Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Diabetic Retinopathy – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560805/

  Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of visual loss in adults of the working-age group in the western population. […] Diabetic retinopathy may lead to vision-threatening damage to the retina, eventually leading to blindness. […] Early detection and timely intervention are the keys to avoiding blindness due to diabetic retinopathy. […] The management options include strict control of the systemic conditions, intravitreal pharmacotherapy, and laser photocoagulation. […] With early diagnosis and prompt management, good final visual acuity may be achieved in most patients with DR. […] Early detection and timely intervention are the keys to avoiding blindness due to diabetic retinopathy. […] The systemic status should be optimized by strict metabolic control of diabetes, maintaining HbA1C levels under 7%, and lifestyle modifications like routine exercises and a proper diabetic food diet.

• #2 Standard Tools and Tests for Diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy – Modern Optometry

  https://modernod.com/articles/2019-june/standard-tools-and-tests-fordiagnosing-diabetic-retinopathy

  With the prevalence of diabetes growing, primary eye care providers play an important role in identifying and referring treatable diabetic eye disease. […] All patients with diabetes need a dilated comprehensive eye examination with a focus on evaluating diabetic eye disease. […] Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of legal blindness in working-age adults in the United States and a leading cause of blindness worldwide. […] For optometrists, as primary care physicians, it is therefore paramount that we use the tools available to us to evaluate for diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macula edema (DME) and refer treatable disease to a retina subspecialist for appropriate treatment. […] The American Academy of Ophthalmology recommends initial screening for diabetic retinopathy with a comprehensive eye examination for patients 5 years after initial diagnosis with type 1 diabetes.

• #3 Diabetic Retinopathy – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560805/

  Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of visual loss in adults of the working-age group in the western population. […] Diabetic retinopathy may lead to vision-threatening damage to the retina, eventually leading to blindness. […] Early detection and timely intervention are the keys to avoiding blindness due to diabetic retinopathy. […] The management options include strict control of the systemic conditions, intravitreal pharmacotherapy, and laser photocoagulation. […] With early diagnosis and prompt management, good final visual acuity may be achieved in most patients with DR. […] Early detection and timely intervention are the keys to avoiding blindness due to diabetic retinopathy. […] The systemic status should be optimized by strict metabolic control of diabetes, maintaining HbA1C levels under 7%, and lifestyle modifications like routine exercises and a proper diabetic food diet.

• #4 Diabetic Retinopathy | National Eye Institute

  https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/diabetic-retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is an eye condition that can cause vision loss and blindness in people who have diabetes. It affects blood vessels in the retina (the light-sensitive layer of tissue in the back of your eye). […] If you have diabetes, its important to get a comprehensive dilated eye exam at least once a year. Diabetic retinopathy may not have any symptoms at first but finding it early can help you take steps to protect your vision. […] Eye doctors can check for diabetic retinopathy as part of a dilated eye exam. The exam is simple and painless your doctor will give you some eye drops to dilate (widen) your pupil and then check your eyes for diabetic retinopathy and other eye problems. […] If you do develop diabetic retinopathy, early treatment can stop the damage and prevent blindness.

• #5 Diabetic retinopathy – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20371617

  Diabetic retinopathy is best diagnosed with a comprehensive dilated eye exam. For this exam, drops placed in your eyes widen (dilate) your pupils to allow your doctor a better view inside your eyes. The drops can cause your close vision to blur until they wear off, several hours later. […] During the exam, your eye doctor will look for abnormalities in the inside and outside parts of your eyes. […] After your eyes are dilated, a dye is injected into a vein in your arm. Then pictures are taken as the dye circulates through your eyes’ blood vessels. The images can pinpoint blood vessels that are closed, broken or leaking. […] With this test, pictures provide cross-sectional images of the retina that show the thickness of the retina. This will help determine how much fluid, if any, has leaked into retinal tissue. Later, optical coherence tomography (OCT) exams can be used to monitor how treatment is working.

• #6 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/eyes-and-vision/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis.html

  Diabetic retinopathy can be found during a dilated eye exam. This exam is done by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. […] You need a full exam done by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. […] Your doctor may also do a test called an optical coherence tomography (OCT) to check for fluid in your retina. […] Sometimes a fluorescein angiogram is done to check for and locate leaking blood vessels in the retina. […] Fundus photography can track changes in the eye over time in people who have diabetic retinopathy and especially in those who have been treated for it. […] Regular dilated eye exams can help find these diseases early.

• #7

  https://www.aao.org/eye-health/diseases/what-is-diabetic-retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is an eye disease caused by diabetes. […] People with diabetes can have an eye disease called diabetic retinopathy. […] Diabetic retinopathy diagnosis involves putting drops in your eye to dilate your pupil. […] Your doctor may do optical coherence tomography (OCT) to look closely at the retina. […] Fluorescein angiography or OCT angiography helps your doctor see what is happening with the blood vessels in your retina.

• #8 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/eyes-and-vision/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis.html

  Diabetic retinopathy can be found during a dilated eye exam. This exam is done by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. […] You need a full exam done by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. […] Your doctor may also do a test called an optical coherence tomography (OCT) to check for fluid in your retina. […] Sometimes a fluorescein angiogram is done to check for and locate leaking blood vessels in the retina. […] Fundus photography can track changes in the eye over time in people who have diabetic retinopathy and especially in those who have been treated for it. […] Regular dilated eye exams can help find these diseases early.

• #9 Diabetic Retinopathy – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Diabetic_Retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy represents microvascular end-organ damage as a result of diabetes. It ranges from nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy and its stages to proliferative diabetic retinopathy. As the disease progresses, associated diabetic macular edema (DME) may also become apparent. […] Among patients aged 25-74, diabetic retinopathy is a leading cause of vision loss worldwide. By 2030, an estimated 191 million people globally will have diabetic retinopathy, and approximately 56.3 million will have vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy. […] The central retinal area located between the main branches (superior and inferior arcades) of the central retinal vessels (central retinal artery and central retinal vein) is known as the macular area. The retina beyond this is considered peripheral retina. The central retinal area can develop abnormal findings in diabetic retinopathy. These findings can be present in the nonproliferative or proliferative forms of the disease. These changes in the macula include the presence of abnormally dilated small vessel outpouchings (microaneurysms), retinal bleeding (retinal hemorrhages), and yellow lipid and protein deposits (hard exudates). The macula can get thicker than normal, which is referred to as macular edema.

• #10 Diabetic Retinopathy – Eye Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/eye-disorders/retinal-disorders/diabetic-retinopathy

  Manifestations of diabetic retinopathy include microaneurysms, intraretinal hemorrhage, exudates, macular edema, macular ischemia, neovascularization, vitreous hemorrhage, and traction retinal detachment. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy; further details are elucidated by color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy. Color fundus photography helps grade the level of retinopathy. Fluorescein angiography is used to determine the extent of retinopathy, to develop a treatment plan, and to monitor the results of treatment. Optical coherence tomography is also useful to assess severity of macular edema and treatment response. […] Because early detection is important, all patients with diabetes mellitus should have an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination. […] Test patients who have diabetic retinopathy with color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Screen all diabetic patients with an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination.

