Zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsyjne
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsyjne (OCD) jest przewlekłą chorobą psychiczną charakteryzującą się natrętnymi myślami (obsesjami) i powtarzalnymi zachowaniami (kompulsjami), dotykającą 1-3% populacji. Patofizjologia OCD opiera się na dysfunkcji pętli korowo-prążkowiowo-wzgórzowo-korowej (CSTC), gdzie nadmierna aktywność drogi bezpośredniej i niedostateczne hamowanie drogi pośredniej prowadzą do nadaktywności wzgórza i kory mózgowej, co manifestuje się objawami klinicznymi. Kluczowe regiony mózgu zaangażowane w OCD to kora oczodołowo-czołowa (OFC), przednia część zakrętu obręczy (ACC) oraz jądra podstawy. Zaburzenia neuroprzekaźników, w tym serotoniny, glutaminianu i dopaminy, odgrywają istotną rolę, z podwyższonymi poziomami glutaminianu i zmniejszoną liczbą receptorów dopaminowych D1 i D2 w prążkowiu. Dziedziczność objawów obsesyjno-kompulsyjnych wynosi od 30 do 77%, a etiologia obejmuje także czynniki autoimmunologiczne, zwłaszcza w kontekście PANDAS i PANS, gdzie infekcje paciorkowcowe indukują przeciwciała przeciwneuronalne wpływające na jądra podstawy.

Patofizjologia zaburzenia obsesyjno-kompulsyjnego (OCD)

Zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsyjne (OCD) to przewlekła choroba psychiczna charakteryzująca się występowaniem natrętnych, powracających myśli (obsesji) oraz powtarzalnych, rytualnych zachowań (kompulsji). Dotyka 1-3% światowej populacji i często prowadzi do znacznego upośledzenia funkcjonowania chorych oraz ich rodzin. Etiologia OCD jest złożona i obejmuje czynniki poznawcze, genetyczne, molekularne, środowiskowe oraz neuronalne.12

Neuronalne podłoże OCD

Współczesne badania wskazują, że OCD jest zasadniczo zaburzeniem związanym z nieprawidłowym funkcjonowaniem sieci neuronalnych. Kluczową rolę w patofizjologii tego zaburzenia odgrywa pętla korowo-prążkowiowo-wzgórzowo-korowa (CSTC), która łączy obszary kory czołowej z jądrami podstawy i wzgórzem.34 Model ten opiera się na obserwacji, że regiony mózgu takie jak kora oczodołowo-czołowa (OFC), przednia część zakrętu obręczy (ACC) oraz jądra podstawy są nieprawidłowo aktywne u pacjentów z OCD, co potwierdzają badania neuroobrazowe.56

W obwodzie CSTC można wyróżnić dwie główne drogi:

  • Droga bezpośrednia – głównie pobudzająca, promująca zachowanie7
  • Droga pośrednia – głównie hamująca, ograniczająca zachowanie8

W OCD zaobserwowano nadmierną aktywność drogi bezpośredniej w stosunku do drogi pośredniej, co wynika z pierwotnej dysfunkcji drogi pośredniej. Prowadzi to do zmniejszonego hamowania wzgórza, które staje się nadmiernie aktywne i zwiększa swój pobudzający wpływ na korę mózgową, co manifestuje się klinicznymi objawami OCD.910

Badania obrazowe mózgu konsekwentnie wykazały różnice w przepływie krwi u osób z OCD w porównaniu z grupami kontrolnymi. Najbardziej zaangażowane regiony to kora oczodołowo-czołowa, zakręt obręczy i jądra podstawy, a ostatnio również regiony w płacie ciemieniowym.1112 Dysfunkcja tych obszarów prowadzi do nieprawidłowego wykrywania błędów, niepełnego poczucia zakończenia zadania oraz wzmocnionych sygnałów związanych z błędami.13

Neuroprzekaźniki w patogenezie OCD

Zaburzenia w układach neuroprzekaźników odgrywają istotną rolę w patofizjologii OCD. Badania wskazują na udział kilku systemów neurotransmiterów:

Serotonina – Pierwsze odkrycia dotyczące skuteczności klomipraminy, która ma silne działanie hamujące wychwyt zwrotny serotoniny, podkreśliły rolę tego neuroprzekaźnika w patogenezie OCD.14 Dysfunkcja układu serotoninergicznego została zasugerowana głównie na podstawie skuteczności inhibitorów wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny (SRI) i selektywnych inhibitorów wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny (SSRI) w łagodzeniu obsesji i kompulsji u pacjentów.15 Uważa się, że deplecja serotoniny może być odpowiedzialna za powtarzalne rytuały (kompulsje) i zachowania agresywne, które są powszechne u pacjentów z OCD.16

Glutaminian – Nowsze badania wskazują na ważną rolę układu glutaminergicznego w powstawaniu i progresji OCD.17 Zaobserwowano podwyższone poziomy glutaminianu, glutaminy i kwasu gamma-aminomasłowego (GABA) w jądrze ogoniastym oraz zwiększone poziomy glutaminianu w płynie mózgowo-rdzeniowym u pacjentów z OCD.18 Nadaktywność glutaminergiczna związana z nadaktywnością drogi bezpośredniej jest postulowana jako jeden z mechanizmów w patofizjologii OCD.19

Dopamina – Nieprawidłowości w układzie dopaminergicznym również zostały powiązane z patofizjologią OCD, na podstawie dodatkowych korzyści terapeutycznych uzyskanych dzięki jednoczesnej podaży SSRI i blokerów dopaminy.20 Zaobserwowano zmniejszoną liczbę receptorów dopaminowych D1 i D2 w prążkowiu u osób z OCD, wraz z zarówno zwiększonym, jak i zmniejszonym wiązaniem transportera dopaminy (DAT).21

Genetyczne aspekty OCD

Badania bliźniąt i rodzin silnie sugerują, że podatność na OCD może być dziedziczona, jednak pozytywna historia rodzinna jest nieobecna u wielu pacjentów.22 OCD jest zaburzeniem poligenowym z wieloma zidentyfikowanymi loci ryzyka o małym efekcie.23 Dziedziczność objawów obsesyjno-kompulsyjnych (OCS) waha się od 30 do 77%.24

Czynniki genetyczne przyczyniają się do specyficznych wymiarów OCS, w tym zanieczyszczenia/czyszczenia oraz sprawdzania/porządkowania.25 Mimo wielu potencjalnych genów kandydujących, badaczom jak dotąd nie udało się zidentyfikować spójnego genu odpowiedzialnego za OCD.26

Autoimmunologiczne podłoże OCD

Etiologia autoimmunologiczna dostarcza kolejnego intrygującego wymiaru OCD, szczególnie w przypadku Pediatrycznych Autoimmunologicznych Zaburzeń Neuropsychiatrycznych Związanych z Infekcjami Paciorkowcowymi (PANDAS) i Pediatrycznego Zespołu Ostrego Początku Neuropsychiatrycznego (PANS).2728

Infekcje streptokokowe z grupy A (GABHS) wytwarzają przeciwciała przeciwneuronalne, które niekorzystnie wpływają na komórki jąder podstawy, co może prowadzić do rozwoju OCD.29 Podgrupy pacjentów z OCD wykazują podwyższone poziomy cytokin prozapalnych i autoprzeciwciał skierowanych przeciwko strukturom mózgu, w tym jądrom podstawy.30

Odkrycie PANDAS w 1998 roku wskazało na jądra podstawy jako kluczowy region mózgu w OCD, ze względu na wywołanie tego zaburzenia przez infekcje u podgrupy dzieci.31 Badania kliniczne mogą również ujawniać zmiany, takie jak podwyższone poziomy przeciwciał przeciwko jądrom podstawy lub receptorom dopaminowym, lub zmiany zapalne w jądrach podstawy w neuroobrazowaniu.32

