

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Zrozumienie tych mechanizmów jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii leczenia i zapobiegania nawrotom, które są powszechne w grzybicy różowatej, ponieważ Malassezia jest normalnym składnikiem flory skórnej.115116

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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) is a common superficial fungal infection that typically presents with hypopigmented, hyperpigmented, or erythematous macules on the trunk and proximal upper extremities. […] The causative organisms are saprophytic yeasts in the genus Malassezia (formerly known as Pityrosporum). Malassezia is a lipid-dependent, dimorphic fungus that is a component of normal skin flora. Transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form is associated with the development of clinical disease. […] The distribution of tinea versicolor on the body may reflect the nutritional requirements of the yeast. Malassezia is lipid dependent, and the greater sebum production by cutaneous sebaceous glands on the upper body may contribute to the predominance of tinea versicolor in this location.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347661/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. […] Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. […] Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
  • #1 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Host characteristics that contribute to the development of tinea versicolor are poorly understood. A genetic predisposition may be involved. In a questionnaire-based study, 21 percent of patients reported a positive family history of the disease. Tinea versicolor also occurs more commonly in patients who are immunosuppressed, suggesting that an altered host immune response may play a role in the pathogenesis.
  • #1 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #1 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #1 SciELO Brazil – Pitiríase Versicolor Pitiríase Versicolor
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/dtycs4DqQTZ3mxB6mMKGSbr/?lang=en
    It has been suggested that the lipoperoxidation process produced by Pityrosporum could be responsible for the clinical hypopigmented appearance of lesioned skin. […] The pathogenesis of hyperpigmentation in PV is not entirely understood. Two theories have been presented: (I) thickening of the keratine layer; and (II) presence of intense cellular inflamed infiltrate, which acts like a stimulus for melanocytes to produce more pigment, leading to an increase in the size of melanosomes and distribution changes in the epidermis. […] After treatment, the affected area remained hypopigmented for a variable period of time. The mechanism of hypopigmentation has not been well established yet. But ultrastructural studies show severe damage to melanoctyes, which varies from melanosomes and altered mitochondria up to degeneration.
  • #1 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by Malassezia, a dimorphic lipophilic fungus previously known as Pityrosporum. Malassezia is a component of the normal skin flora. Clinical disease develops when Malassezia transforms from yeast into its mycelial form. Researchers have identified 14 species of Malassezia to date. The primary species responsible for tinea versicolor are Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis, with M. globosa being the most prevalent. […] Malassezia is normally present on healthy skin, primarily in oily regions like the face, scalp, and back. However, if it transforms into its pathogenic filamentous form, it can cause tinea versicolor. The precise elements in the host’s environment that trigger tinea versicolor still need to be clarified. Although experimental inoculations using topical oils and occlusion have proven successful, tinea versicolor is not contagious.
  • #2 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Tinea versicolor (ie, pityriasis versicolor) is a common superficial fungal infection that typically presents with hypopigmented, hyperpigmented, or erythematous macules on the trunk and proximal upper extremities. […] The causative organisms are saprophytic yeasts in the genus Malassezia (formerly known as Pityrosporum). Malassezia is a lipid-dependent, dimorphic fungus that is a component of normal skin flora. Transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form is associated with the development of clinical disease. […] The distribution of tinea versicolor on the body may reflect the nutritional requirements of the yeast. Malassezia is lipid dependent, and the greater sebum production by cutaneous sebaceous glands on the upper body may contribute to the predominance of tinea versicolor in this location.
  • #2 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #2 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the dimorphic, lipophilic organisms in the genus Malassezia, formerly known as Pityrosporum. Fourteen species are recognized within this classification of yeasts, of which Malassezia globosa, Malassezia sympodialis, and Malassezia furfur are the predominant species isolated in tinea versicolor. […] The organism can be found on healthy skin and on skin regions demonstrating cutaneous disease. In patients with clinical disease, the organism is found in both the yeast (spore) stage and the filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors that lead to the conversion of the saprophytic yeast to the parasitic, mycelial morphologic form include a genetic predisposition; warm, humid environments; immunosuppression; malnutrition; pregnancy; and Cushing disease. Human peptide cathelicidin LL-37 plays a role in skin defense against this organism.
  • #2 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #2 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    Malassezia species exist as normal flora on human skin but can convert to a pathogenic state in response to a number of host and environmental factors ultimately resulting in tinea versicolor (TV). […] We believe this biofilm formation is potentially responsible for both the pathogenesis and the chronicity of this infection. […] Herein, we hypothesize that biofilm formation by Malassezia species is potential mechanism behind its transformation from normal skin flora to pathogen and subsequent expression as TV. […] In response to the aforementioned factors, Malassezia enters a pathogenic state and clinically manifests as TV. […] The main action of these phospholipases is to permit adhesion to the skin, the first step in infection. […] We hypothesize that biofilm formation contributes to the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. in TV.
  • #2 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #2
    https://journals.lww.com/pigi/fulltext/2014/01010/the_enigma_of_color_in_tinea_versicolor.11.aspx
    It appears then, that the presence of the fungus in the skin initiates the production of abnormal melanosome granules and possibly the faulty transfer of these granules to the keratinocytes. The mechanism for this is unknown. […] Other theories of hypopigmentation include damage to melanocytes and inhibition of tyrosinase by dicarboxylic acid, especially azelaic acid, produced by Malassezia furfur. […] Hyperpigmentation, on the other hand, has been explained by abnormally large melanosomes, a thick stratum corneum, and a hyperemic inflammatory response. […] In a recent study, the ratio between keratinocytes and Malassezia was shown to be important, with the latter inhibiting the growth rate of keratinocytes. […] The various theories of hypo- and hyper-pigmentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. […] Tinea versicolor is a common disease encountered by dermatologists, which produces pigmentary changes in skin through hitherto unknown mechanisms.
