Jąkanie
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Jąkanie jest złożonym zaburzeniem płynności mowy, obejmującym cztery główne typy: rozwojowe, neurogenne, psychogenne oraz farmakologiczne. Jąkanie rozwojowe, najczęstsze u dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym (5-10%), wiąże się z deficytami integracji sensoryczno-motorycznej, nieprawidłową aktywacją prawej półkuli mózgu oraz zaburzeniami w fasciculus arcuatus. Patogeneza obejmuje zmiany neuroanatomiczne, takie jak zmniejszona integralność istoty białej w lewym łuku podłużnym górnym, zaburzenia w prążkowiu oraz podwyższone stężenie żelaza w obszarach kontrolujących ruch. Neuroprzekaźnikowo, obserwuje się podwyższone poziomy dopaminy, zaburzenia równowagi acetylocholina-dopamina, wyczerpanie GABA oraz zmiany w poziomach serotoniny. Genetycznie, jąkanie wykazuje dziedziczność na poziomie 69-85%, z identyfikacją mutacji w genach NAGPA, GNPTAB i GNPTG, związanych z metabolizmem lizosomalnym. Bloki mowy wynikają z zakłóceń programu motorycznego fonacji, a stres i lęk nasilają objawy, tworząc negatywną pętlę sprzężenia zwrotnego. Nowe badania sugerują także rolę mikrobiomu jelitowego, zwłaszcza wzrostu bakterii Akkermansia, w patogenezie jąkania rozwojowego poprzez oś jelitowo-mózgową.

Patogeneza jąkania

Jąkanie to zaburzenie płynności mowy charakteryzujące się przerwami w normalnym przepływie wypowiedzi. Istnieją cztery główne kategorie jąkania: rozwojowe, neurogenne, psychogenne oraz farmakologiczne, przy czym jąkanie rozwojowe jest najczęstszą formą, dotykającą 5-10% dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym.12 Mechanizmy leżące u podłoża jąkania są złożone i wciąż nie w pełni poznane, jednakże istnieje konsensus, że jąkanie wynika ze skomplikowanej interakcji czynników językowych, motorycznych i emocjonalnych.1

Podłoże neurologiczne jąkania

Obecne badania wskazują, że jąkanie ma podłoże neurobiologiczne, związane z zaburzeniami w obszarach mózgu odpowiedzialnych za planowanie, koordynację i wykonywanie mowy.13 W świetle badań neuroobrazowych u osób jąkających się stwierdzono różnice strukturalne i funkcjonalne w mózgu, choć zmiany te mogą nie być widoczne gołym okiem.4

Wśród zmian neuroanatomicznych obserwowanych u osób jąkających się wyróżnia się:

  • Nieprawidłową integrację funkcji sensorycznych i motorycznych podczas produkcji mowy, charakteryzującą się zmniejszoną integralnością istoty białej w obszarach grzbietowego traktu słuchowego, szczególnie w lewym łuku lub pęczku podłużnym górnym56
  • Anomalię w regionie zwanym fasciculus arcuatus – wiązce włókien nerwowych, która zapewnia kanał komunikacyjny dla sygnałów między częściami tylnego mózgu a częściami przedniego mózgu związanymi z produkcją mowy7
  • Zaburzenia w obszarze prążkowia (striatum), części mózgu zlokalizowanej w jądrach podstawnych, która odgrywa kluczową rolę w ułatwianiu dobrowolnych ruchów7
  • Zwiększone stężenie żelaza w częściach mózgu zaangażowanych w inicjację i kontrolę ruchu, co może mieć związek z odkryciami genetycznymi uważanymi za przyczynę jąkania u około 10% osób jąkających się8

Badania obrazowe wykazały również, że osoby jąkające się wykazują większą aktywację prawej półkuli mózgu niż lewej, która zazwyczaj jest związana z mową.9 U osób płynnie mówiących dominującą rolę w produkcji mowy odgrywają obszary w lewej półkuli mózgu, natomiast u osób z utrwalonym jąkaniem podczas mówienia silniej aktywuje się prawa półkula, nawet gdy mówią płynnie.10

Zaburzenia neuroprzekaznictwa w jąkaniu

Badania wskazują na zaburzenia w funkcjonowaniu neuroprzekaźników u osób jąkających się. Postulowane mechanizmy patofizjologiczne obejmują:

Teoria dotycząca podwyższonego poziomu dopaminy jest szczególnie interesująca, ponieważ leki blokujące dopaminę są uważane za potencjalne środki przeciwdziałające jąkaniu.13 Badania prowadzone przez Maguire sugerują, że astrocyty w prążkowiu mogą odgrywać kluczową rolę w mechanizmie działania rysperydonu w redukcji jąkania poprzez uwalnianie cząsteczek sygnalizacyjnych, które blokują receptory dopaminowe w neuronach.14

Genetyczne uwarunkowania jąkania

Badania genetyczne dostarczają silnych dowodów na to, że jąkanie ma podłoże genetyczne.9 Około 2/3 osób jąkających się ma członka rodziny, który również się jąka lub jąkał w przeszłości, co sugeruje, że geny odziedziczone po rodzicach mogą zwiększać prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju jąkania.15

Badania bliźniąt wykazały, że jąkanie ma dziedziczność na poziomie 69-85%, co potwierdza jego genetyczny charakter.16 Metoda bliźniacza przeprowadzona przez amerykańskich naukowców wykazała, że u bliźniąt jednojajowych, którzy przekazują taką samą liczbę identycznych genów, oba dzieci będą się jąkać w 20-63% przypadków.17

Poszukiwania genetycznych podstaw jąkania doprowadziły do identyfikacji ponad dwunastu istotnych loci genowych.16 Naukowcy z National Institute for Deafness and Speech Disorders znaleźli silne powiązanie na długim ramieniu 12 chromosomu, badając grupę kontrolną pakistańskich krewnych cierpiących na jąkanie.17

Szczególnie interesujące są odkrycia dotyczące mutacji genów zaangażowanych w transport enzymów lizosomalnych. Badacze z Washington University School of Medicine wykazali, że przynajmniej część uporczywego jąkania jest spowodowana mutacjami w genie regulującym nie mowę, ale szlak metaboliczny związany z recyklingiem starych części komórek.18 Zidentyfikowano trzy szkodliwe mutacje w genie NAGPA u osób z uporczywym jąkaniem, a także mutacje w genach GNPTAB i GNPTG.18

Warto zauważyć, że jąkanie jest uważane za zaburzenie wieloczynnikowe poligenetyczne, z wieloma loci o różnych efektach i interakcjach między genomem a środowiskiem.16 Obecnie faworyzowany model to model progu ryzyka, ponieważ znaczna część efektów ma charakter addytywny.16

Fizjologia bloków mowy w jąkaniu

Kluczowym elementem jąkania są bloki mowy – mimowolne przerwania płynności wypowiedzi, które uniemożliwiają osobie jąkającej się wypowiedzenie słowa lub sylaby. Blokowanie słów zaczyna się w mózgu, a nie w ustach, o czym świadczy fakt, że osoby jąkające się często czują, że nadchodzące słowo zawiera „mur z cegieł”, jeszcze zanim spróbują je wypowiedzieć.19

W centrum bloków jąkania leży zakłócenie programu motorycznego mózgu do fonacji głównego dźwięku samogłoskowego słowa. Jest to najgłośniejsza część słowa, bez której słowo nie może być wypowiedziane.19 Hipoteza VRT (Variable Release Threshold) sugeruje, że doświadczenie tymczasowego paraliżu mięśni mowy pojawia się, gdy próbuje się wypowiedzieć sylabę lub słowo, które nie jest wystarczająco aktywowane, czyli gdy jego poziom aktywacji jest nadal poniżej progu uwolnienia.20

Zakłócenie przetwarzania mowy u osób jąkających się można przypisać ciału migdałowatemu – części mózgu, która przechowuje wspomnienia przepełnione strachem. Gdy stoimy w obliczu zagrożenia, hormony stresu przygotowują nas do walki, ucieczki lub znieruchomienia. Niestety, gdy ciało migdałowate interweniuje, wywołując reakcję walki-ucieczki-znieruchomienia, zazwyczaj następuje blok jąkania.21

