Choroba zastawki płucnej
Epidemiologia

Choroba zastawki płucnej, głównie o podłożu wrodzonym, jest rzadkim schorzeniem w populacji dorosłych, z izolowanym zwężeniem zastawki płucnej stanowiącym 7-12% wszystkich wrodzonych wad serca i występującym u około 1 na 1500 żywych urodzeń. Stenoza zastawki płucnej nie wykazuje predylekcji płciowej (stosunek M:K 1:1) i jest diagnozowana w różnym wieku w zależności od nasilenia niedrożności, od noworodków do dzieci z bezobjawowymi szmerami. Niedomykalność zastawki płucnej (PR) ma bimodalny rozkład wiekowy, z pierwszym szczytem u młodych pacjentów z wadami wrodzonymi lub po operacjach korekcyjnych, a drugim u osób w wieku 50-60 lat z nadciśnieniem płucnym. Umiarkowana PR dotyczy 0,11% dorosłych, z dominującą etiologią nadciśnienia płucnego (77% przypadków), natomiast ciężka PR ma podłoże wrodzone lub jatrogenne w 52% i nadciśnienie płucne w 39% przypadków.

  1. Wprowadzenie do choroby zastawki płucnej
  2. Epidemiologia stenozy zastawki płucnej
    1. Częstość występowania
    2. Rozkład demograficzny
    3. Rokowanie i następstwa kliniczne
  3. Epidemiologia niedomykalności zastawki płucnej
    1. Rozpowszechnienie
  4. Genetyczne uwarunkowania choroby zastawki płucnej
    1. Związki z zespołami genetycznymi
  5. Globalne zróżnicowanie choroby zastawki płucnej
    1. Kraje rozwinięte vs. rozwijające się
    2. Choroba reumatyczna serca
  6. Nadzór i monitorowanie choroby zastawki płucnej
    1. Standaryzacja opieki
    2. Ryzyko nawrotu
    3. Nowe zagrożenia: COVID-19
  7. Trendy w leczeniu i zarządzaniu
    1. Kolejne rozdziały

Wprowadzenie do choroby zastawki płucnej

Choroba zastawki płucnej stanowi stosunkowo rzadkie schorzenie w populacji ogólnej, przy czym większość przypadków ma charakter wrodzony. Wady zastawki płucnej są najrzadziej występującymi wadami zastawkowymi serca u dorosłych, a wrodzone wady serca stanowią zdecydowaną większość wszystkich problemów z zastawką płucną.12 Choroba zastawki płucnej może przybierać formę zwężenia (stenoza) lub niedomykalności (regurgitacja), przy czym każda z nich ma swoją unikalną charakterystykę epidemiologiczną i obraz kliniczny.

Epidemiologia stenozy zastawki płucnej

Izolowane zwężenie zastawki płucnej stanowi 7-12% wszystkich wrodzonych wad serca.12 U dorosłych stenoza zastawki płucnej reprezentuje około 15% wszystkich wrodzonych wad serca.3 Izolowane zwężenie zastawki płucnej z nienaruszonym przegrodą międzykomorową jest drugą najczęstszą wrodzoną wadą serca u dzieci i może występować nawet u 50% wszystkich pacjentów z wrodzonymi wadami serca w połączeniu z innymi wrodzonymi zmianami kardiologicznymi.4

Częstość występowania

Częstość urodzeń z izolowanym zwężeniem zastawki płucnej wynosi od 1 na 2000 do 1 na 10 000 w Europie i stanowi od 5 do 8% dzieci urodzonych z wrodzoną wadą serca na całym świecie.5 Stenoza zastawki płucnej występuje u około 1 na 1500 żywych urodzeń, przy czym około 95% przypadków ma charakter wrodzony.6 Izolowane zwężenie zastawki płucnej stwierdza się u 8-10% pacjentów z wrodzoną wadą serca.7

Rozkład demograficzny

Zwężenie zastawki płucnej nie wykazuje preferencji płciowych, a stosunek mężczyzn do kobiet wynosi 1:1.89 Wiek pacjenta w momencie zdiagnozowania jest związany z nasileniem niedrożności. Jeśli zwężenie jest ciężkie, pacjenci mogą zgłaszać się w okresie noworodkowym lub w niemowlęctwie. Pacjenci z łagodną niedrożnością mogą zgłaszać się w dzieciństwie z bezobjawowymi szmerami.10 Nie obserwuje się istotnych różnic rasowych w występowaniu zwężenia zastawki płucnej.11

Według niektórych badań, rozkład etniczny stenozy zastawki płucnej przedstawia się następująco: Afroamerykanie (46,5%), Latynosi (33,1%) i osoby rasy kaukaskiej (20,4%).12

Rokowanie i następstwa kliniczne

Jeżeli stenoza zastawki płucnej zostanie zdiagnozowana przed pierwszym rokiem życia, pacjent jest uważany za należącego do grupy wysokiego ryzyka i musi być poddany ścisłej obserwacji przez całe życie, w tym musi być podłączony do regionalnego ośrodka specjalistycznego leczenia wrodzonych wad serca.13 Wyniki leczenia pacjentów ze zwężeniem zastawki płucnej są zwykle determinowane przez ciężkość zmiany i wiek pacjenta w momencie diagnozy.14

Epidemiologia niedomykalności zastawki płucnej

Niedomykalność zastawki płucnej (PR) charakteryzuje się bimodalną krzywą wieku-częstości występowania, odzwierciedlającą dwie najczęstsze przyczyny:15

  • Pierwszy szczyt występuje u młodych pacjentów, którzy mają PR jako wadę wrodzoną lub u których rozwija się PR po operacji we wczesnym okresie życia w celu skorygowania wrodzonej wady PR.
  • Drugi szczyt występuje u starszych pacjentów (w przybliżeniu 50-60 lat), u których PR jest skutkiem nadciśnienia płucnego.

1617

Rozpowszechnienie

Rozpowszechnienie łagodnej PR wśród pacjentów z prawidłową anatomią zastawki płucnej wynosi od 40% do 78%.18 Wśród pacjentów urodzonych z wrodzoną wadą serca, 20% pacjentów ma związane z nią nieprawidłowości zastawki płucnej lub niedrożność wylotu prawej komory.19

Umiarkowana do ciężkiej niedomykalność płucna dotyka około 0,11% dorosłych (w porównaniu do 0,67% w przypadku niedomykalności trójdzielnej).20 Mediana wieku w momencie diagnozy wynosi 77 lat, a rozkład płci jest prawie równy między mężczyznami i kobietami.21

Niedomykalność zastawki płucnej ma następujące charakterystyki epidemiologiczne w zależności od nasilenia:22

  • Umiarkowana PR: 77% przypadków wynika z nadciśnienia płucnego
  • Ciężka PR: 52% przypadków ma podłoże wrodzone lub jatrogenne, a 39% wynika z nadciśnienia płucnego

Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, wtórna niedomykalność zastawki płucnej jest częstsza niż pierwotna niedomykalność zastawki płucnej.23 Wrodzona niedomykalność zastawki płucnej (izolowana) jest rzadka.24