  • #3 Tinea Versicolor Causes, Itchy Symptoms, Treatment & Fast Cure
    https://www.medicinenet.com/tinea_versicolor/article.htm
    Tinea versicolor is a common fungal infection of the skin that often affects adolescents and young adults. The term versicolor refers to the fact that it frequently alters the color of the involved skin. […] A yeast called Malassezia causes tinea versicolor; it normally lives on the skin of most adults without producing disease. It exists in two forms, a yeast form and a form that resembles „penne and meatballs” when viewed microscopically. This second form makes patches of discolored slightly scaly skin called tinea versicolor. Medical professionals believe that a chemical produced by Malassezia, azelaic acid, is responsible for the loss of pigment. […] Since the organism that causes tinea versicolor is a normal inhabitant of the skin and the disease does not affect the patient’s general health, there is no widely accepted approach to prevention.
  • #3 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast. […] External factors suspected of contributing to the transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form include exposure to hot and humid weather, hyperhidrosis, and the use of topical skin oils. Tinea versicolor is not related to poor hygiene.
  • #3 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #3 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Research has suggested a reduced body response to the specific fungal elements that produce tinea versicolor. […] In various studies, defects in lymphokine production and natural killer T cells were found; phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A) stimulation was decreased; and interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and interferon (IFN) gamma production by lymphocytes was decreased in affected patients. […] In patients with hypopigmentation, tyrosinase inhibitors competitively inhibit an enzyme necessary for melanocyte pigment formation. […] In hyperpigmented macules, the organism induces enlargement of melanosomes made by melanocytes in the basal layer of the epidermis.
  • #3
    https://journals.lww.com/pigi/fulltext/2014/01010/the_enigma_of_color_in_tinea_versicolor.11.aspx
    It appears then, that the presence of the fungus in the skin initiates the production of abnormal melanosome granules and possibly the faulty transfer of these granules to the keratinocytes. The mechanism for this is unknown. […] Other theories of hypopigmentation include damage to melanocytes and inhibition of tyrosinase by dicarboxylic acid, especially azelaic acid, produced by Malassezia furfur. […] Hyperpigmentation, on the other hand, has been explained by abnormally large melanosomes, a thick stratum corneum, and a hyperemic inflammatory response. […] In a recent study, the ratio between keratinocytes and Malassezia was shown to be important, with the latter inhibiting the growth rate of keratinocytes. […] The various theories of hypo- and hyper-pigmentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. […] Tinea versicolor is a common disease encountered by dermatologists, which produces pigmentary changes in skin through hitherto unknown mechanisms.
  • #3 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast.
  • #3 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #4 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by Malassezia, a dimorphic lipophilic fungus previously known as Pityrosporum. Malassezia is a component of the normal skin flora. Clinical disease develops when Malassezia transforms from yeast into its mycelial form. Researchers have identified 14 species of Malassezia to date. The primary species responsible for tinea versicolor are Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis, with M. globosa being the most prevalent. […] Malassezia is normally present on healthy skin, primarily in oily regions like the face, scalp, and back. However, if it transforms into its pathogenic filamentous form, it can cause tinea versicolor. The precise elements in the host’s environment that trigger tinea versicolor still need to be clarified. Although experimental inoculations using topical oils and occlusion have proven successful, tinea versicolor is not contagious.
  • #5 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the dimorphic, lipophilic organisms in the genus Malassezia, formerly known as Pityrosporum. Fourteen species are recognized within this classification of yeasts, of which Malassezia globosa, Malassezia sympodialis, and Malassezia furfur are the predominant species isolated in tinea versicolor. […] The organism can be found on healthy skin and on skin regions demonstrating cutaneous disease. In patients with clinical disease, the organism is found in both the yeast (spore) stage and the filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors that lead to the conversion of the saprophytic yeast to the parasitic, mycelial morphologic form include a genetic predisposition; warm, humid environments; immunosuppression; malnutrition; pregnancy; and Cushing disease. Human peptide cathelicidin LL-37 plays a role in skin defense against this organism.
  • #6 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by Malassezia, a dimorphic lipophilic fungus previously known as Pityrosporum. Malassezia is a component of the normal skin flora. Clinical disease develops when Malassezia transforms from yeast into its mycelial form. Researchers have identified 14 species of Malassezia to date. The primary species responsible for tinea versicolor are Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis, with M. globosa being the most prevalent. […] Malassezia is normally present on healthy skin, primarily in oily regions like the face, scalp, and back. However, if it transforms into its pathogenic filamentous form, it can cause tinea versicolor. The precise elements in the host’s environment that trigger tinea versicolor still need to be clarified. Although experimental inoculations using topical oils and occlusion have proven successful, tinea versicolor is not contagious.
  • #7 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by Malassezia, a dimorphic lipophilic fungus previously known as Pityrosporum. Malassezia is a component of the normal skin flora. Clinical disease develops when Malassezia transforms from yeast into its mycelial form. Researchers have identified 14 species of Malassezia to date. The primary species responsible for tinea versicolor are Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis, with M. globosa being the most prevalent. […] Malassezia is normally present on healthy skin, primarily in oily regions like the face, scalp, and back. However, if it transforms into its pathogenic filamentous form, it can cause tinea versicolor. The precise elements in the host’s environment that trigger tinea versicolor still need to be clarified. Although experimental inoculations using topical oils and occlusion have proven successful, tinea versicolor is not contagious.
  • #8 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by Malassezia, a dimorphic lipophilic fungus previously known as Pityrosporum. Malassezia is a component of the normal skin flora. Clinical disease develops when Malassezia transforms from yeast into its mycelial form. Researchers have identified 14 species of Malassezia to date. The primary species responsible for tinea versicolor are Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis, with M. globosa being the most prevalent. […] Malassezia is normally present on healthy skin, primarily in oily regions like the face, scalp, and back. However, if it transforms into its pathogenic filamentous form, it can cause tinea versicolor. The precise elements in the host’s environment that trigger tinea versicolor still need to be clarified. Although experimental inoculations using topical oils and occlusion have proven successful, tinea versicolor is not contagious.