• #11 Diabetic Retinopathy – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Diabetic_Retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy represents microvascular end-organ damage as a result of diabetes. It ranges from nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy and its stages to proliferative diabetic retinopathy. As the disease progresses, associated diabetic macular edema (DME) may also become apparent. […] Among patients aged 25-74, diabetic retinopathy is a leading cause of vision loss worldwide. By 2030, an estimated 191 million people globally will have diabetic retinopathy, and approximately 56.3 million will have vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy. […] The central retinal area located between the main branches (superior and inferior arcades) of the central retinal vessels (central retinal artery and central retinal vein) is known as the macular area. The retina beyond this is considered peripheral retina. The central retinal area can develop abnormal findings in diabetic retinopathy. These findings can be present in the nonproliferative or proliferative forms of the disease. These changes in the macula include the presence of abnormally dilated small vessel outpouchings (microaneurysms), retinal bleeding (retinal hemorrhages), and yellow lipid and protein deposits (hard exudates). The macula can get thicker than normal, which is referred to as macular edema.

• #12 Diabetic Retinopathy – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Diabetic_Retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy represents microvascular end-organ damage as a result of diabetes. It ranges from nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy and its stages to proliferative diabetic retinopathy. As the disease progresses, associated diabetic macular edema (DME) may also become apparent. […] Among patients aged 25-74, diabetic retinopathy is a leading cause of vision loss worldwide. By 2030, an estimated 191 million people globally will have diabetic retinopathy, and approximately 56.3 million will have vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy. […] The central retinal area located between the main branches (superior and inferior arcades) of the central retinal vessels (central retinal artery and central retinal vein) is known as the macular area. The retina beyond this is considered peripheral retina. The central retinal area can develop abnormal findings in diabetic retinopathy. These findings can be present in the nonproliferative or proliferative forms of the disease. These changes in the macula include the presence of abnormally dilated small vessel outpouchings (microaneurysms), retinal bleeding (retinal hemorrhages), and yellow lipid and protein deposits (hard exudates). The macula can get thicker than normal, which is referred to as macular edema.

• #13 Diabetic Retinopathy – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Diabetic_Retinopathy

  Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy can be classified into mild, moderate, or severe stages based on the presence or absence of retinal bleeding, abnormal beading of the venous wall (venous beading), or abnormal vascular findings (intraretinal microvascular anomalies [IRMA]). […] Fluorescein angiography (FA) may be used to determine the degree of ischemia or the presence of retinal vascular abnormalities. The areas of microaneurysms appear as hyperfluorescent spots and may leak on the late frames resulting in areas of retinal edema clinically. […] Hemoglobin A1c is a measure of the degree of glycemic control over the past 3 months. A goal of 5.5%-6.0% is ideal but difficult to achieve in some patients. Generally, HbA1c 7 is the goal. […] The primary treatment option for PDR is laser photocoagulation of the peripheral retina, known as panretinal photocoagulation (PRP). The laser is used to obliterate some of the ischemic peripheral retina in order to decrease VEGF release and induce regression of neovascularization. If successful, vitreous hemorrhage and tractional retinal detachment may be averted.

• #14 Standard Tools and Tests for Diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy – Modern Optometry

  https://modernod.com/articles/2019-june/standard-tools-and-tests-fordiagnosing-diabetic-retinopathy

  Patients with type 2 diabetes should be screened at the time of diagnosis because as many as 30% may already have retinopathy at the time of diagnosis. […] First and foremost, all patients with diabetes need a dilated comprehensive eye exam with a focus on evaluating diabetic eye disease. […] The retina should be closely evaluated for evidence of macular edema, signs of nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy such as dot/blot hemorrhages or microaneurysms, venous beading, and intraretinal microvascular abnormality (IRMA). […] In order to look for retinopathy, a dilated retinal examination is essential. […] Studies have shown that only 50% of eyes are correctly classified through undilated pupils. […] Peripheral hemorrhages in diabetic retinopathy are also important in determining the risk of progression.

• #15 Diabetic Retinopathy – Eye Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/eye-disorders/retinal-disorders/diabetic-retinopathy

  Manifestations of diabetic retinopathy include microaneurysms, intraretinal hemorrhage, exudates, macular edema, macular ischemia, neovascularization, vitreous hemorrhage, and traction retinal detachment. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy; further details are elucidated by color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy. Color fundus photography helps grade the level of retinopathy. Fluorescein angiography is used to determine the extent of retinopathy, to develop a treatment plan, and to monitor the results of treatment. Optical coherence tomography is also useful to assess severity of macular edema and treatment response. […] Because early detection is important, all patients with diabetes mellitus should have an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination. […] Test patients who have diabetic retinopathy with color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Screen all diabetic patients with an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination.

• #16 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, „no apparent retinopathy”, describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called „venous beading” in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina („retinal neovascularization”), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor („vitreous hemorrhage”) or between the vitreous membrane and retina („preretinal hemorrhage”).

• #17 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/eyes-and-vision/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis.html

  Diabetic retinopathy can be found during a dilated eye exam. This exam is done by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. […] You need a full exam done by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. […] Your doctor may also do a test called an optical coherence tomography (OCT) to check for fluid in your retina. […] Sometimes a fluorescein angiogram is done to check for and locate leaking blood vessels in the retina. […] Fundus photography can track changes in the eye over time in people who have diabetic retinopathy and especially in those who have been treated for it. […] Regular dilated eye exams can help find these diseases early.

• #18 Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/17/1846

  Ultra-wide field photography is a significant advancement, offering a comprehensive view of the retina, extending to previously inaccessible peripheral areas. […] Current progress in technology facilitates the implementation of UWF fluorescein angiography (FA), OCT, and OCTA, enabling users to overcome limited field of view (FOV), which can contribute to inaccurate assessment of the severity of DR. […] Recent advances in AI and machine learning (ML), particularly through convolutional neural network (CNN) models, are revolutionizing ophthalmological diagnostics, especially in detecting and screening DR. […] Nanotechnology has also been applied in fundus examination with fluorescein angiography, the gold standard screening in DR. […] In conclusion, the modern approach to diagnosing DR integrates cutting-edge technologies such as teleophthalmology, widefield imaging, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology.

• #19 Standard Tools and Tests for Diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy – Modern Optometry

  https://modernod.com/articles/2019-june/standard-tools-and-tests-fordiagnosing-diabetic-retinopathy

  Failure to assess the retinal periphery may lead to less accurate grading of retinopathy, less frequent retinal examinations than are needed, and increased risk for retinopathy progression. […] Fundus photography is a useful adjunct to clinical examination for documenting the severity of retinopathy and the presence of neovascularization of the disc or neovascularization elsewhere. […] Routine fluorescein angiography (FA) is not indicated as part of a routine examination for patients with diabetes. […] However, FA is useful for detecting macular edema or ischemia in patients with unexplained vision loss. […] OCT provides high-resolution imaging of the vitreous and retina. […] This imaging modality can be used to quantify retinal thickness, to diagnose and monitor macular edema, and to monitor response to treatment. […] Multiple tools are now available to help take better care of our patients with diabetes. […] With all of these tools at our disposal, we are better able to accurately discern a patients level of retinopathy and to decide when to refer for prompt treatment.