Genetyczne uwarunkowania choroby zastawki płucnej

Choroby zastawki płucnej, w szczególności stenoza, często mają podłoże genetyczne. Około 56% pacjentów ze zwężeniem zastawki płucnej ma współistniejące choroby pozasercowe i zaburzenia neurorozwojowe. W takich przypadkach diagnoza molekularna jest bardziej powszechna.25

Związki z zespołami genetycznymi

Najważniejsze związki genetyczne ze stenozą zastawki płucnej obejmują:26

  • Zespół Noonana – mutacja PTPN11 jest identyfikowana u 50% pacjentów ze zwężeniem zastawki płucnej i zespołem Noonana.27 To autosomalnie dominujące zaburzenie wrodzone, dotykające 1:1000 do 1:2500 żywych urodzeń, charakteryzuje się wadami serca, w tym zwężeniem zastawki płucnej i kardiomiopatią przerostową. Główną przyczyną zespołu Noonana są mutacje zwiększające funkcję genów kodujących komponenty lub regulatory szlaku transdukcji sygnału RAS/MAPK. Geny najczęściej zaangażowane w zespół Noonana to PTPN11 (występujący u około połowy pacjentów z zespołem Noonana), a także inne, takie jak SOS1, RAF1, KRAS, NRAS i RIT1.
  • Tetralogia Fallota (TOF) – jest najczęstszą wrodzoną nieprawidłowością serca, która jest również związana ze zwężeniem zastawki płucnej. Tetralogia Fallota może być powiązana z podaortowym zwężeniem płucnym, wadą zamykającą region lejkowy, która może być wtórna do przerostu prawej komory.28
  • Zespół Williamsa – stosunkowo rzadkie zaburzenie genetyczne charakteryzujące się kilkoma cechami, a jednym z częstych stanów związanych z tym zespołem są wrodzone wady serca. Nadzastawkowe zwężenie płucne jest jednym z najbardziej rozpowszechnionych, dotykającym około 45,1% osób z zespołem Williamsa.29

Opisano również rodzinną formę niezwiązanego z zespołem zwężenia zastawki płucnej, która prawdopodobnie jest związana z mutacjami GATA4.30

Globalne zróżnicowanie choroby zastawki płucnej

Występowanie chorób zastawki płucnej wykazuje znaczące różnice geograficzne i socjoekonomiczne, odzwierciedlając zróżnicowaną etiologię i dostęp do opieki zdrowotnej.31

Kraje rozwinięte vs. rozwijające się

W regionach przemysłowo rozwiniętych dominują choroby starczego wieku, szczególnie zwapniające zwężenie aortalne i funkcjonalna niedomykalność mitralna.32 Choroba zastawki płucnej jest jednak zwykle rozpoznawana w pierwszej dekadzie życia, co odzwierciedla jej wrodzone podłoże.33

W krajach rozwijających się:34

  • Nadciśnienie płucne (PAH) wynika głównie z choroby reumatycznej serca, schistosomatozy, wrodzonej wady serca i chorób hemolitycznych
  • PAH jest główną przyczyną wtórnej niedomykalności zastawki płucnej
  • Obciążenie PAH jest większe w krajach rozwijających się niż w krajach rozwiniętych

W krajach rozwiniętych, takich jak Stany Zjednoczone:35

  • Nadciśnienie płucne wynika głównie z choroby lewego serca
  • Inne schorzenia powodujące PAH obejmują niedokrwistość sierpowatokrwinkową, zator płucny i przewlekłą obturacyjną chorobę płuc
  • PAH jest główną przyczyną wtórnej niedomykalności zastawki płucnej

Choroba reumatyczna serca

Choroba reumatyczna jest najczęstszą przyczyną wad zastawkowych u młodych osób na całym świecie, z szacowaną częstością występowania wynoszącą 15,6-19,6 miliona.36 Chociaż reumatyczne zwężenie zastawki płucnej jest dość rzadkie, to gdy występuje, jest zwykle związane z reumatyczną chorobą innych zastawek serca.37

W regionie Thoothukudi w Indiach zaobserwowano zwiększoną częstość występowania reumatycznej choroby zastawki płucnej. Izolowane reumatyczne zajęcie zastawki płucnej obserwuje się u dzieci poniżej 15 roku życia w strefie tropikalnej Thoothukudi w Indiach. Większość pacjentów ma łagodne do umiarkowanego zwężenie płucne bez zajęcia innych zastawek serca.3839

Nadzór i monitorowanie choroby zastawki płucnej

Monitorowanie i nadzór nad chorobą zastawki płucnej jest istotnym elementem zarządzania tą chorobą, zwłaszcza ze względu na jej potencjalne długoterminowe następstwa.40

Standaryzacja opieki

Istnieje duża zmienność w praktyce klinicznej w zakresie nadzoru nad pacjentami z chorobą zastawki płucnej i ich dalszego postępowania, prawdopodobnie z powodu braku wytycznych opartych na dowodach, szczególnie u pacjentów pediatrycznych. Aby zminimalizować zróżnicowanie praktyk i odpowiednio wykorzystać zasoby medyczne, niezbędne jest standardowe i systematyczne podejście do oceny i leczenia.41

Algorytmy praktyki klinicznej dla zwężenia zastawki płucnej mogą być wykorzystywane przez lekarzy i personel medyczny jako narzędzie wspomagające podejmowanie decyzji. Standardowe i systematyczne podejście ma na celu zmniejszenie zmienności praktyk i poprawę wykorzystania zasobów.42

Ryzyko nawrotu

Ryzyko nawrotu izolowanego stenoza zastawki płucnej jest niskie i waha się od 1,7 do 3,7%. Względne ryzyko nawrotu niedrożności drogi wypływu prawej komory jako całości jest wysokie i wynosi 48,6%.43 Około 1-2% rodzeństwa pacjentów ze zwężeniem płucnym będzie również miało wrodzoną wadę serca.44

Nowe zagrożenia: COVID-19

Pacjenci cierpiący na długotrwałe powikłania po COVID-19 mogą wykazywać utrzymujący się stan zapalny w sercu i płucach przez okres do roku po zakażeniu SARS-CoV-2, nawet gdy standardowe badania medyczne dają normalne wyniki. To może potencjalnie narażać ich na podwyższone ryzyko przyszłych schorzeń sercowych i płucnych.4546

Te nieprawidłowości mogą służyć jako wczesne sygnały ostrzegawcze takich chorób jak niewydolność serca, choroba zastawkowa serca i nadciśnienie płucne. Badacze uważają, że długotrwały COVID-19 powoduje odpowiedź zapalną, która może predysponować pacjentów do przedwczesnej choroby wieńcowej, nadciśnienia płucnego i uszkodzenia zastawek, takiego jak stenoza lub niedomykalność.4748

Zespół badawczy z Mount Sinai kontynuuje obserwację tej kohorty pacjentów w celu oceny długoterminowych wyników i bada, czy te wzorce obrazowania i biomarkerów mogą pomóc przewidzieć, kto jest najbardziej narażony na rozwój przewlekłej choroby sercowo-naczyniowej lub płucnej po COVID-19.4950