Im bardziej osoba mówiąca zwiększa ciśnienie powietrza, aby wymusić wypowiedzenie słowa, tym silniej wargi, język lub krtań automatycznie zamykają się, aby oprzeć się ciśnieniu powietrza. Niezdolność osoby mówiącej do wypowiedzenia dźwięku samogłoski może wywołać przytłaczającą potrzebę wysiłku fizycznego w próbie wymuszenia słowa lub sylaby.21

Czynniki wpływające na nasilenie jąkania

Jąkanie może być nasilane przez różne czynniki. Jednym z kluczowych mechanizmów jest wpływ stresu i lęku na mowę. Gdy jesteśmy zestresowani, ma to negatywny wpływ na nasze ciało – organizm wydziela hormony, a mięśnie się napinają, powodując napięcie w klatce piersiowej, ramionach, szczęce, szyi, języku lub wargach. Ruchy mięśni, którymi mózg kieruje, aby kontrolować mowę, napinają się, co może nasilić już istniejące jąkanie.22

Tworzy to negatywną pętlę sprzężenia zwrotnego – dziecko ma jąkanie, co powoduje niepokój, który następnie powoduje, że jąkanie staje się bardziej wyraźne.23 Warto zaznaczyć, że około połowa dorosłych, którzy się jąkają, ma również fobię społeczną. Jąkanie może zwiększyć 6-7 razy prawdopodobieństwo wystąpienia lęku i 16-34 razy prawdopodobieństwo zdiagnozowania fobii społecznej.23

Inne czynniki wpływające na nasilenie jąkania obejmują:

  • Tempo mowy – badania wykazały, że dorosłe osoby jąkające się mają mniej wydajny mechanizm mowy i potrzebują nieco więcej czasu podczas mówienia. Im szybciej mówisz, tym bardziej prawdopodobne jest, że będziesz się jąkać.24
  • Wcześniejsze trudności z umiejętnościami językowymi – osoby, które miały lub nadal mają trudności z umiejętnościami językowymi, są bardziej podatne na jąkanie24
  • Presja sytuacyjna – niektóre sytuacje odczuwane są jako bardziej stresujące, co zwiększa prawdopodobieństwo jąkania24
  • Wpływy środowiskowe, takie jak stresujące sytuacje społeczne, rozmowy telefoniczne i negatywne doświadczenia związane z mówieniem, mogą również przyczyniać się do utrzymywania się jąkania25

Nowe kierunki badań nad patogenezą jąkania

Najnowsze badania wskazują na potencjalny związek między mikrobiomem jelitowym a jąkaniem. Badania na modelu mysim wykazały, że myszy z mutacjami w genie Gnptab, wykazujące nietypowe wokalizacje analogiczne do jąkania u ludzi, mają odrębny profil mikrobioty jelitowej w porównaniu do myszy kontrolnych. Najistotniejszą zmianą był wzrost względnej liczebności Akkermansia, rodzaju bakterii rozkładających śluz, które wcześniej były kojarzone z wieloma zaburzeniami neurologicznymi.26

Zmieniony profil mikrobioty tych myszy prawdopodobnie prowadzi do różnic w liczebności kilku szlaków metabolicznych, w tym syntezy krótkołańcuchowych kwasów tłuszczowych i lipopolisacharydów. Te szlaki mogą odgrywać rolę w początkach, progresji i utrzymywaniu się jąkania rozwojowego.27

Analiza przewidywanych mikrobiologicznych szlaków funkcjonalnych wykazała regulację w górę lub w dół bakteryjnego metabolizmu energii i metabolizmu nukleotydów, a także syntezy witamin, aminokwasów, azotu, hemu, krótkołańcuchowych kwasów tłuszczowych (SCFA) i lipopolisacharydów (LPS) u myszy mutantów. Szlaki te są niezbędne dla przeżycia bakterii i homeostazy, a ich dysregulacja może nasilać dysbiozy jelitowe, co z kolei może przyczyniać się do zmian w OUN za pośrednictwem osi jelitowo-mózgowej.28

Modele patogenetyczne jąkania

Istnieje kilka modeli teoretycznych próbujących wyjaśnić mechanizmy leżące u podstaw jąkania. Każdy z nich koncentruje się na różnych aspektach tego złożonego zaburzenia.