• #20 Diabetic retinopathy – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20371617

  Diabetic retinopathy is best diagnosed with a comprehensive dilated eye exam. For this exam, drops placed in your eyes widen (dilate) your pupils to allow your doctor a better view inside your eyes. The drops can cause your close vision to blur until they wear off, several hours later. […] During the exam, your eye doctor will look for abnormalities in the inside and outside parts of your eyes. […] After your eyes are dilated, a dye is injected into a vein in your arm. Then pictures are taken as the dye circulates through your eyes’ blood vessels. The images can pinpoint blood vessels that are closed, broken or leaking. […] With this test, pictures provide cross-sectional images of the retina that show the thickness of the retina. This will help determine how much fluid, if any, has leaked into retinal tissue. Later, optical coherence tomography (OCT) exams can be used to monitor how treatment is working.

• #21 Diabetic Retinopathy – Eye Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/eye-disorders/retinal-disorders/diabetic-retinopathy

  Manifestations of diabetic retinopathy include microaneurysms, intraretinal hemorrhage, exudates, macular edema, macular ischemia, neovascularization, vitreous hemorrhage, and traction retinal detachment. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy; further details are elucidated by color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy. Color fundus photography helps grade the level of retinopathy. Fluorescein angiography is used to determine the extent of retinopathy, to develop a treatment plan, and to monitor the results of treatment. Optical coherence tomography is also useful to assess severity of macular edema and treatment response. […] Because early detection is important, all patients with diabetes mellitus should have an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination. […] Test patients who have diabetic retinopathy with color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Screen all diabetic patients with an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination.

• #22 Novel Methods and Diagnostic Tools in Diabetic Retinopathy | Retinal Physician

  https://retinalphysician.com/issues/2015/march/novel-methods-and-diagnostic-tools-in-diabetic-retinopathy/

  Optical coherence tomography has revolutionized the clinical practice of ophthalmology. It provides detailed two-and three-dimensional information about the histological changes in the retina, and it has been proposed as a powerful tool for retinal measurement. […] The role of OCT in the assessment and management of diabetic eye complications has become significant in understanding the vitreoretinal relationships and the internal architecture of the retina in diabetes. OCT has improved DR and mostly DME management by enabling the direct evaluation of retinal thickness and the quantitative follow-up of retinal thickness changes that may greatly influence therapeutic decisions. […] The RETeval device, a novel and noninvasive functional test, has the potential to greatly reduce the prevalence of visual impairment from untreated diabetic complications. This functional device measures full-field electroretinogram cone B-wave flicker implicit times quickly and easily in a clinical setting.

• #23 Novel Methods and Diagnostic Tools in Diabetic Retinopathy | Retinal Physician

  https://retinalphysician.com/issues/2015/march/novel-methods-and-diagnostic-tools-in-diabetic-retinopathy/

  Optical coherence tomography has revolutionized the clinical practice of ophthalmology. It provides detailed two-and three-dimensional information about the histological changes in the retina, and it has been proposed as a powerful tool for retinal measurement. […] The role of OCT in the assessment and management of diabetic eye complications has become significant in understanding the vitreoretinal relationships and the internal architecture of the retina in diabetes. OCT has improved DR and mostly DME management by enabling the direct evaluation of retinal thickness and the quantitative follow-up of retinal thickness changes that may greatly influence therapeutic decisions. […] The RETeval device, a novel and noninvasive functional test, has the potential to greatly reduce the prevalence of visual impairment from untreated diabetic complications. This functional device measures full-field electroretinogram cone B-wave flicker implicit times quickly and easily in a clinical setting.

• #24 Diabetic retinopathy – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20371617

  Diabetic retinopathy is best diagnosed with a comprehensive dilated eye exam. For this exam, drops placed in your eyes widen (dilate) your pupils to allow your doctor a better view inside your eyes. The drops can cause your close vision to blur until they wear off, several hours later. […] During the exam, your eye doctor will look for abnormalities in the inside and outside parts of your eyes. […] After your eyes are dilated, a dye is injected into a vein in your arm. Then pictures are taken as the dye circulates through your eyes’ blood vessels. The images can pinpoint blood vessels that are closed, broken or leaking. […] With this test, pictures provide cross-sectional images of the retina that show the thickness of the retina. This will help determine how much fluid, if any, has leaked into retinal tissue. Later, optical coherence tomography (OCT) exams can be used to monitor how treatment is working.

• #25 Diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy | Hospital Clínic Barcelona

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis

  The diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy is closely associated with its stage. The disease is diagnosed and classified when initial signs of the condition are observed in the fundus of the eye, normally using photography. When fluid is also detected in the inner retina, diabetic macular oedema is diagnosed in association with the retinopathy. […] The diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy requires a series of complementary tests, because the condition cannot be observed externally as it affects the very back of the eye (the eye fundus). […] This is the main technique used to screen for retinopathies in people with diabetes. […] This test cannot be performed on people with a fluorescein allergy and must be conducted with special care in patients with kidney problems. […] It is particularly useful for examining diabetic macular oedema.

• #26 Diabetic Retinopathy Symptoms & Diagnosis | Wills Eye Hospital

  https://www.willseye.org/diabetic-retinopathy-diagnosis/

  It is very important that people with diabetes mellitus undergo at least an annual eye exam, whether or not they have any vision symptoms. […] People with diabetic retinopathy may undergo several types of tests in order to evaluate their condition. […] Fluorescein angiography may be used to determine the extent of diabetic retinopathy or to detect areas of leakage or bleeding that may lead to vision loss. […] OCT imaging is a fast, non-invasive test that uses a low energy laser to scan the macula and determine whether there is swelling or distortion of the macula in the setting of diabetic retinopathy. […] This test utilizes standard, non-invasive ultrasound technology and is used in the office to view the retina when the retina cannot be directly visualized by the doctor with standard examination techniques, such as in the setting of a severe vitreous hemorrhage.

• #27 Diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy | Hospital Clínic Barcelona

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis

  The diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy is closely associated with its stage. The disease is diagnosed and classified when initial signs of the condition are observed in the fundus of the eye, normally using photography. When fluid is also detected in the inner retina, diabetic macular oedema is diagnosed in association with the retinopathy. […] The diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy requires a series of complementary tests, because the condition cannot be observed externally as it affects the very back of the eye (the eye fundus). […] This is the main technique used to screen for retinopathies in people with diabetes. […] This test cannot be performed on people with a fluorescein allergy and must be conducted with special care in patients with kidney problems. […] It is particularly useful for examining diabetic macular oedema.

• #28 Diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy | Hospital Clínic Barcelona

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis

  A novel imaging technique, known as optical coherence tomography angiography, has recently been developed for examining patients with abnormal retinal blood circulation. […] Therefore, ophthalmologists now capture images like those produced by traditional fluorescein angiography but without having to inject a dye that can cause side effects. […] The new information gathered by this technique is very important in a lot of fields researching the disease.