Trendy w leczeniu i zarządzaniu

Globalny rynek zastawek płucnych przezcewnikowych odnotował znaczący wzrost w ostatnich latach, napędzany postępami w minimalnie inwazyjnych procedurach sercowo-naczyniowych. Zastawki płucne przezcewnikowe są stosowane w leczeniu pacjentów z chorobami zastawki płucnej, zwłaszcza tych z wrodzonymi wadami serca lub dysfunkcją zastawki płucnej po operacji.51

Ekspansja rynku wynika głównie ze wzrostu częstości występowania chorób związanych z sercem i rosnącej preferencji dla mniej inwazyjnych opcji leczenia. Wzrost zapotrzebowania na procedury zastawki płucnej przezcewnikowej jest bezpośrednio związany ze wzrostem liczby pacjentów wymagających tych interwencji, co napędza wzrost rynku.52

Wielodyscyplinarne podejście jest zalecane dla wszystkich typów chorób zastawkowych serca i zostało formalnie zatwierdzone przez kilka towarzystw naukowych. Centralna rola specjalisty od chorób zastawkowych serca została podkreślona zarówno przez amerykańskie, jak i europejskie wytyczne.53

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  1. 11.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Pulmonary Valve Disease | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/pulmonary-valve-disease
    Pulmonary valve disease is rare. […] Congenital disease represents the majority of all pulmonary valve problems.
  • #1 Pulmonary Stenosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560750/
    Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis accounts for 7% to 12% of congenital heart diseases. […] Extracardiac and neurodevelopmental comorbidities affect approximately 56% of patients with pulmonary stenosis. In such cases, a molecular diagnosis is more common. For example, the PTPN11 mutation is identified in 50% of patients with pulmonary stenosis and Noonan syndrome. […] Moreover, a familial form of nonsyndromic pulmonary stenosis has been described and is suspected to be related to GATA4 mutations. Pulmonary stenosis does not seem to have any gender predilection.
  • #2 Valvular heart diseases – Knowledge @ AMBOSS
    https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/valvular-heart-diseases/
    Pulmonary valve defects: rare outside of congenital conditions. […] Pulmonary valve: Congenital […] Pulmonary hypertension (e.g., tetralogy of Fallot, ventricular septal defects).
  • #2 Clinical Practice Algorithm For the Follow-Up of Pulmonary Stenosis Pre- and Post-Intervention
    https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2023/05/16/10/31/Clinical-Practice-Algorithm-For-the-Follow-Up-of-Pulmonary-Stenosis-Pre-and-Post-Intervention
    Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) is one of the most common types of congenital heart disease (CHD), accounting for 7-12% of all CHD. Outcomes in patients with PS are usually determined by the severity of the lesion and patient age at time of diagnosis. […] There is wide variation in clinical practice in these patients’ surveillance and subsequent management, likely due to lack of evidence-based guidelines, particularly in pediatric patients. To minimize practice variation and appropriately utilize medical resources, a standardized and systematic approach is essential for evaluation and treatment. […] The PS clinical practice algorithms can be utilized by physicians and healthcare providers as a support tool for decision making. A standardized and systematic approach aims to reduce practice variation and improve resource utilization. The clinical application of the algorithms can form the basis for multicenter research to evaluate the impact on patient outcomes.
  • #3 Valvar Pulmonary Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/891729-overview
    Pulmonary stenosis represents 8-12% of all congenital heart defects in children. In adults, pulmonary stenosis represents approximately 15% of all congenital heart defects. Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis with an intact ventricular septum is the second most common congenital cardiac defect in children. It may occur in as many as 50% of all patients with congenital heart disease associated with other congenital cardiac lesions. […] Racial difference in the prevalence of pulmonary stenosis is unlikely. The male-to-female ratio is 1:1. The patient’s age at presentation is related to the severity of the obstruction. If the stenosis is severe, patients may present in the neonatal period or in infancy. Patients with mild obstruction may present in childhood with asymptomatic murmurs.
  • #4 Valvar Pulmonary Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/891729-overview
    Pulmonary stenosis represents 8-12% of all congenital heart defects in children. In adults, pulmonary stenosis represents approximately 15% of all congenital heart defects. Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis with an intact ventricular septum is the second most common congenital cardiac defect in children. It may occur in as many as 50% of all patients with congenital heart disease associated with other congenital cardiac lesions. […] Racial difference in the prevalence of pulmonary stenosis is unlikely. The male-to-female ratio is 1:1. The patient’s age at presentation is related to the severity of the obstruction. If the stenosis is severe, patients may present in the neonatal period or in infancy. Patients with mild obstruction may present in childhood with asymptomatic murmurs.
  • #5 Orphanet: Congenital pulmonary valvar stenosis
    https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/3189
    The birth prevalence of isolated pulmonary valvar stenosis is between 1/2,000-10,000 in Europe and, worldwide, accounts for between 5-8% of children born with a congenital heart defect (CHD). […] The risk of recurrence of isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis is low, ranging from 1.7 to 3.7%. Relative risk of recurrence of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction as a whole is high at 48.6%.
  • #6 Pulsenotes | Pulmonary stenosis
    https://app.pulsenotes.com/medicine/cardiology/notes/pulmonary-stenosis
    Approximately 95% of cases of pulmonary stenosis are congenital. […] Pulmonary stenosis is primarily a paediatric condition, since 95% of cases are congenital. It occurs in ~1 in 1500 live births.
  • #7 Pulmonary Valve Stenosis | Pediatric Echocardiography
    https://pedecho.org/library/chd/valvar
    Pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) is most commonly a congenital entity. The pulmonary valve may be dysplastic, thickened and/or tethered causing restriction of the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the main and branch pulmonary arteries. This ultimately results in the reduction of flow of blood to the lungs. There are varying degrees of severity from very mild to severe disease. […] Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis is found in 8-10% of patients with congenital heart disease. About 1-2% of the siblings of patients with pulmonic stenosis will also have congenital heart disease.
  • #8 Valvar Pulmonary Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/891729-overview
    Pulmonary stenosis represents 8-12% of all congenital heart defects in children. In adults, pulmonary stenosis represents approximately 15% of all congenital heart defects. Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis with an intact ventricular septum is the second most common congenital cardiac defect in children. It may occur in as many as 50% of all patients with congenital heart disease associated with other congenital cardiac lesions. […] Racial difference in the prevalence of pulmonary stenosis is unlikely. The male-to-female ratio is 1:1. The patient’s age at presentation is related to the severity of the obstruction. If the stenosis is severe, patients may present in the neonatal period or in infancy. Patients with mild obstruction may present in childhood with asymptomatic murmurs.
  • #9 Pulmonic Valvular Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/759890-overview
    Epidemiology […] Approximately 5 out of 1000 infants are born with a congenital cardiac malformation. Valvular defects are the most common type of cardiac malformation, accounting for 25% of all malformations involving the myocardium. The prevalence of pulmonic valvular stenosis accounts for 7-10% of all CHD. […] Sixty percent of patients with Noonan syndrome are found to have some degree of pulmonic valvular stenosis. […] The male-to-female ratio of pulmonic valvular stenosis is approximately 1:1. There are no sex-related differences in outcomes. When pulmonic valvular stenosis is diagnosed before one year of age, it is considered a high risk group and patients must undergo close lifetime follow up, including connection to a regional CHD specialty center.