  • #9 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) is a common superficial fungal infection that typically presents with hypopigmented, hyperpigmented, or erythematous macules on the trunk and proximal upper extremities. […] The causative organisms are saprophytic yeasts in the genus Malassezia (formerly known as Pityrosporum). Malassezia is a lipid-dependent, dimorphic fungus that is a component of normal skin flora. Transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form is associated with the development of clinical disease. […] The distribution of tinea versicolor on the body may reflect the nutritional requirements of the yeast. Malassezia is lipid dependent, and the greater sebum production by cutaneous sebaceous glands on the upper body may contribute to the predominance of tinea versicolor in this location.
  • #10 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the dimorphic, lipophilic organisms in the genus Malassezia, formerly known as Pityrosporum. Fourteen species are recognized within this classification of yeasts, of which Malassezia globosa, Malassezia sympodialis, and Malassezia furfur are the predominant species isolated in tinea versicolor. […] The organism can be found on healthy skin and on skin regions demonstrating cutaneous disease. In patients with clinical disease, the organism is found in both the yeast (spore) stage and the filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors that lead to the conversion of the saprophytic yeast to the parasitic, mycelial morphologic form include a genetic predisposition; warm, humid environments; immunosuppression; malnutrition; pregnancy; and Cushing disease. Human peptide cathelicidin LL-37 plays a role in skin defense against this organism.
  • #11 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #12 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #13 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #14 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the dimorphic, lipophilic organisms in the genus Malassezia, formerly known as Pityrosporum. Fourteen species are recognized within this classification of yeasts, of which Malassezia globosa, Malassezia sympodialis, and Malassezia furfur are the predominant species isolated in tinea versicolor. […] The organism can be found on healthy skin and on skin regions demonstrating cutaneous disease. In patients with clinical disease, the organism is found in both the yeast (spore) stage and the filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors that lead to the conversion of the saprophytic yeast to the parasitic, mycelial morphologic form include a genetic predisposition; warm, humid environments; immunosuppression; malnutrition; pregnancy; and Cushing disease. Human peptide cathelicidin LL-37 plays a role in skin defense against this organism.
  • #15 SciELO Brazil – Pitiríase Versicolor Pitiríase Versicolor
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/dtycs4DqQTZ3mxB6mMKGSbr/?lang=en
    Pityriasis versicolor is caused by Malassezia furfur, which may appear in two forms: oval – Pityrosporum ovale-, often in the scalp, and cylindrical – Pityrosporum orbiculare-generally on the trunk. […] These fungi require the addition of lipidic substances in the middle of culture, like olive oil. They grow better on average in 32-37C environments. Filaments normally seen in areas of the skin affected by infection grow when the yeasts are incubated in stratum corneum. […] PV occurs when yeasts are converted by the micellar form due to certain predisposed factors, which may be classified as endogenic or exogenic. The exogenous factors include heat and humidity, contributing to higher disease prevalence in the tropics and during the summer in temperate climates. […] A possible factor in the development of PV is depressed cellular immunity. The lymphocytes of PV-carriers appear to produce a lower leucocyte migration factor of when stimulated with P. orbiculare stratum.
  • #16 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast. […] External factors suspected of contributing to the transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form include exposure to hot and humid weather, hyperhidrosis, and the use of topical skin oils. Tinea versicolor is not related to poor hygiene.
  • #17 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #18 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast. […] External factors suspected of contributing to the transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form include exposure to hot and humid weather, hyperhidrosis, and the use of topical skin oils. Tinea versicolor is not related to poor hygiene.
  • #19 Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347661/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. […] Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. […] Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
  • #20 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #21 Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347661/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. […] Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. […] Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
  • #22 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #23 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Host characteristics that contribute to the development of tinea versicolor are poorly understood. A genetic predisposition may be involved. In a questionnaire-based study, 21 percent of patients reported a positive family history of the disease. Tinea versicolor also occurs more commonly in patients who are immunosuppressed, suggesting that an altered host immune response may play a role in the pathogenesis.
  • #24 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #25 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #26 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #27 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the dimorphic, lipophilic organisms in the genus Malassezia, formerly known as Pityrosporum. Fourteen species are recognized within this classification of yeasts, of which Malassezia globosa, Malassezia sympodialis, and Malassezia furfur are the predominant species isolated in tinea versicolor. […] The organism can be found on healthy skin and on skin regions demonstrating cutaneous disease. In patients with clinical disease, the organism is found in both the yeast (spore) stage and the filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors that lead to the conversion of the saprophytic yeast to the parasitic, mycelial morphologic form include a genetic predisposition; warm, humid environments; immunosuppression; malnutrition; pregnancy; and Cushing disease. Human peptide cathelicidin LL-37 plays a role in skin defense against this organism.
  • #28 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #29 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #30 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #31 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #32 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the dimorphic, lipophilic organisms in the genus Malassezia, formerly known as Pityrosporum. Fourteen species are recognized within this classification of yeasts, of which Malassezia globosa, Malassezia sympodialis, and Malassezia furfur are the predominant species isolated in tinea versicolor. […] The organism can be found on healthy skin and on skin regions demonstrating cutaneous disease. In patients with clinical disease, the organism is found in both the yeast (spore) stage and the filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors that lead to the conversion of the saprophytic yeast to the parasitic, mycelial morphologic form include a genetic predisposition; warm, humid environments; immunosuppression; malnutrition; pregnancy; and Cushing disease. Human peptide cathelicidin LL-37 plays a role in skin defense against this organism.
  • #33 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #34 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Host characteristics that contribute to the development of tinea versicolor are poorly understood. A genetic predisposition may be involved. In a questionnaire-based study, 21 percent of patients reported a positive family history of the disease. Tinea versicolor also occurs more commonly in patients who are immunosuppressed, suggesting that an altered host immune response may play a role in the pathogenesis.
  • #35 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #36 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #37 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #38 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #39 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Research has suggested a reduced body response to the specific fungal elements that produce tinea versicolor. […] In various studies, defects in lymphokine production and natural killer T cells were found; phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A) stimulation was decreased; and interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and interferon (IFN) gamma production by lymphocytes was decreased in affected patients. […] In patients with hypopigmentation, tyrosinase inhibitors competitively inhibit an enzyme necessary for melanocyte pigment formation. […] In hyperpigmented macules, the organism induces enlargement of melanosomes made by melanocytes in the basal layer of the epidermis.