Modele poznawcze OCD

Poznawcze i oparte na uczeniu się modele OCD zakładają, że nieprzystosowawcze przekonania napędzają lęk obsesyjny, prowadząc do zachowań kompulsywnych mających na celu złagodzenie tego lęku.33 Według modelu poznawczego, każdy doświadcza od czasu do czasu natrętnych myśli. Jednak osoby z OCD często mają wyolbrzymione poczucie odpowiedzialności i błędnie interpretują te myśli jako bardzo ważne i znaczące, co może prowadzić do katastrofalnych konsekwencji.34

Badacze postawili hipotezę, że OCD wystąpiłoby, gdyby natręctwa poznawcze były interpretowane jako wskazanie, że dana osoba może być, mogła być lub może stać się odpowiedzialna za szkodę lub jej zapobieganie.35

Odchodząc od tradycyjnej teorii opartej na lęku, która postrzega OCD jako zaburzenie napędzane patologiczną wrażliwością i sugestiami wywołującymi lęk, które mogą wynikać z obsesji, rola kompulsyjności zyskała większe znaczenie: kompulsje mają na celu zmniejszenie szkody, ale mogą również prowadzić do głębokiego doświadczenia braku kontroli.36

Dysregulacja układu OCD

Istnieje hipoteza, poparta danymi eksperymentalnymi, że patologia OCD wyjaśniana jest przez dwa czynniki: nadaktywację detektora błędów (w szczególności populacji neuronów w ACC) i niewystarczającą aktywność mechanizmu kontroli hamującej (w szczególności szereg struktur podkorowych).37

Nadmierna aktywacja ACC i detektora błędów prowadzi do odczucia u pacjentów, które zmusza ich do nieświadomego poszukiwania przyczyny lęku (obsesje nieświadomie oceniane jako „ważne” w danym momencie) i poszukiwania irracjonalnie „skutecznych” sposobów rozwiązania wyimaginowanego konfliktu (kompulsje). Niezdolność pacjenta do stłumienia obsesyjnych zachcianek wyjaśnia się hipoaktywnością układu kontroli hamującej.38

W modelu Systemu Motywacji Bezpieczeństwa (SMS) normalne obawy dotyczące potencjalnego niebezpieczeństwa i bezpieczeństwa są obsługiwane przez biologicznie starożytny, zakodowany motywacyjnie system, który ma jako swoje dane wyjściowe ten sam repertuar zachowań zapobiegawczych, które charakteryzują kompulsje OCD.39

W tym modelu objawy OCD pojawiają się, ponieważ negatywny sygnał zwrotny, który jest normalnie generowany przez wykonywanie zachowań zapobiegawczych i dezaktywuje system, nie działa u pacjentów z OCD, co skutkuje ciągłą motywacją do wykonywania zachowań związanych z bezpieczeństwem.40

Wpływ czynników środowiskowych

Stres sam w sobie nie powoduje OCD, ale poważne stresy lub traumatyczne wydarzenia życiowe mogą przyspieszyć początek OCD.41 Wydarzenia środowiskowe, które mogą potencjalnie przyczynić się do OCD, obejmują powikłania podczas ciąży lub porodu, zmiany reprodukcyjne związane z wiekiem, problemy społeczno-ekonomiczne, obrażenia traumatyczne i poważne choroby.42

OCD może również wystąpić wraz z zespołem stresu pourazowego (PTSD). Jednak stresory te nie są uważane za przyczynę OCD, ale raczej za wyzwalacze u kogoś już predysponowanego do tego zaburzenia.4344

Zaawansowane badania nad patogenezą OCD

Ostatnie badania wskazują na rolę komórek glejowych, w szczególności astrocytów, w patofizjologii OCD. Poprzez badanie białek ekspresjonowanych przez neurony i astrocyty u myszy, badacze znaleźli białko związane z OCD i zachowaniami powtarzalnymi (SAPAP3), które występuje zarówno w neuronach, jak i astrocytach.45

Ponadto badania mechanizmów kognitywno-behawioralnej terapii dla OCD wykazały zwiększoną łączność funkcjonalną w wielu sieciach wewnątrz i poza klasycznymi obwodami CSTC. Najsilniejsze wzrosty dotyczyły połączeń między móżdżkiem a jądrem ogoniastym/skorupą oraz między móżdżkiem a grzbietowo-boczną/brzuszno-boczną korą przedczołową.46

Zwiększona łączność funkcjonalna między prawym biegunem czołowym a lewą pokrywą ciemieniową korelowała pozytywnie ze zwiększoną zdolnością do opierania się kompulsjom.47 Zwiększona łączność móżdżku z prążkowiem i korą przedczołową po terapii CBT u osób z OCD może odzwierciedlać lepszą kontrolę nad zachowaniami motorycznymi oraz nad afektem i poznaniem.48

Model Interakcji Wzajemnej (RIM) dla OCD

Niedawno zaproponowano nowy model, który integruje elementy z modeli poznawczo-behawioralnych OCD z podejściami neuropoznawczymi do tego zaburzenia. Model Interakcji Wzajemnej (RIM) dla OCD opiera się na dwóch założeniach:

  • Podobne obserwowane objawy mogą wynikać z różnych procesów etiologicznych
  • Deficyty neuropsychologiczne (takie jak zmniejszona inhibicja odpowiedzi i nadmierne poleganie na systemie formowania nawyków) oraz procesy poznawczo-behawioralne (takie jak tymczasowe zmniejszenie lęku po zaangażowaniu się w zachowania kompulsywne) wzajemnie na siebie wpływają, tworząc błędne koło procesów patologicznych49

Rdzeń tego modelu stanowi dwukierunkowe połączenie między obsesjami/lękiem a zachowaniem ukierunkowanym na cel. Model zakłada, że kontrola wykonawcza może tłumić nieistotne myśli (np. obsesje i lęk) i zachowania (np. kompulsje). Przewiduje, że osoby z wyjątkowo skuteczną kontrolą hamującą są znacznie mniej narażone na rozwój OCD.50

Hipoteza ewolucyjna OCD

W ramach psychologii ewolucyjnej zaproponowano hipotezę, że obsesje i kompulsje pochodzą z nadaktywności modułu psychicznego, który większość ludzi posiada i ma funkcję generowania scenariuszy ryzyka bez świadomej interwencji. Zgodnie z tą hipotezą, zjawiska obsesyjne funkcjonują jako proces unikania ryzyka offline, zaprojektowany, aby prowadzić do zachowań unikających ryzyka w przyszłości, odróżniając je od lęku i pokrewnych zjawisk jako stanów emocjonalnych online, zaprojektowanych, aby prowadzić do unikania bezpośrednich i natychmiastowych zagrożeń.51

Hipoteza ta zakłada, że OCD jest nasiloną wersją adaptacyjnej strategii, która zwiększyła dostosowanie reprodukcyjne ludzi posiadających tę cechę w stosunku do tych, którzy jej nie posiadali w ich pierwotnym środowisku. Funkcja adaptacyjna tego systemu polega na tym, że chroni organizm przed koniecznością doświadczania fizycznych i społecznych zagrożeń in vivo, ale zamiast tego wywołuje taką samą odpowiedź uczenia się w całkowitym fizycznym bezpieczeństwie.5253

Implikacje terapeutyczne

Zrozumienie patofizjologii OCD ma istotne implikacje dla opracowywania nowych strategii terapeutycznych. Na przykład, jeśli hipoteza o neurotoksyczności związanej z glutaminianem jako jednym z czynników napędzających patogenezę OCD zostanie potwierdzona, zajęcie się tym układem neuroprzekaźnikowym może stanowić kamień milowy dla nowych strategii leczenia.54

Leki modulujące glutaminian zostały zaproponowane jako kandydaci do strategii augmentacji leczenia OCD. Istnieje coraz więcej dowodów na skuteczność stosowania technik neuromodulacyjnych (np. głębokiej stymulacji mózgu i przezczaszkowej stymulacji magnetycznej) w przypadkach opornych na leczenie.55

Głęboka Przezczaszkowa Stymulacja Magnetyczna (Deep TMS™) wykorzystuje pola magnetyczne do bezpiecznej regulacji aktywności neuronalnej struktur mózgowych związanych z OCD. Skuteczność tego leczenia została potwierdzona w 2019 roku w wieloośrodkowym, kontrolowanym placebo badaniu opublikowanym w American Journal of Psychiatry: badanie wykazało, że regulacja funkcji „przyśrodkowej kory przedczołowej i przedniej części zakrętu obręczy znacząco poprawiła objawy OCD”.56