  • #10 Valvar Pulmonary Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/891729-overview
    Pulmonary stenosis represents 8-12% of all congenital heart defects in children. In adults, pulmonary stenosis represents approximately 15% of all congenital heart defects. Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis with an intact ventricular septum is the second most common congenital cardiac defect in children. It may occur in as many as 50% of all patients with congenital heart disease associated with other congenital cardiac lesions. […] Racial difference in the prevalence of pulmonary stenosis is unlikely. The male-to-female ratio is 1:1. The patient’s age at presentation is related to the severity of the obstruction. If the stenosis is severe, patients may present in the neonatal period or in infancy. Patients with mild obstruction may present in childhood with asymptomatic murmurs.
  • #11 Valvar Pulmonary Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/891729-overview
    Pulmonary stenosis represents 8-12% of all congenital heart defects in children. In adults, pulmonary stenosis represents approximately 15% of all congenital heart defects. Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis with an intact ventricular septum is the second most common congenital cardiac defect in children. It may occur in as many as 50% of all patients with congenital heart disease associated with other congenital cardiac lesions. […] Racial difference in the prevalence of pulmonary stenosis is unlikely. The male-to-female ratio is 1:1. The patient’s age at presentation is related to the severity of the obstruction. If the stenosis is severe, patients may present in the neonatal period or in infancy. Patients with mild obstruction may present in childhood with asymptomatic murmurs.
  • #12 Pulmonary Valve Stenosis | 5-Minute Clinical Consult
    https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/816382/8/Pulmonary_Valve_Stenosis
    Deformity of pulmonary valve, most commonly congenital, resulting in obstruction of right ventricular (RV) outflow. […] Incidence: Predominant age: congenital, present in newborns but often asymptomatic for years. Predominant sex: female male (1). African Americans (46.5%), Hispanics (33.1%), and Caucasians (20.4%) (1). […] Prevalence: 10% of all cases of congenital heart disease. In association with other lesions, may be as high as 2530% of congenital heart disease (1).
  • #13 Pulmonic Valvular Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/759890-overview
    Epidemiology […] Approximately 5 out of 1000 infants are born with a congenital cardiac malformation. Valvular defects are the most common type of cardiac malformation, accounting for 25% of all malformations involving the myocardium. The prevalence of pulmonic valvular stenosis accounts for 7-10% of all CHD. […] Sixty percent of patients with Noonan syndrome are found to have some degree of pulmonic valvular stenosis. […] The male-to-female ratio of pulmonic valvular stenosis is approximately 1:1. There are no sex-related differences in outcomes. When pulmonic valvular stenosis is diagnosed before one year of age, it is considered a high risk group and patients must undergo close lifetime follow up, including connection to a regional CHD specialty center.
  • #14 Clinical Practice Algorithm For the Follow-Up of Pulmonary Stenosis Pre- and Post-Intervention
    https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2023/05/16/10/31/Clinical-Practice-Algorithm-For-the-Follow-Up-of-Pulmonary-Stenosis-Pre-and-Post-Intervention
    Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) is one of the most common types of congenital heart disease (CHD), accounting for 7-12% of all CHD. Outcomes in patients with PS are usually determined by the severity of the lesion and patient age at time of diagnosis. […] There is wide variation in clinical practice in these patients’ surveillance and subsequent management, likely due to lack of evidence-based guidelines, particularly in pediatric patients. To minimize practice variation and appropriately utilize medical resources, a standardized and systematic approach is essential for evaluation and treatment. […] The PS clinical practice algorithms can be utilized by physicians and healthcare providers as a support tool for decision making. A standardized and systematic approach aims to reduce practice variation and improve resource utilization. The clinical application of the algorithms can form the basis for multicenter research to evaluate the impact on patient outcomes.
  • #15 Pulsenotes | Pulmonary regurgitation
    https://app.pulsenotes.com/medicine/cardiology/notes/pulmonary-regurgitation
    Overall, diseases of the pulmonary valve are rare. […] Pulmonary regurgitation has a bimodal age-incidence curve, reflecting its two most common causes: A peak in young patients, who present with PR as a congenital defect, or who develop PR following surgery in early life to correct a congenital PR defect. […] A peak in older patients (roughly 50-60) who present with PR because of pulmonary hypertension.
  • #16 Pulsenotes | Pulmonary regurgitation
    https://app.pulsenotes.com/medicine/cardiology/notes/pulmonary-regurgitation
    Overall, diseases of the pulmonary valve are rare. […] Pulmonary regurgitation has a bimodal age-incidence curve, reflecting its two most common causes: A peak in young patients, who present with PR as a congenital defect, or who develop PR following surgery in early life to correct a congenital PR defect. […] A peak in older patients (roughly 50-60) who present with PR because of pulmonary hypertension.
  • #17 Pulmonary valve regurgitation | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-valve-regurgitation?lang=us
    Prevalence of pulmonary regurgitation is thought to have two demographical peaks, firstly in young patients with repaired congenital pulmonary stenosis or right ventricular outflow tract obstruction repairs, or secondly in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. As such, given the multitude of causes, the exact prevalence is difficult to determine. […] Overall, secondary pulmonary regurgitation is more common than primary pulmonary regurgitation.
  • #18 Pulmonic regurgitation epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonic_regurgitation_epidemiology_and_demographics
    The prevalence of mild PR among patients with normal anatomy of the pulmonary valve is 40% to 78%. Among patients born with congenital heart disease, 20% of patients have associated abnormalities of the pulmonary valve or the right ventricular outlet obstruction. The incidence and prevalence of PR increases with age. 24% of the deaths due to valvular heart disease are attributed to tricuspid valve and pulmonic valve abnormalities combined. […] The prevalence of valvular heart disease in U.S. population is estimated to be 2.5%. About 13% of U.S population born before 1943 have valvular heart disease. […] In 2017, CDC reported that 24% of deaths due to valvular heart disease were attributed to tricuspid valve and pulmonic valve abnormalities combined. […] The prevalence of pulmonary regurgitation (PR) is estimated to have two demographic peaks. The first peak is among young patients with repaired congenital pulmonary stenosis. The second peak is among patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).
  • #19 Pulmonic regurgitation epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonic_regurgitation_epidemiology_and_demographics
    The prevalence of mild PR among patients with normal anatomy of the pulmonary valve is 40% to 78%. Among patients born with congenital heart disease, 20% of patients have associated abnormalities of the pulmonary valve or the right ventricular outlet obstruction. The incidence and prevalence of PR increases with age. 24% of the deaths due to valvular heart disease are attributed to tricuspid valve and pulmonic valve abnormalities combined. […] The prevalence of valvular heart disease in U.S. population is estimated to be 2.5%. About 13% of U.S population born before 1943 have valvular heart disease. […] In 2017, CDC reported that 24% of deaths due to valvular heart disease were attributed to tricuspid valve and pulmonic valve abnormalities combined. […] The prevalence of pulmonary regurgitation (PR) is estimated to have two demographic peaks. The first peak is among young patients with repaired congenital pulmonary stenosis. The second peak is among patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).