• #29 Diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy | Hospital Clínic Barcelona

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis

  A novel imaging technique, known as optical coherence tomography angiography, has recently been developed for examining patients with abnormal retinal blood circulation. […] Therefore, ophthalmologists now capture images like those produced by traditional fluorescein angiography but without having to inject a dye that can cause side effects. […] The new information gathered by this technique is very important in a lot of fields researching the disease.

• #30 Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/17/1846

  Ultra-wide field photography is a significant advancement, offering a comprehensive view of the retina, extending to previously inaccessible peripheral areas. […] Current progress in technology facilitates the implementation of UWF fluorescein angiography (FA), OCT, and OCTA, enabling users to overcome limited field of view (FOV), which can contribute to inaccurate assessment of the severity of DR. […] Recent advances in AI and machine learning (ML), particularly through convolutional neural network (CNN) models, are revolutionizing ophthalmological diagnostics, especially in detecting and screening DR. […] Nanotechnology has also been applied in fundus examination with fluorescein angiography, the gold standard screening in DR. […] In conclusion, the modern approach to diagnosing DR integrates cutting-edge technologies such as teleophthalmology, widefield imaging, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology.

• #31 Diabetic Retinopathy Symptoms & Diagnosis | Wills Eye Hospital

  https://www.willseye.org/diabetic-retinopathy-diagnosis/

  It is very important that people with diabetes mellitus undergo at least an annual eye exam, whether or not they have any vision symptoms. […] People with diabetic retinopathy may undergo several types of tests in order to evaluate their condition. […] Fluorescein angiography may be used to determine the extent of diabetic retinopathy or to detect areas of leakage or bleeding that may lead to vision loss. […] OCT imaging is a fast, non-invasive test that uses a low energy laser to scan the macula and determine whether there is swelling or distortion of the macula in the setting of diabetic retinopathy. […] This test utilizes standard, non-invasive ultrasound technology and is used in the office to view the retina when the retina cannot be directly visualized by the doctor with standard examination techniques, such as in the setting of a severe vitreous hemorrhage.

• #32 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, „no apparent retinopathy”, describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called „venous beading” in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina („retinal neovascularization”), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor („vitreous hemorrhage”) or between the vitreous membrane and retina („preretinal hemorrhage”).

• #33 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, „no apparent retinopathy”, describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called „venous beading” in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina („retinal neovascularization”), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor („vitreous hemorrhage”) or between the vitreous membrane and retina („preretinal hemorrhage”).

• #34 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, „no apparent retinopathy”, describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called „venous beading” in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina („retinal neovascularization”), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor („vitreous hemorrhage”) or between the vitreous membrane and retina („preretinal hemorrhage”).

• #35 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, „no apparent retinopathy”, describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called „venous beading” in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina („retinal neovascularization”), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor („vitreous hemorrhage”) or between the vitreous membrane and retina („preretinal hemorrhage”).

• #36 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, „no apparent retinopathy”, describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called „venous beading” in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina („retinal neovascularization”), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor („vitreous hemorrhage”) or between the vitreous membrane and retina („preretinal hemorrhage”).

• #37 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  The same guidelines separately divide macular edema into two categories: „macular edema apparently absent” and „macular edema apparently present”. The latter is further subdivided into „mild” retinal thickening or lipid deposits far from the macula’s center; „moderate” thickening or deposits near the center; and „severe” thickening or deposits on the macula center. Optical coherence tomography is frequently used to assess macular edema. […] Fluorescein angiography is used by retina specialists to further assess diabetic retinopathy severity and to determine sites of macular damage. […] Both the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO) recommend regular eye exams for those with diabetes to screen for diabetic retinopathy (except those with gestational diabetes). The ADA recommends a comprehensive eye examination at the time of type 2 diabetes diagnosis, and within five years of the onset of type 1 diabetes. For women with diabetes who become pregnant, the ADA recommends an eye examination before pregnancy, in each trimester, and for a year post partum. The ICO recommends eye examinations for those with diabetes include a visual acuity examination and a retinal examination via ophthalmoscopy or retinal photography.

• #38 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  The same guidelines separately divide macular edema into two categories: „macular edema apparently absent” and „macular edema apparently present”. The latter is further subdivided into „mild” retinal thickening or lipid deposits far from the macula’s center; „moderate” thickening or deposits near the center; and „severe” thickening or deposits on the macula center. Optical coherence tomography is frequently used to assess macular edema. […] Fluorescein angiography is used by retina specialists to further assess diabetic retinopathy severity and to determine sites of macular damage. […] Both the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO) recommend regular eye exams for those with diabetes to screen for diabetic retinopathy (except those with gestational diabetes). The ADA recommends a comprehensive eye examination at the time of type 2 diabetes diagnosis, and within five years of the onset of type 1 diabetes. For women with diabetes who become pregnant, the ADA recommends an eye examination before pregnancy, in each trimester, and for a year post partum. The ICO recommends eye examinations for those with diabetes include a visual acuity examination and a retinal examination via ophthalmoscopy or retinal photography.

• #39 Standard Tools and Tests for Diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy – Modern Optometry

  https://modernod.com/articles/2019-june/standard-tools-and-tests-fordiagnosing-diabetic-retinopathy

  With the prevalence of diabetes growing, primary eye care providers play an important role in identifying and referring treatable diabetic eye disease. […] All patients with diabetes need a dilated comprehensive eye examination with a focus on evaluating diabetic eye disease. […] Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of legal blindness in working-age adults in the United States and a leading cause of blindness worldwide. […] For optometrists, as primary care physicians, it is therefore paramount that we use the tools available to us to evaluate for diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macula edema (DME) and refer treatable disease to a retina subspecialist for appropriate treatment. […] The American Academy of Ophthalmology recommends initial screening for diabetic retinopathy with a comprehensive eye examination for patients 5 years after initial diagnosis with type 1 diabetes.

• #40 Standard Tools and Tests for Diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy – Modern Optometry

  https://modernod.com/articles/2019-june/standard-tools-and-tests-fordiagnosing-diabetic-retinopathy

  Patients with type 2 diabetes should be screened at the time of diagnosis because as many as 30% may already have retinopathy at the time of diagnosis. […] First and foremost, all patients with diabetes need a dilated comprehensive eye exam with a focus on evaluating diabetic eye disease. […] The retina should be closely evaluated for evidence of macular edema, signs of nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy such as dot/blot hemorrhages or microaneurysms, venous beading, and intraretinal microvascular abnormality (IRMA). […] In order to look for retinopathy, a dilated retinal examination is essential. […] Studies have shown that only 50% of eyes are correctly classified through undilated pupils. […] Peripheral hemorrhages in diabetic retinopathy are also important in determining the risk of progression.

• #41 Diabetic retinopathy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy

  The same guidelines separately divide macular edema into two categories: „macular edema apparently absent” and „macular edema apparently present”. The latter is further subdivided into „mild” retinal thickening or lipid deposits far from the macula’s center; „moderate” thickening or deposits near the center; and „severe” thickening or deposits on the macula center. Optical coherence tomography is frequently used to assess macular edema. […] Fluorescein angiography is used by retina specialists to further assess diabetic retinopathy severity and to determine sites of macular damage. […] Both the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO) recommend regular eye exams for those with diabetes to screen for diabetic retinopathy (except those with gestational diabetes). The ADA recommends a comprehensive eye examination at the time of type 2 diabetes diagnosis, and within five years of the onset of type 1 diabetes. For women with diabetes who become pregnant, the ADA recommends an eye examination before pregnancy, in each trimester, and for a year post partum. The ICO recommends eye examinations for those with diabetes include a visual acuity examination and a retinal examination via ophthalmoscopy or retinal photography.