Warto również wspomnieć o skuteczności terapii poznawczo-behawioralnej (CBT) w leczeniu OCD, zwłaszcza terapii akceptacji i zaangażowania (ACT) oraz terapii ekspozycji i powstrzymania reakcji (ERP). CBT pomaga pacjentom zmienić ich reakcje na natrętne, obsesyjne myśli, a ERP stopniowo eksponuje pacjenta na źródło jego lęku, jednocześnie zapobiegając wykonywaniu kompulsji.5758

Złożoność mechanizmów OCD

Patogeneza OCD jest kompleksowym procesem, obejmującym różnorodne czynniki, w tym poznawcze, genetyczne, molekularne, środowiskowe i neuronalne. Chociaż nasza wiedza o patofizjologicznych i neurobiologicznych podstawach OCD stale rośnie, wciąż istnieje wiele pytań bez odpowiedzi.59

Jak widać, istnieje szereg czynników, które zostały zidentyfikowane jako przyczyniające się do powstania OCD, i nadal istnieje wiele teoretycznych kontrowersji wokół ostatecznej przyczyny. Możliwe jest, że kombinacja opisanych teorii może ostatecznie zostać zidentyfikowana jako faktyczna przyczyna OCD, i prawdopodobne jest, że dla danej osoby zaangażowanych jest kilka czynników.60

Zrozumienie interakcji między genami a środowiskiem i mechanizmów patogenicznych ułatwi medycynę precyzyjną i inne przyszłe podejścia mające na celu poprawę leczenia, zmniejszenie skutków ubocznych interwencji terapeutycznych i poprawę życia osób cierpiących na te wyniszczające zaburzenia.61