  • #40 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #41 Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347661/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. […] Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. […] Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
  • #42 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #43 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #44 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Tinea versicolor results from an overgrowth of Malassezia, which is part of normal skin flora and produces pigmentation changes when it flourishes beyond normal levels. […] The nutritional requirements of Malassezia are among the most important factors affecting the organism’s growth on the skin. […] M furfur is lipophilic, and its mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by adding cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. […] However, the finding that significantly more amino acids are extracted from the skin of infected patients suggests that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the development of the disease. […] In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, whereas glycine induces hyphal formation. […] Patient immune response also affects infection.
  • #45 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #46 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #47 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #48 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #49 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Tinea versicolor results from an overgrowth of Malassezia, which is part of normal skin flora and produces pigmentation changes when it flourishes beyond normal levels. […] The nutritional requirements of Malassezia are among the most important factors affecting the organism’s growth on the skin. […] M furfur is lipophilic, and its mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by adding cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. […] However, the finding that significantly more amino acids are extracted from the skin of infected patients suggests that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the development of the disease. […] In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, whereas glycine induces hyphal formation. […] Patient immune response also affects infection.
  • #50 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #51 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #52 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #53 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #54 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    Malassezia species exist as normal flora on human skin but can convert to a pathogenic state in response to a number of host and environmental factors ultimately resulting in tinea versicolor (TV). […] We believe this biofilm formation is potentially responsible for both the pathogenesis and the chronicity of this infection. […] Herein, we hypothesize that biofilm formation by Malassezia species is potential mechanism behind its transformation from normal skin flora to pathogen and subsequent expression as TV. […] In response to the aforementioned factors, Malassezia enters a pathogenic state and clinically manifests as TV. […] The main action of these phospholipases is to permit adhesion to the skin, the first step in infection. […] We hypothesize that biofilm formation contributes to the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. in TV.
  • #55 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #56 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #57 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #58 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #59 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    Malassezia species exist as normal flora on human skin but can convert to a pathogenic state in response to a number of host and environmental factors ultimately resulting in tinea versicolor (TV). […] We believe this biofilm formation is potentially responsible for both the pathogenesis and the chronicity of this infection. […] Herein, we hypothesize that biofilm formation by Malassezia species is potential mechanism behind its transformation from normal skin flora to pathogen and subsequent expression as TV. […] In response to the aforementioned factors, Malassezia enters a pathogenic state and clinically manifests as TV. […] The main action of these phospholipases is to permit adhesion to the skin, the first step in infection. […] We hypothesize that biofilm formation contributes to the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. in TV.
  • #60 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #61 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #62 Tinea versicolor – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinea_versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is a condition characterized by a skin eruption on the trunk and proximal extremities. The majority of tinea versicolor is caused by the fungus Malassezia globosa, although Malassezia furfur is responsible for a small number of cases. These yeasts are normally found on the human skin and become troublesome only under certain conditions, such as a warm and humid environment, although the exact conditions that cause initiation of the disease process are poorly understood. […] In cases of tinea versicolor caused by the fungus Malassezia furfur, lightening of the skin occurs due to the fungus’s production of azelaic acid, which has a slight bleaching effect.
  • #63 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Epidermal hyperproliferation likely stems from the disruption of the skin barrier caused by free fatty acids (FFAs). Malassezia, being lipid-dependent fungi, rely on FFAs derived from sebaceous triglycerides. […] Fungal MGL_1304 produced by M. globosa is a major histamine-releasing antigen, involved in atopic dermatitis and cholinergic urticaria. […] It has been suggested that direct toxic damage to the hair follicle and/or Malassezia-induced proapoptotic cytokines may play a role in PV, as Malassezia was reported to promote interface dermatitis and upregulate proalopecic interleukins.
  • #64 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #65 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #66 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #67 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Research has suggested a reduced body response to the specific fungal elements that produce tinea versicolor. […] In various studies, defects in lymphokine production and natural killer T cells were found; phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A) stimulation was decreased; and interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and interferon (IFN) gamma production by lymphocytes was decreased in affected patients. […] In patients with hypopigmentation, tyrosinase inhibitors competitively inhibit an enzyme necessary for melanocyte pigment formation. […] In hyperpigmented macules, the organism induces enlargement of melanosomes made by melanocytes in the basal layer of the epidermis.
  • #68 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Oxidative stress as shown by expression of reduced glutathione contributes to the pathogenesis of this condition. […] In steroid-associated atrophying tinea versicolor, the Malassezia infecting the epidermis may impair the barrier function of skin, thus allowing improved penetration of topical corticosteroids. This may lead to enhanced corticosteroid-induced atrophy of the affected skin. However, as atrophying tinea versicolor has been reported in patients who have not used topical steroids, it has been proposed that a T-cell-mediated immune response to the Malassezia organism may be responsible for the atrophy noted. This theory suggests that Th1 cytokines recruit histiocytes to the site of epidermal infection. These histiocytes serve as a source of elastases and they up-regulate the metalloproteinase activity, ultimately leading to atrophy of the affected epidermis.
  • #69 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #70 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast.
  • #71 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast.
  • #72 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #73 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #74 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #75 Tinea versicolor – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinea_versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is a condition characterized by a skin eruption on the trunk and proximal extremities. The majority of tinea versicolor is caused by the fungus Malassezia globosa, although Malassezia furfur is responsible for a small number of cases. These yeasts are normally found on the human skin and become troublesome only under certain conditions, such as a warm and humid environment, although the exact conditions that cause initiation of the disease process are poorly understood. […] In cases of tinea versicolor caused by the fungus Malassezia furfur, lightening of the skin occurs due to the fungus’s production of azelaic acid, which has a slight bleaching effect.
  • #76 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast.