• #42 Diabetic Retinopathy | National Eye Institute

  https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/diabetic-retinopathy

  In the early stages of diabetic retinopathy, your eye doctor will probably just keep track of how your eyes are doing. Some people with diabetic retinopathy may need a comprehensive dilated eye exam as often as every 2 to 4 months. […] In later stages, its important to start treatment right away especially if you have changes in your vision. While it wont undo any damage to your vision, treatment can stop your vision from getting worse. […] Medicines called anti-VEGF drugs can slow down or reverse diabetic retinopathy. Other medicines, called corticosteroids, can also help. […] To reduce swelling in your retina, eye doctors can use lasers to make the blood vessels shrink and stop leaking. […] If your retina is bleeding a lot or you have a lot of scars in your eye, your eye doctor may recommend a type of surgery called a vitrectomy.

• #43 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis & Clinical Roles | Vision RELIEF

  https://provider-dr.vision-relief.com/introduction/diagnosis/

  In patients with diabetes, a comprehensive eye exam should be performed at least initially and at intervals thereafter as recommended by an eye care professional and as noted in the following Table. Results of eye examinations should be documented and transmitted to the referring healthcare professional. […] An ophthalmologist or optometrist who is knowledgeable and experienced in diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy should perform the examinations. The goal of optometrists, as the primary eye care providers for a majority of Americans with, and at risk for, diabetes, is to prevent patients with diabetic eye disease from progressing to the level of sight-threatening retinopathy. If DR is present, prompt referral to an ophthalmologist is recommended. […] To detect sight-threatening retinopathy, optometrists must start with a thorough clinical examination through dilated pupils. The index of suspicion should be elevated when patients have a higher risk profile (high hemoglobin A1c [HbA1c], long diabetes duration, type 1 diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension, untreated sleep apnea, clinical depression, and presence of other diabetes complications).

• #44 Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/17/1846

  Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics […] This article reviews innovative diagnostic approaches for diabetic retinopathy as the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its complications continue to escalate. […] Recent advances in artificial intelligence and machine learning, particularly through convolutional neural networks, are revolutionizing diabetic retinopathy diagnostics, enhancing screening efficiency and accuracy. […] FDA-approved Artificial Intelligence-powered devices such as LumineticsCore™, EyeArt, and AEYE Diagnostic Screening demonstrate high sensitivity and specificity in diabetic retinopathy detection. […] Teleophthalmology emerges as a cost-effective solution, leveraging advanced imaging and technology to provide healthcare services remotely. […] A recent study by Malerbi et al. assessed the efficacy of AI systems integrated into a portable handheld retinal camera (Eyer) for the detection of DR, and more-than-mild DR (mtmDR) presented notable sensitivity and specificity rates.

• #45 Diabetic Retinopathy Screening – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Diabetic_Retinopathy_Screening

  Dilated fundus exam performed by an ophthalmologist is considered the gold standard method for diagnosing DR and monitoring patients at risk of developing DR; however, a yearly exam in a resourced-limited setting would prove unfeasible given the growing gap in access to eye care professionals. […] Tele-retina has been proposed as a cost-effective alternative to examination by an ophthalmologist, whereby retinal images taken at one site are transmitted to and interpreted at another site. […] While there are benefits including reduced need for dilating medications and easy image acquisition with retinal photography, there are reports of high technical failure rates and the continued reliance on a trained image grader. […] The FDA in 2018 permitted marketing of the first authorized AI device to detect DR, Idx-DR. This software utilizes retinal images from Topcon NW400, a nonmydriatic, non-ultrawide field camera.

• #46 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis & Clinical Roles | Vision RELIEF

  https://provider-dr.vision-relief.com/introduction/diagnosis/

  Comprehensive evaluation by an ophthalmologist will include dilated slit-lamp examination including biomicroscopy with a hand-held lens, indirect ophthalmoscopy, and testing as appropriate that may include optical computed tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography. Retinal photography, with remote reading by experts, has great potential to provide screening services in areas where qualified eye care professionals are not readily available. […] Improved detection is important; an estimated 30% of patients with NPDR have retinal abnormalities primarily outside the posterior pole, a finding that underscores the importance of examining the mid-peripheral and peripheral retina for retinopathy in every patient with known or suspected diabetes and the additional value of ultra-widefield imaging.

• #47 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis & Clinical Roles | Vision RELIEF

  https://provider-dr.vision-relief.com/introduction/diagnosis/

  Comprehensive evaluation by an ophthalmologist will include dilated slit-lamp examination including biomicroscopy with a hand-held lens, indirect ophthalmoscopy, and testing as appropriate that may include optical computed tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography. Retinal photography, with remote reading by experts, has great potential to provide screening services in areas where qualified eye care professionals are not readily available. […] Improved detection is important; an estimated 30% of patients with NPDR have retinal abnormalities primarily outside the posterior pole, a finding that underscores the importance of examining the mid-peripheral and peripheral retina for retinopathy in every patient with known or suspected diabetes and the additional value of ultra-widefield imaging.

• #48 Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/17/1846

  Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics […] This article reviews innovative diagnostic approaches for diabetic retinopathy as the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its complications continue to escalate. […] Recent advances in artificial intelligence and machine learning, particularly through convolutional neural networks, are revolutionizing diabetic retinopathy diagnostics, enhancing screening efficiency and accuracy. […] FDA-approved Artificial Intelligence-powered devices such as LumineticsCore™, EyeArt, and AEYE Diagnostic Screening demonstrate high sensitivity and specificity in diabetic retinopathy detection. […] Teleophthalmology emerges as a cost-effective solution, leveraging advanced imaging and technology to provide healthcare services remotely. […] A recent study by Malerbi et al. assessed the efficacy of AI systems integrated into a portable handheld retinal camera (Eyer) for the detection of DR, and more-than-mild DR (mtmDR) presented notable sensitivity and specificity rates.

• #49 Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/17/1846

  Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics […] This article reviews innovative diagnostic approaches for diabetic retinopathy as the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its complications continue to escalate. […] Recent advances in artificial intelligence and machine learning, particularly through convolutional neural networks, are revolutionizing diabetic retinopathy diagnostics, enhancing screening efficiency and accuracy. […] FDA-approved Artificial Intelligence-powered devices such as LumineticsCore™, EyeArt, and AEYE Diagnostic Screening demonstrate high sensitivity and specificity in diabetic retinopathy detection. […] Teleophthalmology emerges as a cost-effective solution, leveraging advanced imaging and technology to provide healthcare services remotely. […] A recent study by Malerbi et al. assessed the efficacy of AI systems integrated into a portable handheld retinal camera (Eyer) for the detection of DR, and more-than-mild DR (mtmDR) presented notable sensitivity and specificity rates.