Model zdolności i wymagań

Model „zdolności i wymagań” (capacities and demands model) został zaproponowany, aby wyjaśnić heterogeniczność zaburzenia.9 Zgodnie z tym modelem, jąkanie pojawia się, gdy wymagania wobec mówcy (np. złożone wypowiedzi, presja czasowa) przekraczają jego zdolności (np. koordynacja motoryczna, przetwarzanie językowe).29

Hipoteza walki antycypacyjnej

Hipoteza Anticipatory Struggle (walki antycypacyjnej) sugeruje, że jąkanie jest wynikiem walki mówcy z antycypowanymi trudnościami w mówieniu. Postrzeganie „muru z cegieł”, wraz z innymi aspektami, wydaje się być niemal uniwersalne wśród osób z uporczywym jąkaniem rozwojowym.30

Mechanizm VRT (Variable Release Threshold) opiera się na tej hipotezie i sugeruje, że bloki mowy są wynikiem zastąpienia programu motorycznego dla fonacji dźwięku samogłoskowego programem dla wysiłku.31

Mechanizm Valsalvy

Terapia jąkania Valsalva to kompleksowe podejście do leczenia bloków jąkania poprzez kontrolowanie podstawowych czynników psychologicznych, neurologicznych i fizjologicznych, które je powodują.32 Zakłada ona, że zakłócenie mowy nie zaczyna się w ustach, ale w mózgu, gdzie ciało migdałowate może wywoływać reakcję walki-ucieczki-znieruchomienia, która hamuje fonację dźwięku samogłoskowego – najgłośniejszej części słowa lub sylaby, bez której słowo nie może być wypowiedziane.32

Mechanizm Valsalvy, który jest naturalną funkcją organizmu, może przekształcać dodatkowy wysiłek wkładany w mowę w blok, z którym osoby jąkające się zmagają każdego dnia. Powodem, dla którego ten mechanizm jest uważany za związany z jąkaniem, jest to, że osoby jąkające się wkładają dużo siły i wysiłku w słowa, na których się potykają.33

Model blokowania ról

Jedna z nowszych hipotez ewolucyjnych sugeruje, że jąkanie jest cenionym mechanizmem ewolucyjnym służącym całemu gatunkowi poprzez blokowanie osobom jąkającym się zajmowania pewnych ról w obrębie gatunku, aby zmusić je do wypełniania innych potrzebnych ról.34

Mechanizm genetyczny jąkania ewoluował, aby hamować ekspresję osoby jąkającej się podczas próby zajmowania pewnych ról. Jednakże mechanizm jąkania pozostaje uśpiony, gdy osoba jąkająca się pełni rolę, którą mechanizm jąkania uznaje za odpowiednią do wypełnienia.34

Typy jąkania a patogeneza

Istnieją różne typy jąkania, z których każdy ma nieco odmienną patogenezę.

Jąkanie rozwojowe

Jąkanie rozwojowe jest najczęstszą formą, występującą u młodych dzieci w trakcie nabywania umiejętności mowy i języka. Zazwyczaj pojawia się między 2 a 6 rokiem życia.35 Najczęstszy wiek początku to między trzecim a czwartym rokiem życia, choć rodzice zgłaszali początek tak wcześnie jak w 18 miesiącu życia i tak późno jak w 13 roku życia.36

Jedna z teorii sugeruje, że jąkanie rozwojowe pojawia się, gdy umiejętności mowy i języka dziecka nie spełniają jego wymagań werbalnych.29 Jąkanie to może mieć podłoże genetyczne, co wyjaśnia, dlaczego jest trzy razy bardziej prawdopodobne, że będziesz się jąkać, jeśli masz krewnego pierwszego stopnia (rodzica lub rodzeństwo), który się jąka.37

Osoby, które się jąkają, częściej mają różnice w określonych obszarach mózgu. Są to zwykle obszary, które kontrolują mięśnie mowy lub koordynację mięśni.37

Jąkanie neurogenne

Jąkanie neurogenne występuje w wyniku uszkodzenia określonych obszarów tkanki mózgowej w wyniku urazu. Potencjalne przyczyny takiego uszkodzenia lub urazu obejmują udar (najczęstszą przyczynę), znaczący uraz mózgu, encefalopatię niedotlenieniowo-niedokrwienną, różne choroby otępienne, chorobę Parkinsona, następstwa dializy, zwyrodnienie korowo-podstawne zwojów, stwardnienie rozsiane i epilepsję.29