  • #77
    https://journals.lww.com/pigi/fulltext/2014/01010/the_enigma_of_color_in_tinea_versicolor.11.aspx
    It appears then, that the presence of the fungus in the skin initiates the production of abnormal melanosome granules and possibly the faulty transfer of these granules to the keratinocytes. The mechanism for this is unknown. […] Other theories of hypopigmentation include damage to melanocytes and inhibition of tyrosinase by dicarboxylic acid, especially azelaic acid, produced by Malassezia furfur. […] Hyperpigmentation, on the other hand, has been explained by abnormally large melanosomes, a thick stratum corneum, and a hyperemic inflammatory response. […] In a recent study, the ratio between keratinocytes and Malassezia was shown to be important, with the latter inhibiting the growth rate of keratinocytes. […] The various theories of hypo- and hyper-pigmentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. […] Tinea versicolor is a common disease encountered by dermatologists, which produces pigmentary changes in skin through hitherto unknown mechanisms.
  • #78 Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347661/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. […] Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. […] Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
  • #79 Pityriasis versicolor. Tinea versicolor
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pityriasis-versicolor
    Pityriasis versicolor is caused by mycelial growth of fungi of the genus Malassezia. […] Usually malassezia grow sparsely in the seborrhoeic areas (scalp, face and chest) without causing a rash. It is not known why they sometimes grow more actively on the skin surface to form pityriasis versicolor. One theory implicates a tryptophan-dependent metabolic pathway. […] The yeasts induce enlarged melanosomes (pigment granules) within basal melanocytes in the brown type of pityriasis versicolor. […] The white or hypopigmented type of pityriasis versicolor is thought to be due to a chemical produced by malassezia that diffuses into the epidermis and impairs the function of the melanocytes. […] The pink type of pityriasis versicolor is mildly inflamed, due to dermatitis induced by malassezia or its metabolites.
  • #80 Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347661/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. […] Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. […] Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
  • #81 SciELO Brazil – Pitiríase Versicolor Pitiríase Versicolor
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/dtycs4DqQTZ3mxB6mMKGSbr/?lang=en
    It has been suggested that the lipoperoxidation process produced by Pityrosporum could be responsible for the clinical hypopigmented appearance of lesioned skin. […] The pathogenesis of hyperpigmentation in PV is not entirely understood. Two theories have been presented: (I) thickening of the keratine layer; and (II) presence of intense cellular inflamed infiltrate, which acts like a stimulus for melanocytes to produce more pigment, leading to an increase in the size of melanosomes and distribution changes in the epidermis. […] After treatment, the affected area remained hypopigmented for a variable period of time. The mechanism of hypopigmentation has not been well established yet. But ultrastructural studies show severe damage to melanoctyes, which varies from melanosomes and altered mitochondria up to degeneration.
  • #82
    https://journals.lww.com/pigi/fulltext/2014/01010/the_enigma_of_color_in_tinea_versicolor.11.aspx
    It appears then, that the presence of the fungus in the skin initiates the production of abnormal melanosome granules and possibly the faulty transfer of these granules to the keratinocytes. The mechanism for this is unknown. […] Other theories of hypopigmentation include damage to melanocytes and inhibition of tyrosinase by dicarboxylic acid, especially azelaic acid, produced by Malassezia furfur. […] Hyperpigmentation, on the other hand, has been explained by abnormally large melanosomes, a thick stratum corneum, and a hyperemic inflammatory response. […] In a recent study, the ratio between keratinocytes and Malassezia was shown to be important, with the latter inhibiting the growth rate of keratinocytes. […] The various theories of hypo- and hyper-pigmentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. […] Tinea versicolor is a common disease encountered by dermatologists, which produces pigmentary changes in skin through hitherto unknown mechanisms.
  • #83 SciELO Brazil – Pitiríase Versicolor Pitiríase Versicolor
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/dtycs4DqQTZ3mxB6mMKGSbr/?lang=en
    It has been suggested that the lipoperoxidation process produced by Pityrosporum could be responsible for the clinical hypopigmented appearance of lesioned skin. […] The pathogenesis of hyperpigmentation in PV is not entirely understood. Two theories have been presented: (I) thickening of the keratine layer; and (II) presence of intense cellular inflamed infiltrate, which acts like a stimulus for melanocytes to produce more pigment, leading to an increase in the size of melanosomes and distribution changes in the epidermis. […] After treatment, the affected area remained hypopigmented for a variable period of time. The mechanism of hypopigmentation has not been well established yet. But ultrastructural studies show severe damage to melanoctyes, which varies from melanosomes and altered mitochondria up to degeneration.
  • #84 SciELO Brazil – Pitiríase Versicolor Pitiríase Versicolor
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/dtycs4DqQTZ3mxB6mMKGSbr/?lang=en
    It has been suggested that the lipoperoxidation process produced by Pityrosporum could be responsible for the clinical hypopigmented appearance of lesioned skin. […] The pathogenesis of hyperpigmentation in PV is not entirely understood. Two theories have been presented: (I) thickening of the keratine layer; and (II) presence of intense cellular inflamed infiltrate, which acts like a stimulus for melanocytes to produce more pigment, leading to an increase in the size of melanosomes and distribution changes in the epidermis. […] After treatment, the affected area remained hypopigmented for a variable period of time. The mechanism of hypopigmentation has not been well established yet. But ultrastructural studies show severe damage to melanoctyes, which varies from melanosomes and altered mitochondria up to degeneration.
  • #85 Pityriasis versicolor. Tinea versicolor
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pityriasis-versicolor
    Pityriasis versicolor is caused by mycelial growth of fungi of the genus Malassezia. […] Usually malassezia grow sparsely in the seborrhoeic areas (scalp, face and chest) without causing a rash. It is not known why they sometimes grow more actively on the skin surface to form pityriasis versicolor. One theory implicates a tryptophan-dependent metabolic pathway. […] The yeasts induce enlarged melanosomes (pigment granules) within basal melanocytes in the brown type of pityriasis versicolor. […] The white or hypopigmented type of pityriasis versicolor is thought to be due to a chemical produced by malassezia that diffuses into the epidermis and impairs the function of the melanocytes. […] The pink type of pityriasis versicolor is mildly inflamed, due to dermatitis induced by malassezia or its metabolites.