• #50 IDx-DR for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2020/0301/p307.html

  IDx-DR is a software program that uses artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze retinal images taken with the Topcon TRC-NW400, a fully automated nonmydriatic retinal camera designed to obtain high-resolution color images of the retina and the anterior segment of the eye. It is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for diabetic retinopathy screening in adults 22 years and older with diabetes mellitus. […] The IDx-DR system has been studied previously in international primary care clinics and research trials. […] The IDx-DR system was studied in 819 adults with diabetes and no previous diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy from 10 primary care practices. IDx-DR correctly identified 173 of the 198 patients with more than minimal diabetic retinopathy, with a sensitivity of 87% (95% CI, 82% to 92%) and specificity of 90% (95% CI, 87% to 92%).

• #51 LumineticsCore™ – Digital Diagnostics

  https://www.digitaldiagnostics.com/products/eye-disease/lumineticscore/

  LumineticsCore™ is an AI diagnostic system that autonomously diagnoses diabetic retinopathy in people living with diabetes. […] LumineticsCore analyzes images for signs of diabetic retinopathy, providing results in less than a minute. […] LumineticsCore™ detects more than mild diabetic retinopathy, which is ETDRS level 35 or higher at point-of-care to provide the patient with a diagnostic report without a physician evaluation. […] LumineticsCore™ is intended for use by health care providers to automatically detect more than mild diabetic retinopathy in adults (22 years of age or older) diagnosed with diabetes who have not been previously diagnosed with diabetic retinopathy. […] Using a fundus camera, an operator captures high-quality images of the patients’ eyes. The images are then submitted to LumineticsCore™ where they are analyzed for signs of diabetic retinopathy. A diagnostic result is provided within the patient encounter at point-of-care with follow-up instructions for the patient based on diagnostic outcome.

• #52 IDx-DR for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2020/0301/p307.html

  IDx-DR is a software program that uses artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze retinal images taken with the Topcon TRC-NW400, a fully automated nonmydriatic retinal camera designed to obtain high-resolution color images of the retina and the anterior segment of the eye. It is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for diabetic retinopathy screening in adults 22 years and older with diabetes mellitus. […] The IDx-DR system has been studied previously in international primary care clinics and research trials. […] The IDx-DR system was studied in 819 adults with diabetes and no previous diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy from 10 primary care practices. IDx-DR correctly identified 173 of the 198 patients with more than minimal diabetic retinopathy, with a sensitivity of 87% (95% CI, 82% to 92%) and specificity of 90% (95% CI, 87% to 92%).

• #53 Ensemble deep learning and EfficientNet for accurate diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-81132-4

  The methodology employs an algorithmic sequence: preprocessing starts by scaling pixel values to the [0,1] range and implementing data augmentation strategies like random horizontal flips, rotations, and zooms. […] The EfficientNetB0 model achieved a maximum accuracy of 97.11% with a corresponding loss of 0.1596 after training for 40 epochs, incorporating data augmentation techniques. […] The EfficientNetB0 model, leveraging pre-trained weights and optimized architecture, achieved an impressive maximum accuracy of 97.11% and demonstrated higher computational efficiency. […] This paper proposed a deep learning framework for diagnosing diabetic retinopathy using retinal images. […] The models average performance metrics-accuracy of 0.8653 and loss of 0.5663 with data augmentation-further support its efficacy, while EfficientNetB0s 97.11% maximum accuracy, combined with lower computational demands, indicates its practical viability for real-world clinical applications, especially when computational resources are limited.

• #54

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11042-024-18792-x

  Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a chronic condition that affects the blood glucose metabolism of various organs and tissues throughout the body. One significant complication is retinopathy, which, in severe cases, can lead to blindness. Early screening and detection are crucial as the disease process is irreversible. In this study, we developed a model for early screening of Diabetes Retinopathy (DR) using color fundus photography images. […] The results indicate that the InceptionV3-based CNN, coupled with transfer learning and appropriate data pre-processing methods, exhibited superior performance in accurately detecting diabetic retinopathy, as measured by accuracy, AUC, F1 score, and other evaluation metrics. This research holds significant value in enabling efficient early diagnosis of DR lesions and conducting an intelligent and efficient graded diagnosis of the DR progression, thereby providing the groundwork for timely intervention.

• #55 New deep learning network may improve diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy

  https://www.modernretina.com/view/new-deep-learning-network-may-improve-diagnosis-of-diabetic-retinopathy

  AVA-Net, a deep learning network, differentiated the changes in blood flow in healthy eyes compared with eyes of patients with diabetes with and without mild diabetic retinopathy. […] A new computer program, AVA-Net, a deep learning network developed by scientists from the University of Illinois at Chicago, differentiated the changes in blood flow in healthy eyes compared with eyes of patients with diabetes with and without mild diabetic retinopathy (DR) using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) images. […] The investigators tested 7 new OCTA features that might help detect early diabetic retinopathy: including arterial area (AA), venous area (VA), AVA ratio (AVAR), total perfusion intensity density (T-PID), arterial PID (A-PID), venous PID (V-PID), and arterial-venous PID ratio (AV-PIDR). Each was evaluated for quantitative evaluation of OCTA images from healthy controls, diabetic patients without DR, and mild DR.

• #56 Diabetic Retinopathy Differential Diagnoses

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1225122-differential

  Patients with diabetes often develop ophthalmic complications, such as corneal abnormalities, glaucoma, iris neovascularization, cataracts, and neuropathies. The most common and potentially most blinding of these complications, however, is diabetic retinopathy. Microaneurysms are the earliest clinical sign of diabetic retinopathy. […] […] Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion (BRVO) […] Central Retinal Vein Occlusion (CRVO) […] Hemoglobinopathy Retinopathy […] Retinal Macroaneurysm […] Macular Edema in Diabetes […] Ocular Ischemic Syndrome […] Retinopathy, Diabetic, Nonproliferative […] Sickle Cell Disease […] Terson Syndrome […] Valsalva Retinopathy.

• #57 Diabetic Retinopathy | National Eye Institute

  https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/diabetic-retinopathy

  Diabetic retinopathy is an eye condition that can cause vision loss and blindness in people who have diabetes. It affects blood vessels in the retina (the light-sensitive layer of tissue in the back of your eye). […] If you have diabetes, its important to get a comprehensive dilated eye exam at least once a year. Diabetic retinopathy may not have any symptoms at first but finding it early can help you take steps to protect your vision. […] Eye doctors can check for diabetic retinopathy as part of a dilated eye exam. The exam is simple and painless your doctor will give you some eye drops to dilate (widen) your pupil and then check your eyes for diabetic retinopathy and other eye problems. […] If you do develop diabetic retinopathy, early treatment can stop the damage and prevent blindness.

• #58

  https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/facts-diabetes-retinopathy-eye-diagnosis-anti-vegf

  Learning that you have diabetic retinopathy can be nerve-wracking. You might worry about losing your vision or feel overwhelmed by the treatment plan. […] The first step to protecting your vision is to understand the condition. […] Early treatment can prevent severe vision loss in 90% of people with diabetic retinopathy. But early treatment is only possible if you are vigilant about having your eyes checked routinely, Dr. Khurana says. […] Patients with diabetic retinopathy who attend regular check-ups and report changes in vision to their doctor as soon as possible are likely to get prompt treatment, which can prevent blindness. […] You can have diabetic retinopathy even if you haven’t noticed changes in your vision. This condition develops when blood sugar remains high for a long time and begins to damage the cells in the back of your eye, known as your retina.