Jąkanie neurogenne może być poprzedzone niedawnym zdarzeniem neurologicznym, takim jak udar, i może mieć inne objawy, takie jak drżenie, bóle głowy, problemy z koordynacją lub osłabienie jednej strony ciała.38

Jąkanie psychogenne

Jąkanie psychogenne jest klasyfikowane jako zaburzenie funkcjonalne, nowoczesne określenie tego, co wcześniej było znane jako zaburzenie konwersyjne, gdzie objawy psychologiczne manifestują się jako fizyczne.12

Ta forma jąkania jest rzadka, ale kiedyś uważano, że reprezentuje wszystkie przypadki jąkania.22 Może być ona wywołana przez zdarzenia traumatyczne, skrajny stres i lęk.39

Jąkanie wywołane lekami

Jąkanie może wystąpić u pacjentów psychiatrycznych w wyniku leczenia różnymi lekami psychotropowymi.40 Gdy jąkanie pojawia się w życiu dorosłym, określa się je jako jąkanie nabyte.40

Gdy jąkanie wywołane lekami występuje w przypadku klozapiny, pojawia się przy średniej dawce 200-250 mg/dzień, ale może się rozpocząć przy dawce tak niskiej jak 50 mg.40 Jąkanie wywołane lekami jest uważane za podkategorię jąkania neurogennego.40

Dokładny mechanizm (mechanizmy) patofizjologiczny leżący u podstaw jąkania wywołanego klozapiną pozostaje nieznany. Jąkanie wywołane klozapiną zostało również postulowane jako wynik reakcji pozapiramidowych na lek.41

Leki, które zgłoszono jako wywołujące jąkanie, celują w kilka różnych systemów neuroprzekaźnikowych: układy cholinergiczne, dopaminergiczne, noradrenergiczne, serotoninergiczne i układy NMDA.42

Współczesny model patogenezy jąkania

Współczesne badania sugerują, że jąkanie, podobnie jak inne złożone zaburzenia, można przypisać zakłóceniom na poziomie sieci neuronalnych.43 Zarówno dzieci, jak i dorośli, którzy się jąkają, wykazują nietypową strukturę mózgu i wzorce funkcjonalne, które można zlokalizować i które stanowią część kilku głównych sieci neuronalnych.43

Biorąc pod uwagę, że jąkanie pojawia się we wczesnym dzieciństwie, podczas dynamicznej fazy rozwoju mózgu i zachowania, najnowsze badania badające dzieci w wieku zbliżonym do tego krytycznego okresu rozwojowego zidentyfikowały wczesne zmiany w mózgu, które najprawdopodobniej są związane z jąkaniem, podczas gdy spontaniczne ustąpienie objawów wydaje się być związane ze zwiększoną łącznością między obszarami.44

Podsumowując, patogeneza jąkania jest złożonym procesem, który obejmuje czynniki genetyczne, neurobiologiczne, psychologiczne i środowiskowe. Aktualne badania sugerują, że u podstaw jąkania leżą zaburzenia w integracji różnych obszarów mózgu odpowiedzialnych za planowanie, koordynację i wykonywanie mowy. Jednak dokładne mechanizmy i interakcje między tymi czynnikami wymagają dalszych badań.

Typ jąkania Główne mechanizmy patogenetyczne Czynniki ryzyka
Jąkanie rozwojowe – Zaburzenia integracji sensoryczno-motorycznej
– Deficyty w białej istocie mózgu
– Nieprawidłowa aktywacja półkuli prawej
– Deficyty w fasciculus arcuatus
– Historia rodzinna jąkania
– Płeć męska
– Opóźniony rozwój mowy
– Predyspozycje genetyczne
Jąkanie neurogenne – Uszkodzenie specyficznych obszarów mózgu
– Uszkodzenie szlaków motorycznych mowy
– Udar mózgu
– Uraz głowy
– Choroby neurodegeneracyjne
– Choroby demielinizacyjne
Jąkanie psychogenne – Mechanizm konwersji (somatyzacji)
– Reakcja stresowa
– Traumatyczne przeżycia
– Ekstremalne sytuacje stresowe
– Zaburzenia psychiczne
Jąkanie wywołane lekami – Zaburzenia neuroprzekaźnictwa
– Podwyższony poziom dopaminy
– Zaburzenia równowagi acetylocholina-dopamina
– Wyczerpanie GABA
– Zmiany poziomów serotoniny
– Leczenie lekami przeciwpsychotycznymi
– Wcześniejsze zaburzenia pozapiramidowe
– Historia jąkania w dzieciństwie
– Rodzinna historia jąkania