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a prevalent psychiatric disorder affecting 1% to 3% of the global population, characterized by intrusive thoughts, known as obsessions, and repetitive actions, or compulsions. […] The complex etiology of OCD involves cognitive, genetic, and neural factors, making the condition’s diagnosis challenging and necessitating the exclusion of other psychiatric conditions that present similarly. […] While the combination of medication and psychotherapy is generally effective, emerging evidence supports using neuromodulation techniques (eg, deep brain stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation) for treatment-resistant cases. […] The etiology of OCD is complex, encompassing diverse factors, including cognitive, genetic, molecular, environmental, and neural elements.
  • #2
    https://www.deanfrancispress.com/index.php/ms/article/view/2175
    Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common, chronic, severe psychiatric disorder in which people have persistent and unwanted thoughts and rigid behaviors. […] The cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuit is widely considered to be the neuroanatomical substrate of OCD. […] Based on genetic research, this circuit is operation is significantly influenced by genes that regulate the glutamatergic, dopaminergic, and serotonergic systems as well as their interactions. […] However, the inability to pinpoint the precise pathophysiology behind this intricate and varied condition has impeded attempts to create novel treatments or improve those that already exist. […] This review focuses on the pathogenesis and contributing factors associated with research aimed at elucidating the pathophysiology of OCD and advancing therapeutic interventions. […] By studying the neurobiological basis of OCD, including neural circuits, neurotransmitter system and genetic factors, people can understand the pathogenesis of OCD deeply, and provide a scientific basis for formulating more effective therapeutic strategies.
  • #3 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Recent studies point towards OCD being fundamentally a network-based disorder. […] The cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loop has become a pivotal framework for understanding its pathophysiology. […] In OCD, hyperactivity in the direct pathway relative to the indirect pathway has been observed. […] Early findings of the effectiveness of clomipramine, which has robust serotonin reuptake inhibition observed during treatment, emphasized the role of serotonin in the pathogenesis of OCD. […] Emerging studies point towards the glutaminergic system in the onset and progression of OCD. […] The autoimmune etiology provides another intriguing dimension to OCD, particularly in Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS) and Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS).
  • #4 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    The first model suggests an imbalance between the activity of different prefrontal regions: dlPFC hypoactivity, ACC hyperactivity and OFC hyperactivity seem to be responsible for the impaired action-outcome monitoring, lack of sense of completeness, egodystonic behavioral commands and enhanced error-related signals. […] The second model, proposed by Modell in 1989, is focused on the pallidal dysfunction to inhibit mediodorsal thalamic nucleus and its connections to the prefrontal cortex. […] An abnormal reverberation of CSTC circuits is thought to contribute to the development of repetitive and intrusive thoughts, as well as compulsive behaviours. […] Recent reviews underline the role of CSTC in the pathophysiology of OCD and how the dysfunction of monoamines in these circuits may underpin symptom.
  • #5 Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder
    Biologically based theories about the mechanism of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) refer to biologically based theories about the mechanism of OCD. Cognitive models generally fall into the category of executive dysfunction or modulatory control. Neuroanatomically, functional and structural neuroimaging studies implicate the prefrontal cortex (PFC), basal ganglia (BG), insula, and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Genetic and neurochemical studies implicate glutamate and monoamine neurotransmitters, especially serotonin and dopamine. […] The cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop (CBGTC) model is based on the observation that the basal ganglia loops related to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are implicated in OCD by neuroimaging studies, although the directionality of volumetric and functional changes is not consistent. Causal evidence from OCD secondary to neuropsychiatric disorders supports the CBGTC model.
  • #6 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1934139-overview
    Functional imaging studies in OCD have demonstrated some reproducible patterns of abnormality. Specifically, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scanning have shown increases in blood flow and metabolic activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, limbic structures, caudate, and thalamus, with a trend toward right-sided predominance. In some studies, these areas of overactivity have been shown to normalize following successful treatment with either SSRIs or cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). […] These findings suggest the hypothesis that the symptoms of OCD are driven by impaired intracortical inhibition of specific orbitofrontal-subcortical circuitry that mediates strong emotions and the autonomic responses to those emotions. Cingulotomy, a neurosurgical intervention sometimes used for severe and treatment-resistant OCD, interrupts this circuit (see Treatment and Management).
  • #7 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    The CSTC circuit is made up of direct and indirect pathways: the direct pathway is mainly excitatory and promotes behaviour, while the indirect pathway is largely inhibitory and restricts behaviour. […] It is hypothesized that OCD is associated with excessive activity of the direct pathway, due to a primary dysfunction of the indirect pathway, resulting in reduced inhibition of the thalamus. […] Consequently, the thalamus becomes disinhibited and increases its excitatory influence on the cortex, leading to the clinical features of OCD. […] More recently, authors have tended to avoid the dichotomy between cortical and subcortical models focusing on the CSTC loops and their parallel and interconnected nature. […] Impaired neural activity among these circuits is implicated in the maintenance of automatic and stereotyped behavioural and cognitive patterns characteristic of OCD, explaining the inefficiency in suppressing automatic behaviours and intrusive thoughts.
  • #8 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    The CSTC circuit is made up of direct and indirect pathways: the direct pathway is mainly excitatory and promotes behaviour, while the indirect pathway is largely inhibitory and restricts behaviour. […] It is hypothesized that OCD is associated with excessive activity of the direct pathway, due to a primary dysfunction of the indirect pathway, resulting in reduced inhibition of the thalamus. […] Consequently, the thalamus becomes disinhibited and increases its excitatory influence on the cortex, leading to the clinical features of OCD. […] More recently, authors have tended to avoid the dichotomy between cortical and subcortical models focusing on the CSTC loops and their parallel and interconnected nature. […] Impaired neural activity among these circuits is implicated in the maintenance of automatic and stereotyped behavioural and cognitive patterns characteristic of OCD, explaining the inefficiency in suppressing automatic behaviours and intrusive thoughts.
  • #9 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    The CSTC circuit is made up of direct and indirect pathways: the direct pathway is mainly excitatory and promotes behaviour, while the indirect pathway is largely inhibitory and restricts behaviour. […] It is hypothesized that OCD is associated with excessive activity of the direct pathway, due to a primary dysfunction of the indirect pathway, resulting in reduced inhibition of the thalamus. […] Consequently, the thalamus becomes disinhibited and increases its excitatory influence on the cortex, leading to the clinical features of OCD. […] More recently, authors have tended to avoid the dichotomy between cortical and subcortical models focusing on the CSTC loops and their parallel and interconnected nature. […] Impaired neural activity among these circuits is implicated in the maintenance of automatic and stereotyped behavioural and cognitive patterns characteristic of OCD, explaining the inefficiency in suppressing automatic behaviours and intrusive thoughts.
  • #10 Pathophysiology of Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Affected Brain Regions and Challenge Towards Discovery of Novel Drug Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/46477
    The pathological activation of segregated closed loop circuits involving cortex-basal gangliathalamuscortex pathways would produce reverberating activity and result in a persistent discharge of the innate programs characteristic of OCD. […] The repetitive rituals (compulsions) and aggressive behavior, which is predominant in OCD patients is probably due to serotonin depletion. […] The Group A Beta-Hemolytic Streptococcal (GABHS) infections produce anti-neuronal antibodies that adversely affect basal ganglia cells, which might lead to the development of OCD. […] The orbitofrontal cortex that had been demonstrated to be overactive in OCD is a region mediating the active expression of emotional response to significant biological stimuli as well as the inhibition of behavioral response.
  • #11 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    Brain imaging studies have consistently demonstrated differing blood flow patterns among people with OCD compared with controls, and the cortical and basal ganglia regions are most strongly implicated. […] A 1998 finding implicated the basal ganglia as a key brain region in OCD with the discovery that in a sub-group of children with OCD the disorder may have been triggered by infections. […] It is thought that the body’s natural response to infection, the production of certain antibodies, when directed to parts of the brain might be linked in some way to Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders associated with Streptococcal Infection (PANDAS). […] Overall, genetic studies indicate some tendency towards anxiety that runs in families, although this is probably only slight. […] Some research points to the likelihood that OCD sufferers will have a family member with OCD or with one of the other disorders in the OCD spectrum.
  • #12 Pathophysiology of Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Affected Brain Regions and Challenge Towards Discovery of Novel Drug Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/46477
    Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder characterized by absurd, recurrent and uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions) that produce anxiety, which are followed by repetitive behaviors (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety. […] Obsessive-Compulsive disorder can impair all areas of brain functioning and produce devastating effects on patients and their families. […] Several neural systems have been implicated in the pathophysiology of OCD: The results of neuroimaging studies in OCD patients have implicated most consistently the orbitofrontal cortex, the cingulated cortex and the basal ganglia, and more recently also regions within the parietal lobe, in the pathophysiology of obsessions and compulsions. […] Dysregulation of the serotonergic (5-HT) system has been suggested primarily on the basis of the effectiveness of SRIs and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in alleviating obsessions and compulsions in patients.
  • #13 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    The first model suggests an imbalance between the activity of different prefrontal regions: dlPFC hypoactivity, ACC hyperactivity and OFC hyperactivity seem to be responsible for the impaired action-outcome monitoring, lack of sense of completeness, egodystonic behavioral commands and enhanced error-related signals. […] The second model, proposed by Modell in 1989, is focused on the pallidal dysfunction to inhibit mediodorsal thalamic nucleus and its connections to the prefrontal cortex. […] An abnormal reverberation of CSTC circuits is thought to contribute to the development of repetitive and intrusive thoughts, as well as compulsive behaviours. […] Recent reviews underline the role of CSTC in the pathophysiology of OCD and how the dysfunction of monoamines in these circuits may underpin symptom.