  • #86 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Research has suggested a reduced body response to the specific fungal elements that produce tinea versicolor. […] In various studies, defects in lymphokine production and natural killer T cells were found; phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A) stimulation was decreased; and interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and interferon (IFN) gamma production by lymphocytes was decreased in affected patients. […] In patients with hypopigmentation, tyrosinase inhibitors competitively inhibit an enzyme necessary for melanocyte pigment formation. […] In hyperpigmented macules, the organism induces enlargement of melanosomes made by melanocytes in the basal layer of the epidermis.
  • #87 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast.
  • #88 Tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/tinea-versicolor-pityriasis-versicolor/print
    Although the reasons for pigmentary variation in tinea versicolor are unconfirmed, theories have been proposed. Patients with hypopigmented tinea versicolor often notice that the disorder is most prominent during the summer, when the affected areas fail to tan after sun exposure. Inhibitory or damaging effects on melanocytes by azelaic acid (a dicarboxylic acid produced by Malassezia) may play a role in the development of hypopigmentation. Hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions may be a consequence of an inflammatory reaction to the yeast. […] External factors suspected of contributing to the transformation of Malassezia from yeast cells to a pathogenic, mycelial form include exposure to hot and humid weather, hyperhidrosis, and the use of topical skin oils. Tinea versicolor is not related to poor hygiene.
  • #89 Pityriasis versicolor. Tinea versicolor
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pityriasis-versicolor
    Pityriasis versicolor is caused by mycelial growth of fungi of the genus Malassezia. […] Usually malassezia grow sparsely in the seborrhoeic areas (scalp, face and chest) without causing a rash. It is not known why they sometimes grow more actively on the skin surface to form pityriasis versicolor. One theory implicates a tryptophan-dependent metabolic pathway. […] The yeasts induce enlarged melanosomes (pigment granules) within basal melanocytes in the brown type of pityriasis versicolor. […] The white or hypopigmented type of pityriasis versicolor is thought to be due to a chemical produced by malassezia that diffuses into the epidermis and impairs the function of the melanocytes. […] The pink type of pityriasis versicolor is mildly inflamed, due to dermatitis induced by malassezia or its metabolites.
  • #90 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Oxidative stress as shown by expression of reduced glutathione contributes to the pathogenesis of this condition. […] In steroid-associated atrophying tinea versicolor, the Malassezia infecting the epidermis may impair the barrier function of skin, thus allowing improved penetration of topical corticosteroids. This may lead to enhanced corticosteroid-induced atrophy of the affected skin. However, as atrophying tinea versicolor has been reported in patients who have not used topical steroids, it has been proposed that a T-cell-mediated immune response to the Malassezia organism may be responsible for the atrophy noted. This theory suggests that Th1 cytokines recruit histiocytes to the site of epidermal infection. These histiocytes serve as a source of elastases and they up-regulate the metalloproteinase activity, ultimately leading to atrophy of the affected epidermis.
  • #91 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    Malassezia species exist as normal flora on human skin but can convert to a pathogenic state in response to a number of host and environmental factors ultimately resulting in tinea versicolor (TV). […] We believe this biofilm formation is potentially responsible for both the pathogenesis and the chronicity of this infection. […] Herein, we hypothesize that biofilm formation by Malassezia species is potential mechanism behind its transformation from normal skin flora to pathogen and subsequent expression as TV. […] In response to the aforementioned factors, Malassezia enters a pathogenic state and clinically manifests as TV. […] The main action of these phospholipases is to permit adhesion to the skin, the first step in infection. […] We hypothesize that biofilm formation contributes to the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. in TV.
  • #92 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    Malassezia species exist as normal flora on human skin but can convert to a pathogenic state in response to a number of host and environmental factors ultimately resulting in tinea versicolor (TV). […] We believe this biofilm formation is potentially responsible for both the pathogenesis and the chronicity of this infection. […] Herein, we hypothesize that biofilm formation by Malassezia species is potential mechanism behind its transformation from normal skin flora to pathogen and subsequent expression as TV. […] In response to the aforementioned factors, Malassezia enters a pathogenic state and clinically manifests as TV. […] The main action of these phospholipases is to permit adhesion to the skin, the first step in infection. […] We hypothesize that biofilm formation contributes to the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. in TV.
  • #93 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    The second hit is environmental in this case, the presence of Malassezia spp. in anatomically vulnerable areas of the skin. […] This leads to the main difference in the biofilms produced in TV versus AD: they, apparently, do not trigger the innate immune system and thus do not initiate any pathological inflammation. […] It is therefore necessary to utilize biofilm-dispersing agents periodically in treating TV if we are to successfully prevent chronic disease.
  • #94 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    The second hit is environmental in this case, the presence of Malassezia spp. in anatomically vulnerable areas of the skin. […] This leads to the main difference in the biofilms produced in TV versus AD: they, apparently, do not trigger the innate immune system and thus do not initiate any pathological inflammation. […] It is therefore necessary to utilize biofilm-dispersing agents periodically in treating TV if we are to successfully prevent chronic disease.
  • #95 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Oxidative stress as shown by expression of reduced glutathione contributes to the pathogenesis of this condition. […] In steroid-associated atrophying tinea versicolor, the Malassezia infecting the epidermis may impair the barrier function of skin, thus allowing improved penetration of topical corticosteroids. This may lead to enhanced corticosteroid-induced atrophy of the affected skin. However, as atrophying tinea versicolor has been reported in patients who have not used topical steroids, it has been proposed that a T-cell-mediated immune response to the Malassezia organism may be responsible for the atrophy noted. This theory suggests that Th1 cytokines recruit histiocytes to the site of epidermal infection. These histiocytes serve as a source of elastases and they up-regulate the metalloproteinase activity, ultimately leading to atrophy of the affected epidermis.