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Stuttering (Stammering) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK603738/
    Stuttering can be broadly categorized into developmental, neurogenic, psychogenic, or pharmacological origins, with developmental stuttering being the most prevalent, affecting 5% to 10% of preschoolers. […] This activity reviews the etiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, history, evaluation, and treatment of patients who stutter. […] The exact mechanisms underlying developmental stuttering remain incompletely understood. However, a consensus exists that stuttering arises from a complex interplay of linguistic, motoric, and emotional factors, interacting in nonlinear ways. […] Overall, it is generally believed that stuttering results from defects in the brain regions responsible for speech planning, coordination, and execution, with individual variations in the specific abnormalities observed.
  • #2 Stuttering (Stammering) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK603738/
    Stuttering can be broadly categorized into developmental, neurogenic, psychogenic, or pharmacological origins, with developmental stuttering being the most prevalent, affecting 5% to 10% of preschoolers. […] This activity reviews the etiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, history, evaluation, and treatment of patients who stutter. […] The exact mechanisms underlying developmental stuttering remain incompletely understood. However, a consensus exists that stuttering arises from a complex interplay of linguistic, motoric, and emotional factors, interacting in nonlinear ways. […] Overall, it is generally believed that stuttering results from defects in the brain regions responsible for speech planning, coordination, and execution, with individual variations in the specific abnormalities observed.
  • #3 The Pathogenesis, Assessment and Treatment of Speech Fluency Disorders (05.06.2017)
    https://di.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/189154/Clinical-practice-guideline-The-pathogenesis-assessment-and-treatment-of-speech-fluency-disorders
    Stuttering is often treated in Germany with therapies for which there is inadequate evidence, and the initiation of treatment is often unnecessarily delayed. […] In view of the fact that common (developmental, idiopathic) stuttering is associated with structural and functional changes of the brain, the guideline recommends that it should be called originary neurogenic non-syndromic stuttering. […] The term describes a neurological impairment of speech and its planning, which develops in childhood owing to a genetic disposition. […] Stuttering is associated with morphological and functional abnormalities of the brain and is the expression of impaired interaction between auditory, somatosensory, speech planning, and speech motor neuronal networks, which is continually required in the generation of fluent speech.
  • #4 Our research on Developmental Stuttering (Stammering) — Department of Experimental Psychology
    https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/research/speech-brain-research-group/research-projects/developmental-stuttering-stammering
    Developmental stuttering affects about 5% of children. Most of these children stop stuttering during childhood resulting in 1% of adults with persistent developmental stuttering. Speech dysfluencies that characterize stuttering are hesitations, prolongations and repetitions of speech sounds, typically occurring at the beginnings of words and sentences. The amount of stuttering can increase if anxiety is high, the upcoming speech is particularly long, or grammatically complex. […] We have used brain imaging to examine the brains of children and adults who stutter. Typically, there is no obvious difference visible to the naked eye that could explain why someone stutters. By using brain imaging, we can detect more subtle differences in brain structure and function in people who stutter. We used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to examine white matter integrity and functional MRI to see the brain areas involved in speech production. During sentence reading, we found a number of brain areas that were underactive and overactive in people who stutter compared to controls who do not stutter. In the people who stutter, one area that was functionally underachieve – the ventral premotor cortex – was also found to have an underlying structural difference in the white matter pathways in the same region. This pathway and the cortical areas it connects appear important therefore for the production of fluent speech.
  • #5 Stuttering (Stammering) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK603738/
    Functional neuroanatomical changes observed in individuals who stutter include: Abnormal integration of sensory and motor functions during speech production: This is characterized by diminished white matter integrity in areas of the dorsal auditory tract, particularly the left arcuate or superior longitudinal fasciculus. […] Neurotransmitter disturbances: Various pathophysiological mechanisms have been postulated to contribute to drug-induced stuttering; however, further research is needed in this domain. Proposed mechanisms include elevated cerebral dopamine levels, alterations in the acetylcholine or dopamine balance, GABA depletion, and changes in serotonin levels.