  • #14 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Recent studies point towards OCD being fundamentally a network-based disorder. […] The cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loop has become a pivotal framework for understanding its pathophysiology. […] In OCD, hyperactivity in the direct pathway relative to the indirect pathway has been observed. […] Early findings of the effectiveness of clomipramine, which has robust serotonin reuptake inhibition observed during treatment, emphasized the role of serotonin in the pathogenesis of OCD. […] Emerging studies point towards the glutaminergic system in the onset and progression of OCD. […] The autoimmune etiology provides another intriguing dimension to OCD, particularly in Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS) and Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS).
  • #15 Pathophysiology of Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Affected Brain Regions and Challenge Towards Discovery of Novel Drug Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/46477
    Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder characterized by absurd, recurrent and uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions) that produce anxiety, which are followed by repetitive behaviors (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety. […] Obsessive-Compulsive disorder can impair all areas of brain functioning and produce devastating effects on patients and their families. […] Several neural systems have been implicated in the pathophysiology of OCD: The results of neuroimaging studies in OCD patients have implicated most consistently the orbitofrontal cortex, the cingulated cortex and the basal ganglia, and more recently also regions within the parietal lobe, in the pathophysiology of obsessions and compulsions. […] Dysregulation of the serotonergic (5-HT) system has been suggested primarily on the basis of the effectiveness of SRIs and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in alleviating obsessions and compulsions in patients.
  • #16 Pathophysiology of Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Affected Brain Regions and Challenge Towards Discovery of Novel Drug Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/46477
    The pathological activation of segregated closed loop circuits involving cortex-basal gangliathalamuscortex pathways would produce reverberating activity and result in a persistent discharge of the innate programs characteristic of OCD. […] The repetitive rituals (compulsions) and aggressive behavior, which is predominant in OCD patients is probably due to serotonin depletion. […] The Group A Beta-Hemolytic Streptococcal (GABHS) infections produce anti-neuronal antibodies that adversely affect basal ganglia cells, which might lead to the development of OCD. […] The orbitofrontal cortex that had been demonstrated to be overactive in OCD is a region mediating the active expression of emotional response to significant biological stimuli as well as the inhibition of behavioral response.
  • #17 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Recent studies point towards OCD being fundamentally a network-based disorder. […] The cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loop has become a pivotal framework for understanding its pathophysiology. […] In OCD, hyperactivity in the direct pathway relative to the indirect pathway has been observed. […] Early findings of the effectiveness of clomipramine, which has robust serotonin reuptake inhibition observed during treatment, emphasized the role of serotonin in the pathogenesis of OCD. […] Emerging studies point towards the glutaminergic system in the onset and progression of OCD. […] The autoimmune etiology provides another intriguing dimension to OCD, particularly in Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS) and Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS).
  • #18 Nutritional and herbal supplements in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder | General Psychiatry
    https://gpsych.bmj.com/content/33/2/e100159
    Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder that is characterised by obsessions and compulsions. […] Structural, neurochemical, genetic and immunological factors play a role in the aetiology and pathophysiology of OCD. […] Alterations in certain neurotransmitters are involved in OCD symptoms. Serotonin deficiency and the dysfunction in the availability of serotonin transporter (5-HTT) have been implicated in OCD symptomatology. […] In addition, elevated glutamate, glutamine and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels in the caudate nucleus and increased glutamate levels in the cerebrospinal fluid have been found in patients with OCD. […] Also, the glutamatergic ionotropic N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor has been associated with OCD. […] Previous studies have demonstrated that vitamin D deficiency is associated with numerous neuropsychiatric diseases that include autism, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia and OCD.
  • #19 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – Neurobiology and Treatment
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-neurobiology-treatment/
    The hallmark of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is the presence of obsessions and compulsions. […] OCD is believed to diminish the quality of life of the patient, similar in extent to those individuals with schizophrenia. […] OCD is under-recognised, undertreated as well as frequently mistreated. […] OCD is a polygenic disorder with many identified risk loci of small effect. […] Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) are heritable, with their heritability ranging from 30 to 77%. […] Genetic factors contribute to specific OCS dimensions, including contamination/cleaning and checking/ordering. […] The cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical loop (CSTC) is considered the critical brain circuit involved in the phenomenology of OCD. […] The neurotransmitter model of OCD postulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic overactivity in frontostriatal pathways, along with diminished serotonergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in frontolimbic systems. […] Glutamatergic hyperactivity associated with over-activity of the direct pathway is postulated to be one of the mechanisms in the pathophysiology of OCD. […] OCD can thus be conceptualised as a disorder with an imbalance between the goal-directed and habit systems.
  • #20 Pathophysiology of Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Affected Brain Regions and Challenge Towards Discovery of Novel Drug Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/46477
    Abnormalities of the dopaminergic system have also been implicated in the pathophysiology of OCD, based on surplus therapeutic benefits obtained with co-administration of SSRIs and dopamine blockers. […] More recently, an increasing body of evidence points also to the involvement of the glutamatergic system in OCD. […] The obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders are Tourettes disorder, Body dysmorphic disorder, Hypochondriasis, Pathological jealousy, Trichotillomania, Skin picking, Nail biting, Compulsive buying, Kleptomania, Pathological gambling, Nonparaphilic sexual disorders, Obsessive compulsive personality disorder. […] The brain regions impaired in OCD includes dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), basal ganglia, orbito-frontal cortex (OFC), striatum, amygdala, thalamus and brainstem.
  • #21 Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder
    Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter has been implicated in OCD. […] Reduced dopamine D1 receptors and dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum have been reported in people with OCD, along with both increased and decreased reports of dopamine transporter (DAT) binding. […] Drug challenge studies have implicated 5-HT2A and 5-HT2A in OCD.
  • #22 Understanding OCD | Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders | Stanford Medicine
    https://med.stanford.edu/ocd/about/understanding.html
    OCD is a common mental disorder, and is often disabling. […] In order to tackle these challenges, it is essential that we understand the etiology of OCD. Prevailing theories indicate that OCD is a biological disease. Functional brain imaging studies have produced a model for pathophysiology of OCD which involves hyperactivity in certain subcortical and cortical regions. […] Many investigators have contributed to the hypothesis that OCD involves dysfunction in a neuronal loop running from the orbital frontal cortex to the cingulate gyrus, striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen), globus pallidus, thalamus and back to the frontal cortex. Organic insult to these regions can produce obsessive and compulsive symptoms. […] The hypothesis that an abnormality in serotonergic neurotransmission underlies OCD arose out of the observation that clomipramine, which inhibits both serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake, relieved symptoms, whereas noradrenergic reuptake inhibitors did not. […] Twin studies and family studies strongly suggest that vulnerability to OCD can be inherited, but a positive family history is absent in many patients.
  • #23 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – Neurobiology and Treatment
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-neurobiology-treatment/
    The hallmark of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is the presence of obsessions and compulsions. […] OCD is believed to diminish the quality of life of the patient, similar in extent to those individuals with schizophrenia. […] OCD is under-recognised, undertreated as well as frequently mistreated. […] OCD is a polygenic disorder with many identified risk loci of small effect. […] Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) are heritable, with their heritability ranging from 30 to 77%. […] Genetic factors contribute to specific OCS dimensions, including contamination/cleaning and checking/ordering. […] The cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical loop (CSTC) is considered the critical brain circuit involved in the phenomenology of OCD. […] The neurotransmitter model of OCD postulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic overactivity in frontostriatal pathways, along with diminished serotonergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in frontolimbic systems. […] Glutamatergic hyperactivity associated with over-activity of the direct pathway is postulated to be one of the mechanisms in the pathophysiology of OCD. […] OCD can thus be conceptualised as a disorder with an imbalance between the goal-directed and habit systems.
  • #24 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – Neurobiology and Treatment
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-neurobiology-treatment/
    The hallmark of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is the presence of obsessions and compulsions. […] OCD is believed to diminish the quality of life of the patient, similar in extent to those individuals with schizophrenia. […] OCD is under-recognised, undertreated as well as frequently mistreated. […] OCD is a polygenic disorder with many identified risk loci of small effect. […] Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) are heritable, with their heritability ranging from 30 to 77%. […] Genetic factors contribute to specific OCS dimensions, including contamination/cleaning and checking/ordering. […] The cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical loop (CSTC) is considered the critical brain circuit involved in the phenomenology of OCD. […] The neurotransmitter model of OCD postulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic overactivity in frontostriatal pathways, along with diminished serotonergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in frontolimbic systems. […] Glutamatergic hyperactivity associated with over-activity of the direct pathway is postulated to be one of the mechanisms in the pathophysiology of OCD. […] OCD can thus be conceptualised as a disorder with an imbalance between the goal-directed and habit systems.
  • #25 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – Neurobiology and Treatment
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-neurobiology-treatment/