  • #96 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Oxidative stress as shown by expression of reduced glutathione contributes to the pathogenesis of this condition. […] In steroid-associated atrophying tinea versicolor, the Malassezia infecting the epidermis may impair the barrier function of skin, thus allowing improved penetration of topical corticosteroids. This may lead to enhanced corticosteroid-induced atrophy of the affected skin. However, as atrophying tinea versicolor has been reported in patients who have not used topical steroids, it has been proposed that a T-cell-mediated immune response to the Malassezia organism may be responsible for the atrophy noted. This theory suggests that Th1 cytokines recruit histiocytes to the site of epidermal infection. These histiocytes serve as a source of elastases and they up-regulate the metalloproteinase activity, ultimately leading to atrophy of the affected epidermis.
  • #97 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    A study from 2020 found a statistically significant relationship between Helicobacter pylori infection and tinea versicolor, proposing H pylori infection as an etiologic factor for this fungal infection, although this has not been verified in larger studies and the controls population with telogen effluvium was not clearly demographically matched.
  • #98 Study on Pityriasis versicolor in Patients Referred to Clinics in Tabriz
    https://brieflands.com/articles/jjm-18572
    Tinea versicolor is a superficial mycosis caused by Malassezia furfur, and is exclusively localized in the corneal layer of adults epidermis. […] Malassezia Sp. and particularly M. globosa and M. furfur are a part of the normal skin flora and recognized as the etiologic agents of tinea versicolor. This fungus has also been associated with a variety of mycoses with different clinical demonstrations. […] The causative fungus being found mainly in the seborrheic areas of the body plays a major role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis to excite immunological reactions. […] During the pathogenesis or tinea versicolor, changes in skin color is a common symptom. […] Based on these considerations and some other studies the data has emphasized the role of age, gender, skin grease, personal health and visiting public (local) saunas on the development of tinea versicolor. […] It has been clearly established that, concerning the natural presence of M. globosa and M. furfur as a member of the normal human cutaneous flora in adults, occurrence of the disease depends on complex situations.
  • #99 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #100 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #101
    https://cmro.in/index.php/jcmro/article/view/679
    Tinea versicolor is a skin disorder that is due to an overgrowth of the saprophytic fungi Malassezia sp. It causes lighter or darker patches on the skin. […] Pityriasis alba and tinea versicolor may look similar, but their causes differ. […] Finally, confirmative diagnosis of tinea versicolor was supported by the clinical appearance of lesions (hypopigmented, scaly macules), on the presence of greenish-yellow fluorescence under Wood’s lamp, and on direct microscopic examination of scales. […] The similarity of the two skin conditions requires a Wood’s lamp test and confirmatory mycological diagnosis.
  • #102 Tinea versicolor | Johns Hopkins ABX Guide
    https://www.hopkinsguide.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_ABX_Guide/540553/all/Tinea_versicolor?q=Miconazole
    Malassezia furfur (formerly Pityrosporum) is the pathogen in most cases. […] Growth of these yeasts in cultures requires special media. […] CHROMagar Malassezia medium is commercially available and isolates the most common Malassezia species.
  • #103 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Tinea versicolor is caused by Malassezia, a dimorphic lipophilic fungus previously known as Pityrosporum. Malassezia is a component of the normal skin flora. Clinical disease develops when Malassezia transforms from yeast into its mycelial form. Researchers have identified 14 species of Malassezia to date. The primary species responsible for tinea versicolor are Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis, with M. globosa being the most prevalent. […] Malassezia is normally present on healthy skin, primarily in oily regions like the face, scalp, and back. However, if it transforms into its pathogenic filamentous form, it can cause tinea versicolor. The precise elements in the host’s environment that trigger tinea versicolor still need to be clarified. Although experimental inoculations using topical oils and occlusion have proven successful, tinea versicolor is not contagious.
  • #104 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Malassezia is a dimorphic yeast-like fungus. It causes PV only in its pathogenic, filamentous (hyphal) form. Factors favouring the conversion from the yeast-like form include a hot and humid environment, hyperhidrosis, the application of oily emollients, using protective face masks, seborrhoea, endocrine and neuropathic disorders, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and corticosteroids, malnutrition, poor general health, and genetic predisposition. […] Malassezia produces virulence factors and toxins that contribute to its pathogenicity. However, in its commensal relationship, Malassezia collects nutrients from the human host without causing negative effects. Furthermore, the concept of mutualism arises when fungal skin colonisation by Malassezia provides protection against potentially pathogenic microbes, such as S. aureus.
  • #105 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    The organism is lipophilic, and lipids are essential for growth in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the mycelial stage can be induced in vitro by the addition of cholesterol and cholesterol esters to the appropriate medium. Because the organism more rapidly colonizes humans during puberty when skin lipids are increased more than that of adolescent levels and tinea versicolor is manifested in sebum-rich areas (eg, chest, back), individual variations in skin surface lipids are hypothesized to play a major role in disease pathogenesis. However, patients with tinea versicolor and control subjects do not demonstrate any quantitative or qualitative differences in skin surface lipids. Skin surface lipids are significant for the normal presence of M furfur on human skin, but they probably play little role in the pathogenesis of tinea versicolor.
  • #106 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #107 Pityriasis Versicolor—A Narrative Review on the Diagnosis and Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/13/10/2097
    Understanding the role of Malassezia as a direct and indirect cause of PV (via its multifaceted interaction with the skin) is challenging. It is suspected that one of the possible causes for Malassezia virulence is the individual genetic susceptibility. […] With mild barrier defects, the fungus has a potential to produce hypo- or hyperpigmented patches by interacting with melanocytes. Depigmented lesions develop through enzymatic inhibition of melanocyte tyrosinase activity by azelaic acid produced by the microorganism. […] Other important virulence factors of Malassezia include the production of phospholipase, lipase, acid sphingomyelinases (responsible for sebum lipid degradation), haemolysin, and the ability to produce a biofilm. […] It has been suggested that enzymatic patterns and biofilm formation, along with antifungal susceptibility profiles, play a key role in the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. and may explain the involvement of particular species in invasive infections.