• #59

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diabetic-retinopathy/

  Diabetic retinopathy is a complication of diabetes, caused by high blood sugar levels damaging the back of the eye (retina). It can cause blindness if left undiagnosed and untreated. […] To minimise the risk of this happening, people with diabetes should attend diabetic eye screening appointments screening is offered to all people with diabetes aged 12 and over to pick up and treat any problems early on. […] By keeping your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels under control, you can reduce your chances of developing diabetic retinopathy. […] Early signs of the condition can be picked up by taking photographs of the eyes during diabetic eye screening. […] Diabetic retinopathy does not tend to cause any symptoms in the early stages. […] The condition can cause permanent blindness if not diagnosed and treated promptly.

• #60 Diabetic Retinopathy – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Diabetic_Retinopathy

  Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy can be classified into mild, moderate, or severe stages based on the presence or absence of retinal bleeding, abnormal beading of the venous wall (venous beading), or abnormal vascular findings (intraretinal microvascular anomalies [IRMA]). […] Fluorescein angiography (FA) may be used to determine the degree of ischemia or the presence of retinal vascular abnormalities. The areas of microaneurysms appear as hyperfluorescent spots and may leak on the late frames resulting in areas of retinal edema clinically. […] Hemoglobin A1c is a measure of the degree of glycemic control over the past 3 months. A goal of 5.5%-6.0% is ideal but difficult to achieve in some patients. Generally, HbA1c 7 is the goal. […] The primary treatment option for PDR is laser photocoagulation of the peripheral retina, known as panretinal photocoagulation (PRP). The laser is used to obliterate some of the ischemic peripheral retina in order to decrease VEGF release and induce regression of neovascularization. If successful, vitreous hemorrhage and tractional retinal detachment may be averted.

• #61 Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy | What kind of screening tests 

  https://www.patientsengage.com/conditions/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis-tests

  Women with pre-existing diabetes, who are planning pregnancy or who have become pregnant, should have a comprehensive eye examination and be counselled on the risk of development and/or progression of diabetic retinopathy. […] Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in working-age adults. […] It affects persons with any kind of diabetes – Type 1, Type 2 and gestational. […] Good metabolic control is important to manage this early stage. […] Manage your blood glucose level and your blood pressure. […] Targets of HbA1c 7%, BP 130/80 mmHg (SMBP 125/75 mmHg) should be achieved to improve vision, prevent or slow progression of retinopathy. […] Retinal imaging (Fundus Fluorescein Angiography, Optical Coherence Tomography) followed by retinal laser treatment is indicated in this stage of retinopathy.

• #62

  https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/facts-diabetes-retinopathy-eye-diagnosis-anti-vegf

  Diabetic retinopathy can start damaging your retina even before you notice changes in vision, which is why you need to see an eye doctor regularly. […] The best way to prevent vision loss is to control your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels. […] Lasting improvements in blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol can potentially even restore some of the vision you’ve lost to the disease. […] Diabetic retinopathy can harm your eyes in different ways, depending on how advanced it is. […] Today’s treatments for diabetic retinopathy are more effective than ever. Treatments are available to slow or even reverse vision loss, and your eye doctor will suggest the best treatment for your specific needs. […] Abnormal blood vessel growth can also be treated with Anti-VEGF shots or laser surgery to close off leaking vessels. […] Even if you lose some vision because of diabetic retinopathy, you can still have a fulfilling life. Your eye doctor can connect you with a low vision specialist who can help you find tools and strategies to make the most of your remaining vision.

• #63 Diabetic Retinopathy – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560805/

  Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of visual loss in adults of the working-age group in the western population. […] Diabetic retinopathy may lead to vision-threatening damage to the retina, eventually leading to blindness. […] Early detection and timely intervention are the keys to avoiding blindness due to diabetic retinopathy. […] The management options include strict control of the systemic conditions, intravitreal pharmacotherapy, and laser photocoagulation. […] With early diagnosis and prompt management, good final visual acuity may be achieved in most patients with DR. […] Early detection and timely intervention are the keys to avoiding blindness due to diabetic retinopathy. […] The systemic status should be optimized by strict metabolic control of diabetes, maintaining HbA1C levels under 7%, and lifestyle modifications like routine exercises and a proper diabetic food diet.

• #64

  https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/facts-diabetes-retinopathy-eye-diagnosis-anti-vegf

  Diabetic retinopathy can start damaging your retina even before you notice changes in vision, which is why you need to see an eye doctor regularly. […] The best way to prevent vision loss is to control your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels. […] Lasting improvements in blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol can potentially even restore some of the vision you’ve lost to the disease. […] Diabetic retinopathy can harm your eyes in different ways, depending on how advanced it is. […] Today’s treatments for diabetic retinopathy are more effective than ever. Treatments are available to slow or even reverse vision loss, and your eye doctor will suggest the best treatment for your specific needs. […] Abnormal blood vessel growth can also be treated with Anti-VEGF shots or laser surgery to close off leaking vessels. […] Even if you lose some vision because of diabetic retinopathy, you can still have a fulfilling life. Your eye doctor can connect you with a low vision specialist who can help you find tools and strategies to make the most of your remaining vision.

• #65 Diabetic retinopathy – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetic-retinopathy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20371617

  While treatment can slow or stop the progression of diabetic retinopathy, it’s not a cure. Because diabetes is a lifelong condition, future retinal damage and vision loss are still possible. […] Even after treatment for diabetic retinopathy, you’ll need regular eye exams. At some point, you might need additional treatment.

• #66 Diabetic Retinopathy – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560805/

  Patients should visit diabetologists for proper follow-up visits and take timely antidiabetic medications. […] The suggested follow-up schedule is given. […] Diabetic retinopathy affects people with diagnosed or undiagnosed diabetes mellitus. […] The propensity to develop diabetic retinopathy is directly proportional to the patient’s age and duration of diabetes, as well as poor glycemic control and fluctuating blood pressure levels. […] The prognosis of diabetic retinopathy depends on the duration of diabetes, glycemic control, associated comorbid conditions, and patient compliance to the appropriate line of treatment. […] Proper patient counseling is needed about their retinal condition and making patients aware that delay in proper follow-up could lead to permanent, irreversible vision loss.

• #67 Diabetes-Related Retinopathy: Symptoms, Stages & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8591-diabetic-retinopathy

  Diabetes-related retinopathy is an eye disease that weakens the blood vessels in your retinas. The weakened blood vessels damage your retina. That can cause vision loss and even permanent blindness when the damage becomes severe enough. […] Many of the key changes that happen with diabetes-related retinopathy dont cause symptoms until much later. But theyre still visible very early on to an eye care specialist who looks at the back of your eyes using special instruments during a dilated eye exam. […] Diabetes-related retinopathy is treatable but not curable. Some of the symptoms or retinal changes are treatable. But certain types of damage arent reversible once they become severe enough. […] Yes, managing your blood sugar levels and maintaining a low hemoglobin A1C can help you prevent diabetes-related retinopathy. Doing these can also make retinopathy regress over time. […] Diabetes-related retinopathy is a permanent, lifelong condition. There isnt a cure, but you can take steps to manage it and limit loss of vision.