  • #20 Pulmonary Regurgitation | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/pulmonary-regurgitation-disorders/
    Trace or mild (physiologic) pulmonic regurgitation (PR) found commonly in normal individuals. […] Prevalence of moderate to severe pulmonary regurgitation affects approximately 0.11% of adults (compared to 0.67% for tricuspid regurgitation). […] Median age at diagnosis: 77 years. […] Gender distribution: Nearly equal between males and females. […] Moderate PR: 77% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Severe PR: 52% congenital or iatrogenic. […] 39% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Congenital PR (isolated) is rare.
  • #21 Pulmonary Regurgitation | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/pulmonary-regurgitation-disorders/
    Trace or mild (physiologic) pulmonic regurgitation (PR) found commonly in normal individuals. […] Prevalence of moderate to severe pulmonary regurgitation affects approximately 0.11% of adults (compared to 0.67% for tricuspid regurgitation). […] Median age at diagnosis: 77 years. […] Gender distribution: Nearly equal between males and females. […] Moderate PR: 77% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Severe PR: 52% congenital or iatrogenic. […] 39% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Congenital PR (isolated) is rare.
  • #22 Pulmonary Regurgitation | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/pulmonary-regurgitation-disorders/
    Trace or mild (physiologic) pulmonic regurgitation (PR) found commonly in normal individuals. […] Prevalence of moderate to severe pulmonary regurgitation affects approximately 0.11% of adults (compared to 0.67% for tricuspid regurgitation). […] Median age at diagnosis: 77 years. […] Gender distribution: Nearly equal between males and females. […] Moderate PR: 77% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Severe PR: 52% congenital or iatrogenic. […] 39% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Congenital PR (isolated) is rare.
  • #23 Pulmonary valve regurgitation | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-valve-regurgitation?lang=us
    Prevalence of pulmonary regurgitation is thought to have two demographical peaks, firstly in young patients with repaired congenital pulmonary stenosis or right ventricular outflow tract obstruction repairs, or secondly in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. As such, given the multitude of causes, the exact prevalence is difficult to determine. […] Overall, secondary pulmonary regurgitation is more common than primary pulmonary regurgitation.
  • #24 Pulmonary Regurgitation | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/pulmonary-regurgitation-disorders/
    Trace or mild (physiologic) pulmonic regurgitation (PR) found commonly in normal individuals. […] Prevalence of moderate to severe pulmonary regurgitation affects approximately 0.11% of adults (compared to 0.67% for tricuspid regurgitation). […] Median age at diagnosis: 77 years. […] Gender distribution: Nearly equal between males and females. […] Moderate PR: 77% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Severe PR: 52% congenital or iatrogenic. […] 39% due to pulmonary hypertension. […] Congenital PR (isolated) is rare.
  • #25 Pulmonary Stenosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560750/
    Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis accounts for 7% to 12% of congenital heart diseases. […] Extracardiac and neurodevelopmental comorbidities affect approximately 56% of patients with pulmonary stenosis. In such cases, a molecular diagnosis is more common. For example, the PTPN11 mutation is identified in 50% of patients with pulmonary stenosis and Noonan syndrome. […] Moreover, a familial form of nonsyndromic pulmonary stenosis has been described and is suspected to be related to GATA4 mutations. Pulmonary stenosis does not seem to have any gender predilection.
  • #26 Valvulopathies and Genetics: Where are We?
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/2/10.31083/j.rcm2502040/htm
    Pulmonary valve stenosis (PVS) is primarily a congenital condition and although acquired cases can also occur, are considerably less common. The most common genetic contributor for PVS is Noonan syndrome (NS) (Table 3, Ref. [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]). This autosomal dominant congenital disorder, affecting 1:1000 to 1:2500 live births, is characterized by cardiac defects, with PVS and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), and also involves multiple organ systems. The primary cause of NS is attributed to gain-of-function mutations in genes that encode components or regulators of the RAS/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathway. This condition is classified under the RASopathies family of disorders. The genes commonly involved in NS are protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 11 (PTPN11) (found in approximately half of NS patients), along with others like son of sevenless homolog 1 (SOS1), RAF proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase (RAF1), Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS), neuroblastoma RAS viral oncogene homolog (NRAS), Ras-like without CAAX 1 (RIT1), which show moderate or limited association with the syndrome. The causative mutations remain unidentified in 10%–20% of patients, and de novo mutations account for most NS cases. Genetic testing, therefore, can help with risk assessment and patient management.
  • #27 Pulmonary Stenosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560750/
    Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis accounts for 7% to 12% of congenital heart diseases. […] Extracardiac and neurodevelopmental comorbidities affect approximately 56% of patients with pulmonary stenosis. In such cases, a molecular diagnosis is more common. For example, the PTPN11 mutation is identified in 50% of patients with pulmonary stenosis and Noonan syndrome. […] Moreover, a familial form of nonsyndromic pulmonary stenosis has been described and is suspected to be related to GATA4 mutations. Pulmonary stenosis does not seem to have any gender predilection.
  • #28 Valvulopathies and Genetics: Where are We?
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/2/10.31083/j.rcm2502040/htm
    The most common congenital heart abnormality, tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), is also linked to Pulmonary Valve Stenosis (PVS). TOF may be associated with subvalvular pulmonic stenosis, a defect obstructing the infundibular region that can be secondary to hypertrophy of the right ventricle. While nearly 20% of TOF cases are associated with identified diseases or chromosomal abnormalities, the other 80% of TOF cases are non-syndromic, meaning they have no known specific cause or underlying condition. Non-syndromic TOF is a condition with a complex genetic basis. Both common and rare genetic variants seem to play a role in its development. Several genetic studies have been conducted, but only variants in the NOTCH1 and Fms-related tyrosine kinase 4 (FLT4) genes were discovered in approximately 7% of TOF cases. This finding suggests that these specific genes make significant contributions to the overall occurrence of TOF in the population. Other minority genes have been associated with non-syndromic TOF: NK2 homeobox 5 (NKX2.5), GATA4, GATA5, GATA6, TBX1, T-box transcription factor 2 (TBX2), T-box transcription factor 5 (TBX5), Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator 2 (CITED2), Zinc finger protein multitype 2 (also known as Friend of GATA 2, ZFPM2/FOG2), Forkhead box C1 (FOXC1), Forkhead box C2 (FOXC2), Forkhead box H1 (FOXH1), heart and neural crest derivatives expressed 2 (HAND2), jagged-1 (JAG1), FLNA, Kinase insert domain receptor (KDR), N-Myc downstream regulated 4 (NDRG4), SWI/SNF-related matrix-associated actin-dependent regulator of chromatin subfamily C member 2 (SMARCC2), ryanodine receptor 1 (RYR1), zinc finger protein multitype 1 (ZFPM1), calmodulin-binding transcription activator 2 (CAMTA2), distal-less homeobox 6 (DLX6), pericentriolar material 1 (PCM1). Only a small number of individuals with non-syndromic TOF have been the subject of research, and our understanding of the key genetic factors responsible for this condition remains limited.