    The hallmark of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is the presence of obsessions and compulsions. […] OCD is believed to diminish the quality of life of the patient, similar in extent to those individuals with schizophrenia. […] OCD is under-recognised, undertreated as well as frequently mistreated. […] OCD is a polygenic disorder with many identified risk loci of small effect. […] Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) are heritable, with their heritability ranging from 30 to 77%. […] Genetic factors contribute to specific OCS dimensions, including contamination/cleaning and checking/ordering. […] The cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical loop (CSTC) is considered the critical brain circuit involved in the phenomenology of OCD. […] The neurotransmitter model of OCD postulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic overactivity in frontostriatal pathways, along with diminished serotonergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in frontolimbic systems. […] Glutamatergic hyperactivity associated with over-activity of the direct pathway is postulated to be one of the mechanisms in the pathophysiology of OCD. […] OCD can thus be conceptualised as a disorder with an imbalance between the goal-directed and habit systems.
  • #26 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    However, despite a proliferation of studies, and dozens of potential gene candidates suggested, researchers have so far failed to identify a consistent candidate gene responsible for OCD. […] Its common to see and hear mental health professionals describing the cause of OCD in terms of a biochemical imbalance. These approaches have focused on one particular neurotransmitter, serotonin. […] In more recent years some researchers have argued that the most robust evidence for the serotonin hypothesis is the specificity of serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRI) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication. […] Other research has revealed that there may be a number of other factors that could play a role in the onset of OCD, including behavioural, cognitive, and environmental factors.
  • #27 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Recent studies point towards OCD being fundamentally a network-based disorder. […] The cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loop has become a pivotal framework for understanding its pathophysiology. […] In OCD, hyperactivity in the direct pathway relative to the indirect pathway has been observed. […] Early findings of the effectiveness of clomipramine, which has robust serotonin reuptake inhibition observed during treatment, emphasized the role of serotonin in the pathogenesis of OCD. […] Emerging studies point towards the glutaminergic system in the onset and progression of OCD. […] The autoimmune etiology provides another intriguing dimension to OCD, particularly in Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS) and Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS).
  • #28 International OCD Foundation | What Causes OCD?
    https://iocdf.org/about-ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    For this reason, researchers believe that a combination of genes and environmental factors play a role in the development of OCD. […] As with the guesses about genetic causes of OCD, there is no definitive evidence that OCD is a learned behavior or is solely caused by environmental factors. […] PANDAS (Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infections) and PANS (Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome) are disorders related to OCD that occur in childhood following the body’s reaction to an infection. […] Although we do not currently know what causes OCD, conducting research is the key to figuring out the precise factors involved, and understanding how they work together.
  • #29 Pathophysiology of Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Affected Brain Regions and Challenge Towards Discovery of Novel Drug Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/46477
    The pathological activation of segregated closed loop circuits involving cortex-basal gangliathalamuscortex pathways would produce reverberating activity and result in a persistent discharge of the innate programs characteristic of OCD. […] The repetitive rituals (compulsions) and aggressive behavior, which is predominant in OCD patients is probably due to serotonin depletion. […] The Group A Beta-Hemolytic Streptococcal (GABHS) infections produce anti-neuronal antibodies that adversely affect basal ganglia cells, which might lead to the development of OCD. […] The orbitofrontal cortex that had been demonstrated to be overactive in OCD is a region mediating the active expression of emotional response to significant biological stimuli as well as the inhibition of behavioral response.
  • #30 Immunological causes of obsessive-compulsive disorder: is it time for the concept of an “autoimmune OCD” subtype? | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-021-01700-4
    Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a highly disabling mental illness that can be divided into frequent primary and rarer organic secondary forms. Its association with secondary autoimmune triggers was introduced through the discovery of Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated with Streptococcal infection (PANDAS) and Pediatric Acute onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS). […] Subgroups of patients with OCD show elevated proinflammatory cytokines and autoantibodies against targets that include the basal ganglia. […] The novel concept of autoimmune OCD is proposed for a small subgroup of OCD patients, and clinical signs based on the PANDAS/PANS criteria and from recent experience with autoimmune encephalitis and autoimmune psychosis are suggested. […] Clinical investigations may also reveal alterations such as increased levels of anti-basal ganglia or dopamine receptor antibodies or inflammatory changes in the basal ganglia in neuroimaging.
  • #31 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    Brain imaging studies have consistently demonstrated differing blood flow patterns among people with OCD compared with controls, and the cortical and basal ganglia regions are most strongly implicated. […] A 1998 finding implicated the basal ganglia as a key brain region in OCD with the discovery that in a sub-group of children with OCD the disorder may have been triggered by infections. […] It is thought that the body’s natural response to infection, the production of certain antibodies, when directed to parts of the brain might be linked in some way to Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders associated with Streptococcal Infection (PANDAS). […] Overall, genetic studies indicate some tendency towards anxiety that runs in families, although this is probably only slight. […] Some research points to the likelihood that OCD sufferers will have a family member with OCD or with one of the other disorders in the OCD spectrum.
  • #32 Immunological causes of obsessive-compulsive disorder: is it time for the concept of an “autoimmune OCD” subtype? | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-021-01700-4
    Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a highly disabling mental illness that can be divided into frequent primary and rarer organic secondary forms. Its association with secondary autoimmune triggers was introduced through the discovery of Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated with Streptococcal infection (PANDAS) and Pediatric Acute onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS). […] Subgroups of patients with OCD show elevated proinflammatory cytokines and autoantibodies against targets that include the basal ganglia. […] The novel concept of autoimmune OCD is proposed for a small subgroup of OCD patients, and clinical signs based on the PANDAS/PANS criteria and from recent experience with autoimmune encephalitis and autoimmune psychosis are suggested. […] Clinical investigations may also reveal alterations such as increased levels of anti-basal ganglia or dopamine receptor antibodies or inflammatory changes in the basal ganglia in neuroimaging.
  • #33 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Cognitive and learning-based models of OCD posit that maladaptive beliefs fuel obsessional anxiety, leading to compulsive behaviors aimed at mitigating such anxiety. […] The understanding of OCD has evolved significantly over time. […] Detailed evidence supports this from case reports associated with conditions such as Sydenham’s chorea and ischemic events. […] These conditions result in disruptions to basal ganglia regions like the globus pallidus and caudate, leading to obsessive-compulsive behaviors. […] Postmortem studies, albeit limited, have revealed abnormalities in the orbitofrontal cortex of patients with OCD.
  • #34 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    According to the cognitive model of OCD, everyone experiences intrusive thoughts from time-to-time. However, people with OCD often have an inflated sense of responsibility and misinterpret these thoughts as being very important and significant which could lead to catastrophic consequences. […] Thus, according to the cognitive hypothesis, researchers have hypothesised that OCD would occur if intrusive cognitions were interpreted as an indication that the person may be, may have been, or may come to be, responsible for harm or its prevention. […] Stress does not actually cause OCD, but major stresses or traumatic life events may precipitate the onset of OCD. […] However, these are not thought to cause OCD, but rather trigger it in someone already predisposed to the disorder. […] As you can see there is a range of factors have been identified as contributing to the cause of OCD, and there is still a great deal of theoretical contention surrounding the definitive cause. […] However, despite most of the above theories offering compelling and highly informative insights, its a possibility that a combination of the theories may eventually be identified as the actual cause of OCD and that it is likely that for any given person a number of factors are involved.
  • #35 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    According to the cognitive model of OCD, everyone experiences intrusive thoughts from time-to-time. However, people with OCD often have an inflated sense of responsibility and misinterpret these thoughts as being very important and significant which could lead to catastrophic consequences. […] Thus, according to the cognitive hypothesis, researchers have hypothesised that OCD would occur if intrusive cognitions were interpreted as an indication that the person may be, may have been, or may come to be, responsible for harm or its prevention. […] Stress does not actually cause OCD, but major stresses or traumatic life events may precipitate the onset of OCD. […] However, these are not thought to cause OCD, but rather trigger it in someone already predisposed to the disorder. […] As you can see there is a range of factors have been identified as contributing to the cause of OCD, and there is still a great deal of theoretical contention surrounding the definitive cause. […] However, despite most of the above theories offering compelling and highly informative insights, its a possibility that a combination of the theories may eventually be identified as the actual cause of OCD and that it is likely that for any given person a number of factors are involved.
  • #36 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    Moving away from the traditional anxiety-based theory, which views OCD as a disorder driven by pathological sensitivity and anxiety-inducing suggestions that may arise from obsessions, the role of compulsivity has reached a greater significance: compulsions are designed to reduce harm, but they can also lead to a profound experience of lack of control. […] The fact that compulsions themselves may induce anxiety prompts the idea that OCD could even be rebadged as Compulsive Obsessive Disorder (COD) calling into question the causal relationship between obsessive and compulsive symptoms. […] Two main models of OCD pathophysiology have been identified so far: a cortical model that attributes OCD to a prefrontal cortex dysfunction and a subcortical model, centered on basal ganglia dysfunction and on their cortical connections.
  • #37 Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder
    There is a hypothesis, supported by experimental data, that the pathology of OCD is explained by two factors: hyperactivation of the error detector (in particular a population of neurons in the ACC) and insufficient activity of the inhibitory control mechanism (in particular a number of subcortical structures). […] Excessive activation of the ACC and the error detector in general leads to a sensation in patients that forces them to unconsciously search for a reason for anxiety (obsessions unconsciously assessed as „important” at the moment) and to search for irrationally „effective” ways to resolve the imaginary conflict (compulsions). The inability of the patient to suppress obsessive urges is explained by the hypoactivity of the inhibitory control system. […] Functional neuroimaging studies have implicated multiple regions in OCD.
  • #38 Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder
    There is a hypothesis, supported by experimental data, that the pathology of OCD is explained by two factors: hyperactivation of the error detector (in particular a population of neurons in the ACC) and insufficient activity of the inhibitory control mechanism (in particular a number of subcortical structures). […] Excessive activation of the ACC and the error detector in general leads to a sensation in patients that forces them to unconsciously search for a reason for anxiety (obsessions unconsciously assessed as „important” at the moment) and to search for irrationally „effective” ways to resolve the imaginary conflict (compulsions). The inability of the patient to suppress obsessive urges is explained by the hypoactivity of the inhibitory control system. […] Functional neuroimaging studies have implicated multiple regions in OCD.
  • #39 Pathophysiology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Insights from Normal Function and Neurotoxic Effects of Drugs, Infection, and Brain Injury | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-15080-7_118
    Clinical presentation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is summarized, and a theoretical model of the disorder and its neurobiology are described. […] The model is used to account for the observed pattern of clinical symptoms, for the pathophysiology of OCD, and for medical reports of OCD-like symptoms from neurotoxic effects of drugs, brain injury, and infection. […] A model is considered where normal concerns regarding potential danger and security are handled by a biologically ancient hardwired motivational system, called the security motivation system (SMS), which has as its output the same repertoire of precautionary behaviors that characterize OCD compulsions. […] In the model, OCD symptoms emerge because the negative feedback signal that is normally generated by performance of precautionary behaviors and deactivates the system is inoperative in patients with OCD, resulting in continued motivation to perform security-related behaviors.
  • #40 Pathophysiology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Insights from Normal Function and Neurotoxic Effects of Drugs, Infection, and Brain Injury | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-15080-7_118
    Clinical presentation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is summarized, and a theoretical model of the disorder and its neurobiology are described. […] The model is used to account for the observed pattern of clinical symptoms, for the pathophysiology of OCD, and for medical reports of OCD-like symptoms from neurotoxic effects of drugs, brain injury, and infection. […] A model is considered where normal concerns regarding potential danger and security are handled by a biologically ancient hardwired motivational system, called the security motivation system (SMS), which has as its output the same repertoire of precautionary behaviors that characterize OCD compulsions. […] In the model, OCD symptoms emerge because the negative feedback signal that is normally generated by performance of precautionary behaviors and deactivates the system is inoperative in patients with OCD, resulting in continued motivation to perform security-related behaviors.
  • #41 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    According to the cognitive model of OCD, everyone experiences intrusive thoughts from time-to-time. However, people with OCD often have an inflated sense of responsibility and misinterpret these thoughts as being very important and significant which could lead to catastrophic consequences. […] Thus, according to the cognitive hypothesis, researchers have hypothesised that OCD would occur if intrusive cognitions were interpreted as an indication that the person may be, may have been, or may come to be, responsible for harm or its prevention. […] Stress does not actually cause OCD, but major stresses or traumatic life events may precipitate the onset of OCD. […] However, these are not thought to cause OCD, but rather trigger it in someone already predisposed to the disorder. […] As you can see there is a range of factors have been identified as contributing to the cause of OCD, and there is still a great deal of theoretical contention surrounding the definitive cause. […] However, despite most of the above theories offering compelling and highly informative insights, its a possibility that a combination of the theories may eventually be identified as the actual cause of OCD and that it is likely that for any given person a number of factors are involved.
  • #42 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): Symptoms and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/178508
    Another theory is that OCD starts when people misinterpret their own thoughts. Most people have unwelcome or intrusive thoughts at times, but for people with OCD, the importance of these thoughts becomes more intense or extreme. […] According to a 2018 article, it is still unclear whether stressful life events and trauma may independently cause OCD or act as a trigger for people with a predisposition to the condition. Environmental events that may potentially contribute to OCD include complications during pregnancy or delivery, age-related reproductive changes, socioeconomic problems, traumatic injuries, and a serious illness. Also, OCD may occur alongside post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
  • #43 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    According to the cognitive model of OCD, everyone experiences intrusive thoughts from time-to-time. However, people with OCD often have an inflated sense of responsibility and misinterpret these thoughts as being very important and significant which could lead to catastrophic consequences. […] Thus, according to the cognitive hypothesis, researchers have hypothesised that OCD would occur if intrusive cognitions were interpreted as an indication that the person may be, may have been, or may come to be, responsible for harm or its prevention. […] Stress does not actually cause OCD, but major stresses or traumatic life events may precipitate the onset of OCD. […] However, these are not thought to cause OCD, but rather trigger it in someone already predisposed to the disorder. […] As you can see there is a range of factors have been identified as contributing to the cause of OCD, and there is still a great deal of theoretical contention surrounding the definitive cause. […] However, despite most of the above theories offering compelling and highly informative insights, its a possibility that a combination of the theories may eventually be identified as the actual cause of OCD and that it is likely that for any given person a number of factors are involved.
  • #44 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): Symptoms and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/178508
    Another theory is that OCD starts when people misinterpret their own thoughts. Most people have unwelcome or intrusive thoughts at times, but for people with OCD, the importance of these thoughts becomes more intense or extreme. […] According to a 2018 article, it is still unclear whether stressful life events and trauma may independently cause OCD or act as a trigger for people with a predisposition to the condition. Environmental events that may potentially contribute to OCD include complications during pregnancy or delivery, age-related reproductive changes, socioeconomic problems, traumatic injuries, and a serious illness. Also, OCD may occur alongside post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
  • #45 The brain’s support cells may play a key role in OCD | UCLA Health
    https://www.uclahealth.org/news/release/brains-support-cells-may-play-key-role-ocd
    A type of cell usually characterized as the brains support system appears to play an important role in obsessive-compulsive disorder-related behaviors, according to new UCLA Health research published April 12 in Nature. […] By studying the proteins expressed by neurons and astrocytes in mice, UCLA researchers found a protein associated with OCD and repetitive behaviors in neurons was also found in astrocytes. The discovery suggests therapeutic strategies targeting astrocytes and neurons may be useful for OCD and potentially other brain disorders. […] A brain region known as the striatum, which is involved in decision-making and motor control, is thought to play a key role in OCD. […] The researchers tested their findings by inserting the SAPAP3 protein back into neurons and astrocytes of mice that had been genetically modified to lack the gene that makes the protein. They found that the two types of cells interacted in different ways when they measured the proteins effects on compulsion and anxiety, two of the typical hallmarks of OCD.
  • #46 Mechanisms of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder involve robust and extensive increases in brain network connectivity | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp2017192
    It is plausible that extra-CSTC actions of CBT remediate OCD by normalizing CSTC-hyperactivity or via independent compensatory mechanisms. […] The present study aimed to deepen understanding of the mechanisms of CBT in OCD by measuring pre-to-post-CBT changes in functional connectivity. […] The strongest increases involved connectivity between cerebellum and caudate/putamen, and between the cerebellum and dorsolateral/ventrolateral prefrontal cortices. […] Our analysis revealed several novel findings. CBT resulted in increased resting-state functional connectivity in multiple networks within and outside classic CSTC circuits, all of which crossed previously defined, canonical functional connectivity networks. […] Increased functional connectivity between right frontal pole-left parietal operculum correlated positively with increased ability to resist compulsions.
  • #47 Mechanisms of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder involve robust and extensive increases in brain network connectivity | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp2017192
    It is plausible that extra-CSTC actions of CBT remediate OCD by normalizing CSTC-hyperactivity or via independent compensatory mechanisms. […] The present study aimed to deepen understanding of the mechanisms of CBT in OCD by measuring pre-to-post-CBT changes in functional connectivity. […] The strongest increases involved connectivity between cerebellum and caudate/putamen, and between the cerebellum and dorsolateral/ventrolateral prefrontal cortices. […] Our analysis revealed several novel findings. CBT resulted in increased resting-state functional connectivity in multiple networks within and outside classic CSTC circuits, all of which crossed previously defined, canonical functional connectivity networks. […] Increased functional connectivity between right frontal pole-left parietal operculum correlated positively with increased ability to resist compulsions.
  • #48 Mechanisms of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder involve robust and extensive increases in brain network connectivity | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp2017192
    These findings imply that CBT for OCD encompasses neurophysiologic changes in both classical CSTC and non-CSTC pathways. […] Post-CBT increases in cerebellar connectivity to striatum and prefrontal cortex in OCD could represent improved control over motor behaviors and over affect and cognition, respectively. […] In conclusion, CBT increased functional connectivity in multiple networks within and outside CSTC circuits in OCD. Increased cerebellar to striatal and prefrontal connectivity may reflect CBT strengthening the ability to resist compulsions and the acquisition of new non-compulsive goal-directed behaviors and thought patterns.
  • #49 An Integrative Model for Understanding Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Merging Cognitive Behavioral Theory with Insights from Clinical Neuroscience