• #68 Diabetic Retinopathy – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560805/

  Patients should visit diabetologists for proper follow-up visits and take timely antidiabetic medications. […] The suggested follow-up schedule is given. […] Diabetic retinopathy affects people with diagnosed or undiagnosed diabetes mellitus. […] The propensity to develop diabetic retinopathy is directly proportional to the patient’s age and duration of diabetes, as well as poor glycemic control and fluctuating blood pressure levels. […] The prognosis of diabetic retinopathy depends on the duration of diabetes, glycemic control, associated comorbid conditions, and patient compliance to the appropriate line of treatment. […] Proper patient counseling is needed about their retinal condition and making patients aware that delay in proper follow-up could lead to permanent, irreversible vision loss.

• #69 Diabetic retinopathy – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/532

  Key diagnostic factors include diabetes. […] Other diagnostic factors include microaneurysms, cotton wool spots, intraretinal hemorrhage, lipid exudates, macular edema, venous beading, intraretinal microvascular abnormalities, optic disk neovascularization, retinal neovascularization, preretinal or vitreous hemorrhage, and retinal detachment. […] 1st tests to order include optical coherence tomography and fundus photography/wide-field fundus photography. […] Tests to consider include fluorescein angiography/wide-field fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography angiography, and B-scan ultrasonography.

• #70 Diabetic retinopathy – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/532

  Key diagnostic factors include diabetes. […] Other diagnostic factors include microaneurysms, cotton wool spots, intraretinal hemorrhage, lipid exudates, macular edema, venous beading, intraretinal microvascular abnormalities, optic disk neovascularization, retinal neovascularization, preretinal or vitreous hemorrhage, and retinal detachment. […] 1st tests to order include optical coherence tomography and fundus photography/wide-field fundus photography. […] Tests to consider include fluorescein angiography/wide-field fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography angiography, and B-scan ultrasonography.

• #71 Diabetic retinopathy – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/532

  Key diagnostic factors include diabetes. […] Other diagnostic factors include microaneurysms, cotton wool spots, intraretinal hemorrhage, lipid exudates, macular edema, venous beading, intraretinal microvascular abnormalities, optic disk neovascularization, retinal neovascularization, preretinal or vitreous hemorrhage, and retinal detachment. […] 1st tests to order include optical coherence tomography and fundus photography/wide-field fundus photography. […] Tests to consider include fluorescein angiography/wide-field fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography angiography, and B-scan ultrasonography.

• #72 Diabetic Retinopathy | National Eye Institute

  https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/diabetic-retinopathy

  In the early stages of diabetic retinopathy, your eye doctor will probably just keep track of how your eyes are doing. Some people with diabetic retinopathy may need a comprehensive dilated eye exam as often as every 2 to 4 months. […] In later stages, its important to start treatment right away especially if you have changes in your vision. While it wont undo any damage to your vision, treatment can stop your vision from getting worse. […] Medicines called anti-VEGF drugs can slow down or reverse diabetic retinopathy. Other medicines, called corticosteroids, can also help. […] To reduce swelling in your retina, eye doctors can use lasers to make the blood vessels shrink and stop leaking. […] If your retina is bleeding a lot or you have a lot of scars in your eye, your eye doctor may recommend a type of surgery called a vitrectomy.

• #73 Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnosis & Clinical Roles | Vision RELIEF

  https://provider-dr.vision-relief.com/introduction/diagnosis/

  In patients with diabetes, a comprehensive eye exam should be performed at least initially and at intervals thereafter as recommended by an eye care professional and as noted in the following Table. Results of eye examinations should be documented and transmitted to the referring healthcare professional. […] An ophthalmologist or optometrist who is knowledgeable and experienced in diagnosing Diabetic Retinopathy should perform the examinations. The goal of optometrists, as the primary eye care providers for a majority of Americans with, and at risk for, diabetes, is to prevent patients with diabetic eye disease from progressing to the level of sight-threatening retinopathy. If DR is present, prompt referral to an ophthalmologist is recommended. […] To detect sight-threatening retinopathy, optometrists must start with a thorough clinical examination through dilated pupils. The index of suspicion should be elevated when patients have a higher risk profile (high hemoglobin A1c [HbA1c], long diabetes duration, type 1 diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension, untreated sleep apnea, clinical depression, and presence of other diabetes complications).

• #74 Diabetic Retinopathy – Eye Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/eye-disorders/retinal-disorders/diabetic-retinopathy

  Manifestations of diabetic retinopathy include microaneurysms, intraretinal hemorrhage, exudates, macular edema, macular ischemia, neovascularization, vitreous hemorrhage, and traction retinal detachment. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy; further details are elucidated by color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Diagnosis is by funduscopy. Color fundus photography helps grade the level of retinopathy. Fluorescein angiography is used to determine the extent of retinopathy, to develop a treatment plan, and to monitor the results of treatment. Optical coherence tomography is also useful to assess severity of macular edema and treatment response. […] Because early detection is important, all patients with diabetes mellitus should have an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination. […] Test patients who have diabetic retinopathy with color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. […] Screen all diabetic patients with an annual dilated ophthalmologic examination.

• #75 Modern Approach to Diabetic Retinopathy Diagnostics

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/17/1846

  Ultra-wide field photography is a significant advancement, offering a comprehensive view of the retina, extending to previously inaccessible peripheral areas. […] Current progress in technology facilitates the implementation of UWF fluorescein angiography (FA), OCT, and OCTA, enabling users to overcome limited field of view (FOV), which can contribute to inaccurate assessment of the severity of DR. […] Recent advances in AI and machine learning (ML), particularly through convolutional neural network (CNN) models, are revolutionizing ophthalmological diagnostics, especially in detecting and screening DR. […] Nanotechnology has also been applied in fundus examination with fluorescein angiography, the gold standard screening in DR. […] In conclusion, the modern approach to diagnosing DR integrates cutting-edge technologies such as teleophthalmology, widefield imaging, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology.

• #76

  https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/facts-diabetes-retinopathy-eye-diagnosis-anti-vegf

  Diabetic retinopathy can start damaging your retina even before you notice changes in vision, which is why you need to see an eye doctor regularly. […] The best way to prevent vision loss is to control your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels. […] Lasting improvements in blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol can potentially even restore some of the vision you’ve lost to the disease. […] Diabetic retinopathy can harm your eyes in different ways, depending on how advanced it is. […] Today’s treatments for diabetic retinopathy are more effective than ever. Treatments are available to slow or even reverse vision loss, and your eye doctor will suggest the best treatment for your specific needs. […] Abnormal blood vessel growth can also be treated with Anti-VEGF shots or laser surgery to close off leaking vessels. […] Even if you lose some vision because of diabetic retinopathy, you can still have a fulfilling life. Your eye doctor can connect you with a low vision specialist who can help you find tools and strategies to make the most of your remaining vision.

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