  • #29 Valvulopathies and Genetics: Where are We?
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/2/10.31083/j.rcm2502040/htm
    Williams syndrome (WS) is a relatively uncommon genetic disorder characterized by several features, and one of the frequent conditions associated with WS is congenital heart defects. Supravalvular pulmonic stenosis is among the most prevalent, affecting around 45.1% of individuals with WS). The root cause of these cardiovascular issues lies in the deletion of the elastin gene on chromosome 7q11.23. This deletion results in insufficient or abnormal elastin deposition during cardiovascular development, leading to various cardiovascular abnormalities that manifest in individuals with WS.
  • #30 Pulmonary Stenosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560750/
    Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis accounts for 7% to 12% of congenital heart diseases. […] Extracardiac and neurodevelopmental comorbidities affect approximately 56% of patients with pulmonary stenosis. In such cases, a molecular diagnosis is more common. For example, the PTPN11 mutation is identified in 50% of patients with pulmonary stenosis and Noonan syndrome. […] Moreover, a familial form of nonsyndromic pulmonary stenosis has been described and is suspected to be related to GATA4 mutations. Pulmonary stenosis does not seem to have any gender predilection.
  • #31 The Global Burden of Valvular Heart Disease: From Clinical Epidemiology to Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/12/6/2178
    Valvular heart disease is a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and a major contributor of symptoms and functional disability. Knowledge of valvular heart disease epidemiology and a deep comprehension of the geographical and temporal trends are crucial for clinical advances and the formulation of effective health policy for primary and secondary prevention. […] The comprehension of the geographical and temporal trends and changes in VHD epidemiology are crucial for advances in clinical practice and the development of effective health policy for primary and secondary prevention. […] The specific causes of VHD can be misclassified, especially in areas where rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is endemic and the classification of VHD is easily prone to error. […] RHD remains by far the most common cause of primary VHD worldwide.
  • #32 Heart valve disease module 1: epidemiology – The British Journal of Cardiology
    https://bjcardio.co.uk/2016/03/heart-valve-disease-module-1-epidemiology-2/5/
    Rheumatic disease is the most common cause of valve disease in the young worldwide with an estimated prevalence of 15.619.6 million […] In industrially developed regions diseases of old age predominate, particularly calcific aortic stenosis and functional mitral regurgitation […] In the USA, valve disease is most common in the elderly with a prevalence of 13% in those aged over 75 […] Valve disease is correctly regarded as an epidemic waiting to happen. Degenerative aortic stenosis has become the most common valve disease in Europe, and the United States, due to prolonged life-expectancy and the associated degenerative effects on cardiac structures.
  • #33 Epidemiology of valvular heart disease in a Swedish nationwide hospital-based register study | Heart
    https://heart.bmj.com/content/103/21/1696
    Incidence of pulmonary valve disease peaked in newborns. […] Right-sided valve diseases, however, were rare and usually presented during the first decade of life, reflecting congenital conditions. […] Pulmonary valve diseases and tricuspid stenosis often coexisted with non-valvular congenital heart disease, highlighting the large extent of combined manifestations seen in congenital heart diseases. […] Clinically diagnosed VHD in the 21st century was common and primarily consisted of left-sided degenerative lesions in the elderly. Right-sided valve disease with pulmonary valve lesions and TS were typically diagnosed during the first decade of life. […] This large study of the entire Swedish population using nationwide hospital-based registers expands epidemiological understanding of VHD to individual diagnoses. The overall incidence of VHD was estimated to 63.9 per 100 000 person-years, and the three most common diseases were aortic stenosis (47.2%), mitral regurgitation (24.2%) and aortic regurgitation (18.0%). Specific VHDs showed different sex patterns and comorbidity profiles, indicating a range of potential aetiologies in the current era that merit further study.
  • #34 Pulmonic regurgitation epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonic_regurgitation_epidemiology_and_demographics
    Among developed countries such as the United States, Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to left heart disease. Other conditions that cause PAH include sickle cell disease; pulmonary embolus, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). PAH is a major cause of secondary PR. […] Among developing countries Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to rheumatic heart disease (RHD), schistosomiasis, congenital heart disease, hemolytic diseases. PAH is a major cause of secondary PR. The burden of PAH is greater among developing than developed countries.
  • #35 Pulmonic regurgitation epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonic_regurgitation_epidemiology_and_demographics
    Among developed countries such as the United States, Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to left heart disease. Other conditions that cause PAH include sickle cell disease; pulmonary embolus, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). PAH is a major cause of secondary PR. […] Among developing countries Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to rheumatic heart disease (RHD), schistosomiasis, congenital heart disease, hemolytic diseases. PAH is a major cause of secondary PR. The burden of PAH is greater among developing than developed countries.
  • #36 Heart valve disease module 1: epidemiology – The British Journal of Cardiology
    https://bjcardio.co.uk/2016/03/heart-valve-disease-module-1-epidemiology-2/5/
    Rheumatic disease is the most common cause of valve disease in the young worldwide with an estimated prevalence of 15.619.6 million […] In industrially developed regions diseases of old age predominate, particularly calcific aortic stenosis and functional mitral regurgitation […] In the USA, valve disease is most common in the elderly with a prevalence of 13% in those aged over 75 […] Valve disease is correctly regarded as an epidemic waiting to happen. Degenerative aortic stenosis has become the most common valve disease in Europe, and the United States, due to prolonged life-expectancy and the associated degenerative effects on cardiac structures.
  • #37 Isolated Rheumatic Pulmonary Valve Disease—Case Reports
    https://file.scirp.org/Html/4-2770687_67397.htm
    Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children and young adults worldwide and particularly developing countries continuing to experience a high incidence of this disease. […] Background of these case reports highlighted the increased incidence of rheumatic pulmonary valve disease in Thoothukudi region of India in Tamil Nadu state. […] Rheumatic disease causing pulmonary valve stenosis is quite uncommon and, when it occurs, it is invariably associated with rheumatic disease of other cardiac valves. […] Isolated rheumatic involvement of pulmonary valve is observed in children < 15 years of age at the tropical zone of Thoothukudi in India. Majority are presented with mild to moderate pulmonic stenosis without the involvement of other cardiac valves.
  • #38 Isolated Rheumatic Pulmonary Valve Disease—Case Reports
    https://file.scirp.org/Html/4-2770687_67397.htm
    Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children and young adults worldwide and particularly developing countries continuing to experience a high incidence of this disease. […] Background of these case reports highlighted the increased incidence of rheumatic pulmonary valve disease in Thoothukudi region of India in Tamil Nadu state. […] Rheumatic disease causing pulmonary valve stenosis is quite uncommon and, when it occurs, it is invariably associated with rheumatic disease of other cardiac valves. […] Isolated rheumatic involvement of pulmonary valve is observed in children < 15 years of age at the tropical zone of Thoothukudi in India. Majority are presented with mild to moderate pulmonic stenosis without the involvement of other cardiac valves.