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/24/7379
    Several models have been proposed for the emergence and maintenance of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). […] In the current paper, we propose a novel model that integrates elements from cognitive behavioral models of OCD with neurocognitive approaches to the disorder. This Reciprocal Interaction Model (RIM) for OCD is based on two assumptions: (a) similar observed symptoms can stem from different etiological processes; and (b) neuropsychological deficits (such as reduced response inhibition and overreliance on the habit formation system) and cognitive behavioral processes (such as temporary reduction in anxiety after engaging in compulsive behaviors) mutually affect each other such that abnormalities in one system influence the second system and vice-versa—creating a vicious cycle of pathological processes.
  • #50 An Integrative Model for Understanding Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Merging Cognitive Behavioral Theory with Insights from Clinical Neuroscience
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/24/7379
    The RIM adapts the basic structure of the prevailing cognitive behavioral model of OCD to include the role of executive control. […] The core of this model is a bidirectional connection between obsessions/anxiety and goal-directed behavior. […] The flexibility inherent in this model allows for situational variation in patients’ symptom severity in line with clinical observations. […] The RIM suggests that executive control can suppress irrelevant thoughts (e.g., obsessions and anxiety) and behaviors (e.g., compulsions). […] The model predicts that activation of this subsystem of executive control and obsessions/anxiety will predict engagement in compulsive behaviors. […] The model predicts that individuals with particularly efficient inhibitory control are much less likely to develop OCD.
  • #51 An Evolutionary Hypothesis For Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A Psychological Immune System?
    https://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cogprints.org/1147/1/ocd-final.htm
    A new hypothesis is presented within the framework of evolutionary psychology that attempts to explain the origins of obsessive-compulsive disorder. It is suggested that obsessions and compulsions originate from the overactivity of a mental module that the majority of humans possess and has the function of generating risk scenarios without voluntary intervention. It is hypothesised that obsessional phenomena function as an off-line risk avoidance process, designed to lead to risk avoidance behaviour at a future time, thus distinguishing it from anxiety and related phenomena as on-line emotional states, designed to lead to the avoidance of immediate and direct risks. […] The present hypothesis attempts to give an account of the ultimate causation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It is based upon the Darwinian view that biological systems, including psychological functions, have evolved through natural selection because of their contribution to inclusive fitness.
  • #52 An Evolutionary Hypothesis For Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A Psychological Immune System?
    https://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cogprints.org/1147/1/ocd-final.htm
    It is the contention of this hypothesis that OCD is an accentuated version of an adaptive strategy that enhanced the reproductive fitness of those humans who possessed this trait over those who did not within their ancestral environment. […] The present formulation assumes a modular configuration for the human mind/brain. Modularity suggests that the human mind consists of a number of domain-specific, highly tuned, systems that have evolved to carry out circumscribed tasks. […] It is contended that obsessional phenomena are archaic, involuntary, repetitive thought processes that stimulate strong aversive emotional states and lead to risk avoidance behaviour. It is hypothesised that the neurobiological system that generates these phenomena has the function of generating risk scenarios without conscious intervention and may thus function as an Involuntary Risk Scenario Generating System (IRSGS).
  • #53 An Evolutionary Hypothesis For Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A Psychological Immune System?
    https://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cogprints.org/1147/1/ocd-final.htm
    The adaptive function of this system is that it saves the individual organism from having to experience physical and social dangers in vivo, but instead produces the same learning response in total physical safety. […] It has already been suggested that the neuro-biological system responsible for generating obsessional thoughts is the mental or psychological analogue to the immune system. […] Therefore, obsessional thoughts will have content that relates to dangers or risks to self or kin in either of these two domains, namely the social and the physical. […] If obsessive-compulsive phenomena relate to risk scenarios to self and close kin, it should be possible to predict an increase in the frequency and intensity of risk scenarios and harm avoidance rituals at biologically critical times.
  • #54 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    Regarding the lack of control, Gillian et al., proposed that compulsions are the core feature of the disorder and obsessions are a troublesome by-product. […] They suggest that the feeling of being driven to enact compulsions may derive from the impairment of the goal-directed control (which protects against habits) relaying on the integrity of the caudate nucleus and medial orbitofrontal cortex. […] If the hypothesis that glutamate related neurotoxicity is one of the drivers of OCD pathogenesis is confirmed, tackling this neurotransmitter system may represent a steppingstone for novel treatment strategies. […] Glutamate-modulating drugs have been proposed as candidates for the augmentation strategy of OCD treatment.
  • #55 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI BookshelfTwitterFacebookLinkedInGitHubNCBI Insights BlogTwitterFacebookYoutube
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553162/
    Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a prevalent psychiatric disorder affecting 1% to 3% of the global population, characterized by intrusive thoughts, known as obsessions, and repetitive actions, or compulsions. […] The complex etiology of OCD involves cognitive, genetic, and neural factors, making the condition’s diagnosis challenging and necessitating the exclusion of other psychiatric conditions that present similarly. […] While the combination of medication and psychotherapy is generally effective, emerging evidence supports using neuromodulation techniques (eg, deep brain stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation) for treatment-resistant cases. […] The etiology of OCD is complex, encompassing diverse factors, including cognitive, genetic, molecular, environmental, and neural elements.
  • #56 OCD: Diagnosis & Treatment Options | BrainsWay
    https://www.brainsway.com/knowledge-center/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    OCD has been linked to several different risk factors. They include genetics, environment, temperament and life events. […] Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (Deep TMS™) utilizes magnetic fields to safely regulate the neural activity of brain structures found to be related to OCD. The treatment’s efficacy was confirmed in 2019, in a multicenter, sham-controlled study published in the American Journal of Psychiatry: the study found that regulating the functions of “the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex significantly improved OCD symptoms.” […] Several types of CBT are effective for treating OCD, most notably acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). ACT helps patients emphasizes psychological openness and flexibility in reacting to intrusive, obsessive thoughts, in addition to commitment to behavioral change and wellness.
  • #57 OCD: Diagnosis & Treatment Options | BrainsWay
    https://www.brainsway.com/knowledge-center/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    OCD has been linked to several different risk factors. They include genetics, environment, temperament and life events. […] Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (Deep TMS™) utilizes magnetic fields to safely regulate the neural activity of brain structures found to be related to OCD. The treatment’s efficacy was confirmed in 2019, in a multicenter, sham-controlled study published in the American Journal of Psychiatry: the study found that regulating the functions of “the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex significantly improved OCD symptoms.” […] Several types of CBT are effective for treating OCD, most notably acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). ACT helps patients emphasizes psychological openness and flexibility in reacting to intrusive, obsessive thoughts, in addition to commitment to behavioral change and wellness.
  • #58 OCD: Diagnosis & Treatment Options | BrainsWay
    https://www.brainsway.com/knowledge-center/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    Exposure and response prevention therapy (ERP) has also been shown to be effective in treating OCD. With ERP, the patient is gradually exposed to the source of their anxiety, as the therapist accompanies and supports them during this process, yet is prevented from acting out compulsions. The goal is to acclimate the patient’s brain to the intrusive thoughts and build skills to overcome them without resorting to compulsions.
  • #59 The Compulsive Obsessive Disorder: many clues, still little evidence | Journal of Psychopathology
    https://www.jpsychopathol.it/article/view/452
    The Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a debilitating psychiatric condition characterized by intrusive, distressing obsessions and repetitive, ritualistic compulsions. Despite its relatively high prevalence, elucidating its pathogenesis remains a significant challenge. […] The present study aims to review the current understanding of OCDs pathophysiological mechanisms focusing on the role of cortical and subcortical structures and their connections, proposing that obsessions may be a consequence, rather than a trigger, of compulsions. […] The knowledge about pathophysiological and neurobiological basis of OCD is increasing and over the last years we are witnessing a revolution in OCDs phenomenological paradigm that sets compulsions as behaviors performed to reduce the anxiety evoked by obsessions.
  • #60 What causes OCD | OCD-UK
    https://www.ocduk.org/ocd/what-causes-ocd/
    According to the cognitive model of OCD, everyone experiences intrusive thoughts from time-to-time. However, people with OCD often have an inflated sense of responsibility and misinterpret these thoughts as being very important and significant which could lead to catastrophic consequences. […] Thus, according to the cognitive hypothesis, researchers have hypothesised that OCD would occur if intrusive cognitions were interpreted as an indication that the person may be, may have been, or may come to be, responsible for harm or its prevention. […] Stress does not actually cause OCD, but major stresses or traumatic life events may precipitate the onset of OCD. […] However, these are not thought to cause OCD, but rather trigger it in someone already predisposed to the disorder. […] As you can see there is a range of factors have been identified as contributing to the cause of OCD, and there is still a great deal of theoretical contention surrounding the definitive cause. […] However, despite most of the above theories offering compelling and highly informative insights, its a possibility that a combination of the theories may eventually be identified as the actual cause of OCD and that it is likely that for any given person a number of factors are involved.
  • #61 Mechanisms of pathogenesis and environmental moderators in preclinical models of compulsive-like behaviours | CoLab
    https://colab.ws/articles/10.1016%2Fj.nbd.2023.106223
    Such studies may serve to provide a mechanistic framework to build our understanding of the pathogenesis of complex neuropsychiatric disorders such as OCD. […] Furthermore, understanding gene-environment interactions and pathogenic mechanisms will facilitate precision medicine and other future approaches to enhance treatment, reduce side-effects of therapeutic interventions, and improve the lives of those suffering from these devastating disorders.