  • #108 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #109 Tinea Versicolor: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1091575-overview
    Evidence has been accumulating to suggest that amino acids, rather than lipids, are critical for the appearance of the diseased state. In vitro, the amino acid asparagine stimulates the growth of the organism, while another amino acid, glycine, induces hyphal formation. In vivo, the amino acid levels have been shown to be increased in the uninvolved skin of patients with tinea versicolor in two separate studies. The gene MGL_3741 has been reported in a study to play a role in amino acid biosynthesis pathways in M globosa, which are an important source of carbon and nitrogen for yeast. This gene has been proposed as potentially increasing the pathogenicity of M globosa. […] Another significant causative factor is the patient’s immune system. Although sensitization against M furfur antigens is routinely present in the general population (as proven by lymphocyte transformation studies), lymphocyte function on stimulation with the organism has been shown to be impaired in patients who are affected. This outcome is similar to the situation of sensitization with Candida albicans. In short, cell-mediated immunity plays some role in disease causation.
  • #110 Pediatric Tinea Versicolor: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/911138-overview
    Research has suggested a reduced body response to the specific fungal elements that produce tinea versicolor. […] In various studies, defects in lymphokine production and natural killer T cells were found; phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A) stimulation was decreased; and interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and interferon (IFN) gamma production by lymphocytes was decreased in affected patients. […] In patients with hypopigmentation, tyrosinase inhibitors competitively inhibit an enzyme necessary for melanocyte pigment formation. […] In hyperpigmented macules, the organism induces enlargement of melanosomes made by melanocytes in the basal layer of the epidermis.
  • #111 Tinea Versicolor – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482500/
    Environmental factors like heat and humidity, pregnancy, oily skin, and applying oily lotions and creams increase the risk of tinea versicolor. Genetic predisposition and a hereditary component may play a role. A survey found that 21% of patients with tinea versicolor reported a positive family history. Immunocompromised individuals are at an increased risk of developing tinea versicolor, suggesting that an altered immune response in the host may play a role in the condition’s etiology. Malnutrition and the use of oral contraceptives may also act as risk factors. […] The word „versicolor” was coined to describe the condition because of the potential for alterations in cutaneous pigmentation. While the specific causes of pigmentary variation remain unknown, several hypotheses exist. The symptoms of hypopigmented tinea versicolor, in which the skin does not darken in response to sun exposure, are generally most noticeable in the summer. Azelaic acid, a dicarboxylic acid generated by Malassezia, may have a role in the etiology of hypopigmentation due to its inhibitory or harmful actions on melanocytes. An inflammatory response to the yeast could cause hyperpigmented and erythematous lesions.
  • #112
    https://journals.lww.com/pigi/fulltext/2014/01010/the_enigma_of_color_in_tinea_versicolor.11.aspx
    It appears then, that the presence of the fungus in the skin initiates the production of abnormal melanosome granules and possibly the faulty transfer of these granules to the keratinocytes. The mechanism for this is unknown. […] Other theories of hypopigmentation include damage to melanocytes and inhibition of tyrosinase by dicarboxylic acid, especially azelaic acid, produced by Malassezia furfur. […] Hyperpigmentation, on the other hand, has been explained by abnormally large melanosomes, a thick stratum corneum, and a hyperemic inflammatory response. […] In a recent study, the ratio between keratinocytes and Malassezia was shown to be important, with the latter inhibiting the growth rate of keratinocytes. […] The various theories of hypo- and hyper-pigmentation are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. […] Tinea versicolor is a common disease encountered by dermatologists, which produces pigmentary changes in skin through hitherto unknown mechanisms.
  • #113 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    Malassezia species exist as normal flora on human skin but can convert to a pathogenic state in response to a number of host and environmental factors ultimately resulting in tinea versicolor (TV). […] We believe this biofilm formation is potentially responsible for both the pathogenesis and the chronicity of this infection. […] Herein, we hypothesize that biofilm formation by Malassezia species is potential mechanism behind its transformation from normal skin flora to pathogen and subsequent expression as TV. […] In response to the aforementioned factors, Malassezia enters a pathogenic state and clinically manifests as TV. […] The main action of these phospholipases is to permit adhesion to the skin, the first step in infection. […] We hypothesize that biofilm formation contributes to the pathogenicity of Malassezia spp. in TV.
  • #114 Biofilm Formation by Malassezia Furfur/Ovale as a Possible Mechan
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/biofilm-formation-by-emmalassezia-furfurovaleem-as-a-possible-mechanism-of-pathogenesis-in-tinea-versicolor-12881.html
    The second hit is environmental in this case, the presence of Malassezia spp. in anatomically vulnerable areas of the skin. […] This leads to the main difference in the biofilms produced in TV versus AD: they, apparently, do not trigger the innate immune system and thus do not initiate any pathological inflammation. […] It is therefore necessary to utilize biofilm-dispersing agents periodically in treating TV if we are to successfully prevent chronic disease.
  • #115 Tinea Versicolor – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Tinea versicolor is skin infection with Malassezia furfur that manifests as multiple asymptomatic scaly patches varying in color from white to tan to brown to pink. […] Factors that may predispose to tinea versicolor include heat and humidity and immunosuppression due to corticosteroids, pregnancy, undernutrition, diabetes, or other disorders. […] Hypopigmentation in tinea versicolor is due to the inhibition of tyrosinase caused by M. furfur production of azelaic acid. […] Diagnosis of tinea versicolor is based on clinical appearance and by identification of hyphae and budding cells (spaghetti and meatballs) on potassium hydroxide wet mount of fine scale scrapings. […] A Wood light examination reveals golden-white fluorescence. […] Hypopigmentation resulting from tinea versicolor is reversible in months to years after the yeast has cleared. […] Recurrence is almost universal after treatment because the causative organism is a normal skin inhabitant.
  • #116 Tinea Versicolor – Skin Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/skin-disorders/fungal-skin-infections/tinea-versicolor
    Doctors may use an ultraviolet light (called a Wood light) to show the infection on the skin more clearly. […] Any antifungal medications applied directly to the affected areas (topical) may be used to treat tinea versicolor. […] Antifungal medications taken by mouth, such as fluconazole, are sometimes used to treat people who have a widespread infection. […] Tinea versicolor commonly comes back after successful treatment because the yeast that causes it normally lives on the skin.