  • #39 Isolated Rheumatic Pulmonary Valve Disease—Case Reports
    https://file.scirp.org/Html/4-2770687_67397.htm
    The positive ASO titers of these cases indicate the recent streptococcal infection suggesting the recurrent episodes, both preventive and prophylactic therapies are indicated. […] Rheumatic involvement of pulmonary valve is frequently observed in the coastal district of Thoothukudi in India and an isolated rheumatic pulmonary valve disease in a 9 year old male and in a 3 year old female child is detected by Transthoracic echocardiographic imaging.
  • #40 Pulmonary valve stenosis in the adult patient: pathophysiology, diagnosis and management | Heart
    https://heart.bmj.com/content/105/5/414.abstract
    Know the epidemiology and presentation of pulmonary valve disease in adults. […] Understand the long-term sequelae of untreated and treated pulmonary valve disease. […] Recognise the indications for intervention in pulmonary valve disease in adults.
  • #41 Clinical Practice Algorithm For the Follow-Up of Pulmonary Stenosis Pre- and Post-Intervention
    https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2023/05/16/10/31/Clinical-Practice-Algorithm-For-the-Follow-Up-of-Pulmonary-Stenosis-Pre-and-Post-Intervention
    Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) is one of the most common types of congenital heart disease (CHD), accounting for 7-12% of all CHD. Outcomes in patients with PS are usually determined by the severity of the lesion and patient age at time of diagnosis. […] There is wide variation in clinical practice in these patients’ surveillance and subsequent management, likely due to lack of evidence-based guidelines, particularly in pediatric patients. To minimize practice variation and appropriately utilize medical resources, a standardized and systematic approach is essential for evaluation and treatment. […] The PS clinical practice algorithms can be utilized by physicians and healthcare providers as a support tool for decision making. A standardized and systematic approach aims to reduce practice variation and improve resource utilization. The clinical application of the algorithms can form the basis for multicenter research to evaluate the impact on patient outcomes.
  • #42 Clinical Practice Algorithm For the Follow-Up of Pulmonary Stenosis Pre- and Post-Intervention
    https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2023/05/16/10/31/Clinical-Practice-Algorithm-For-the-Follow-Up-of-Pulmonary-Stenosis-Pre-and-Post-Intervention
    Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) is one of the most common types of congenital heart disease (CHD), accounting for 7-12% of all CHD. Outcomes in patients with PS are usually determined by the severity of the lesion and patient age at time of diagnosis. […] There is wide variation in clinical practice in these patients’ surveillance and subsequent management, likely due to lack of evidence-based guidelines, particularly in pediatric patients. To minimize practice variation and appropriately utilize medical resources, a standardized and systematic approach is essential for evaluation and treatment. […] The PS clinical practice algorithms can be utilized by physicians and healthcare providers as a support tool for decision making. A standardized and systematic approach aims to reduce practice variation and improve resource utilization. The clinical application of the algorithms can form the basis for multicenter research to evaluate the impact on patient outcomes.
  • #43 Orphanet: Congenital pulmonary valvar stenosis
    https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/3189
    The birth prevalence of isolated pulmonary valvar stenosis is between 1/2,000-10,000 in Europe and, worldwide, accounts for between 5-8% of children born with a congenital heart defect (CHD). […] The risk of recurrence of isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis is low, ranging from 1.7 to 3.7%. Relative risk of recurrence of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction as a whole is high at 48.6%.
  • #44 Pulmonary Valve Stenosis | Pediatric Echocardiography
    https://pedecho.org/library/chd/valvar
    Pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) is most commonly a congenital entity. The pulmonary valve may be dysplastic, thickened and/or tethered causing restriction of the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the main and branch pulmonary arteries. This ultimately results in the reduction of flow of blood to the lungs. There are varying degrees of severity from very mild to severe disease. […] Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis is found in 8-10% of patients with congenital heart disease. About 1-2% of the siblings of patients with pulmonic stenosis will also have congenital heart disease.
  • #45 Long COVID May Cause Long-Term Changes in the Heart and Lungs and May Lead to Cardiac and Pulmonary Diseases | Mount Sinai – New York
    https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2025/long-covid-may-cause-long-term-changes-in-the-heart-and-lungs-and-may-lead-to-cardiac-and-pulmonary-diseases
    Patients suffering from long COVID may exhibit persistent inflammation in the heart and lungs for up to a year following SARS-CoV-2 infection—even when standard medical tests return normal results—potentially placing them at elevated risk for future cardiac and pulmonary conditions. […] These abnormalities could serve as early warning signs of diseases such as heart failure, valvular heart disease, and pulmonary hypertension. […] This study brings us closer to understanding how SARS-CoV-2 affects the heart and lungs over time. […] We believe long COVID results in an inflammatory response that may predispose patients to premature coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular damage such as stenosis or regurgitation. […] These findings should change how we approach care and surveillance—not only recognizing SARS-CoV-2 as a potential long-term cardiovascular risk factor, but also integrating molecular imaging into post-COVID evaluation protocols.
  • #46 Long COVID May Cause Long-Term Changes in the Heart and Lungs and May Lead to Cardiac & Pulmonary Diseases
    https://yubanet.com/scitech/long-covid-may-cause-long-term-changes-in-the-heart-and-lungs-and-may-lead-to-cardiac-pulmonary-diseases/
    Patients suffering from long COVID may exhibit persistent inflammation in the heart and lungs for up to a year following SARS-CoV-2 infection even when standard medical tests return normal results potentially placing them at elevated risk for future cardiac and pulmonary conditions. […] This study brings us closer to understanding how SARS-CoV-2 affects the heart and lungs over time. We believe long COVID results in an inflammatory response that may predispose patients to premature coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular damage such as stenosis or regurgitation. […] These findings should change how we approach care and surveillance not only recognizing SARS-CoV-2 as a potential long-term cardiovascular risk factor, but also integrating molecular imaging into post-COVID evaluation protocols. We now have objective evidence that can guide earlier detection and potentially prevent future cardiopulmonary events. […] The Mount Sinai team continues to follow this patient cohort to assess long-term outcomes and is exploring whether these imaging and biomarker patterns can help predict who is most at risk for developing chronic cardiovascular or pulmonary disease after COVID-19.
  • #47 Long COVID May Cause Long-Term Changes in the Heart and Lungs and May Lead to Cardiac and Pulmonary Diseases | Mount Sinai – New York
    https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2025/long-covid-may-cause-long-term-changes-in-the-heart-and-lungs-and-may-lead-to-cardiac-and-pulmonary-diseases
    Patients suffering from long COVID may exhibit persistent inflammation in the heart and lungs for up to a year following SARS-CoV-2 infection—even when standard medical tests return normal results—potentially placing them at elevated risk for future cardiac and pulmonary conditions. […] These abnormalities could serve as early warning signs of diseases such as heart failure, valvular heart disease, and pulmonary hypertension. […] This study brings us closer to understanding how SARS-CoV-2 affects the heart and lungs over time. […] We believe long COVID results in an inflammatory response that may predispose patients to premature coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular damage such as stenosis or regurgitation. […] These findings should change how we approach care and surveillance—not only recognizing SARS-CoV-2 as a potential long-term cardiovascular risk factor, but also integrating molecular imaging into post-COVID evaluation protocols.
  • #48 Long COVID Impact: Heart and Lung Alterations Elevate Disease Risks
    https://www.downtoearth.org.in/health/long-covid-patients-have-altered-heart-and-lungs-elevating-risks-to-cardiac-and-pulmonary-diseases
    Patients with long COVID-19 may suffer from persistent heart and lung inflammation for almost a year following the infection, a study has revealed. […] COVID caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection may potentially put these persons at a higher risk of cardiac arrest and pulmonary conditions, even if the standard medical tests exhibit normal results, the study published in Journal of Nuclear Medicine stated. […] These abnormalities could serve as early warning signs of diseases such as heart failure, valvular heart disease, and pulmonary hypertension, according to a statement from the Mount Sinai Fuster Heart Hospital in the United States. […] We believe long COVID results in an inflammatory response that may predispose patients to premature coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular damage such as stenosis.
  • #49 Long COVID may cause long-term changes in heart and lungs, leading to cardiac and pulmonary diseases
    https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/other/long-covid-may-cause-long-term-changes-in-heart-and-lungs-leading-to-cardiac-and-pulmonary-diseases/ar-AA1EgNen
    „These findings should change how we approach care and surveillance—not only recognizing SARS-CoV-2 as a potential long-term cardiovascular risk factor, but also integrating molecular imaging into post-COVID evaluation protocols. We now have objective evidence that can guide earlier detection and potentially prevent future cardiopulmonary events.” […] The Mount Sinai team continues to follow this patient cohort to assess long-term outcomes and is exploring whether these imaging and biomarker patterns can help predict who is most at risk for developing chronic cardiovascular or pulmonary disease after COVID-19.
  • #50
    https://www.newswise.com/articles/long-covid-may-cause-long-term-changes-in-the-heart-and-lungs-and-may-lead-to-cardiac-and-pulmonary-diseases
    Patients suffering from long COVID may exhibit persistent inflammation in the heart and lungs for up to a year following SARS-CoV-2 infection even when standard medical tests return normal results potentially placing them at elevated risk for future cardiac and pulmonary conditions. […] This study brings us closer to understanding how SARS-CoV-2 affects the heart and lungs over time. We believe long COVID results in an inflammatory response that may predispose patients to premature coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular damage such as stenosis or regurgitation. […] This study highlights the unique power of hybrid PET/MRI imaging to uncover hidden disease processes in long COVID patients. […] These findings should change how we approach care and surveillance not only recognizing SARS-CoV-2 as a potential long-term cardiovascular risk factor, but also integrating molecular imaging into post-COVID evaluation protocols. […] The Mount Sinai team continues to follow this patient cohort to assess long-term outcomes and is exploring whether these imaging and biomarker patterns can help predict who is most at risk for developing chronic cardiovascular or pulmonary disease after COVID-19.
  • #51 Transcatheter Pulmonary Valve Market – Global Market, Size, Share, and Trends Analysis Report – Industry Overview and Forecast to 2032 | Data Bridge Market Research
    https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-transcatheter-pulmonary-valve-market?srsltid=AfmBOoqXALBSQoGE4u1Sexer3PF2tTeD_PCid7IH3M-OzstIdp_eRmnm
    The global transcatheter pulmonary valve market has witnessed significant growth in recent years, driven by advancements in minimally invasive cardiovascular procedures. Transcatheter pulmonary valve are used to treat patients with pulmonary valve diseases, especially those with congenital heart defects or post-surgical pulmonary valve dysfunction. The market’s expansion is primarily attributed to the increasing prevalence of heart-related conditions and the growing preference for less invasive treatment options. […] The prevalence of congenital heart defects and pulmonary valve diseases is rising globally, driving demand for transcatheter pulmonary valve interventions. Many patients, especially those born with conditions such as tetralogy of Fallot, require pulmonary valve replacement as they age, either due to valve deterioration or other complications. With the continuous improvement in medical care and an increase in life expectancy for these patients, there is a growing need for less invasive treatments. This rise in demand for transcatheter pulmonary valve procedures is directly linked to the increasing number of patients requiring these interventions, propelling market growth.
  • #52 Transcatheter Pulmonary Valve Market – Global Market, Size, Share, and Trends Analysis Report – Industry Overview and Forecast to 2032 | Data Bridge Market Research
    https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-transcatheter-pulmonary-valve-market?srsltid=AfmBOoqXALBSQoGE4u1Sexer3PF2tTeD_PCid7IH3M-OzstIdp_eRmnm
    The global transcatheter pulmonary valve market has witnessed significant growth in recent years, driven by advancements in minimally invasive cardiovascular procedures. Transcatheter pulmonary valve are used to treat patients with pulmonary valve diseases, especially those with congenital heart defects or post-surgical pulmonary valve dysfunction. The market’s expansion is primarily attributed to the increasing prevalence of heart-related conditions and the growing preference for less invasive treatment options. […] The prevalence of congenital heart defects and pulmonary valve diseases is rising globally, driving demand for transcatheter pulmonary valve interventions. Many patients, especially those born with conditions such as tetralogy of Fallot, require pulmonary valve replacement as they age, either due to valve deterioration or other complications. With the continuous improvement in medical care and an increase in life expectancy for these patients, there is a growing need for less invasive treatments. This rise in demand for transcatheter pulmonary valve procedures is directly linked to the increasing number of patients requiring these interventions, propelling market growth.
  • #53 The Global Burden of Valvular Heart Disease: From Clinical Epidemiology to Management
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/12/6/2178
    The increasing number of patients with VHD and the wide range of therapeutic options now available demand a dedicated management and a standardization of procedures in order to refer patients to a surgeon or interventional cardiologist at the appropriate timing before the development of changes in the LV or major adverse clinical events. […] The central role of the VHD specialist has been emphasized by both American and European guidelines. […] The multidisciplinary approach is recommended for all types of VDH and has been formally endorsed by several Scientific Societies. […] VHD is a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, with substantial regional differences. Population aging, the availability of imaging techniques, accessibility to diagnosis and treatment, migration flows, the improvement in valve surgery, and the advent of transcatheter procedures are the principal factors responsible for changes in the epidemiology of VHD.

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mutacja PTPN11 niedomykalność zastawki płucnej tetralogia Fallota stenoza zastawki płucnej zespół Williamsa zator płucny przewlekła obturacyjna choroba płuc kardiomiopatia przerostowa nadciśnienie płucne zespół Noonana choroba zastawki płucnej wrodzona wada serca zwężenie zastawki płucnej choroba reumatyczna serca niedokrwistość sierpowatokrwinkowa przerost prawej komory