  • #6 Stuttering (Stammering) | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/150683
    Functional neuroanatomical changes observed in individuals who stutter include: Abnormal integration of sensory and motor functions during speech production, characterized by diminished white matter integrity in areas of the dorsal auditory tract, particularly the left arcuate or superior longitudinal fasciculus. […] Neurotransmitter disturbances: Various pathophysiological mechanisms have been postulated to contribute to drug-induced stuttering; however, further research is needed in this domain. Proposed mechanisms include elevated cerebral dopamine levels, alterations in the acetylcholine or dopamine balance, GABA depletion, and changes in serotonin levels.
  • #7 The science of stammering | STAMMA
    https://stamma.org/features/science-stammering
    There is something fundamentally different about the brains of people who stutter. […] What appeared was an abnormality in a region known as the arcuate fasciculus. This bundle of nerve fibres provides a communication conduit for signals between parts of the rear brain to parts of the front brain known to be involved in speech production. […] The fact that children who stammer also show disorganised neural connections in Broca’s area suggests this may be another key player in the stammering equation. […] Another area now implicated in stammering is the striatum, a part of the brain located in the basal ganglia which plays a key role in facilitating voluntary movement. […] These studies increasingly hint that people who stammer do so because of connection faults in the speech-producing networks of their brain.
  • #8 Our research on Developmental Stuttering (Stammering) — Department of Experimental Psychology
    https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/research/speech-brain-research-group/research-projects/developmental-stuttering-stammering
    Recently, using MRI scans we found increased concentration of iron in the brains of people who stutter in the parts of the brain involved in movement initiation and control. These new findings might relate to some of the genetic findings that are thought to cause stuttering in about 10% of people who stutter. We don’t yet know if stuttering causes the increased iron in the brain or whether stuttering is caused by increased iron. More studies following people who stutter longitudinally from early in development are needed.
  • #9 Stuttering – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttering
    Stuttering is not connected to the physical ability to produce phonemes (i.e. it is unrelated to the structure or function of the vocal cords). […] Stuttering is purely a neurological disconnect between intent and outcome during the task of expressing each individual sound. […] The cause of developmental stuttering is complex. It is thought to be neurological with a genetic factor. […] Various hypotheses suggest multiple factors contributing to stuttering. There is strong evidence that stuttering has a genetic basis. […] Less common causes of stuttering include neurogenic stuttering (stuttering that occurs secondary to brain damage, such as after a stroke) and psychogenic stuttering (stuttering related to a psychological condition). […] Brain scans of adult stutterers have found greater activation of the right hemisphere, than of the left hemisphere, which is associated with speech. […] The 'capacities and demands model’ has been proposed to account for the heterogeneity of the disorder. […] Another theory has been that adults who stutter have elevated levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
  • #10 The science of stammering | STAMMA
    https://stamma.org/features/science-stammering
    However, the elephant in the room is whether these anomalies in the brain cause the stutter or whether 'natural’ dysfluencies in early childhood create the anomalies in the developing brains of children who go on to stammer. […] The only way to solve this mystery would be longitudinal studies over years or decades. […] Among fluent speakers it is areas in the left hemisphere of the brain that take the dominant role in speech production. In persistent stammerers, however, their right hemispheres activate more strongly when speaking, even when they are fluent. […] For Kell, this suggests their brains are attempting to find some way to compensate for malfunctions in the relevant left hemisphere speech areas. […] In persistent stutterers, scans show BA47 as one of the areas failing to activate properly – but among recovered stammerers it appears to be working again.
  • #11 Stuttering (Stammering) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK603738/
    Functional neuroanatomical changes observed in individuals who stutter include: Abnormal integration of sensory and motor functions during speech production: This is characterized by diminished white matter integrity in areas of the dorsal auditory tract, particularly the left arcuate or superior longitudinal fasciculus. […] Neurotransmitter disturbances: Various pathophysiological mechanisms have been postulated to contribute to drug-induced stuttering; however, further research is needed in this domain. Proposed mechanisms include elevated cerebral dopamine levels, alterations in the acetylcholine or dopamine balance, GABA depletion, and changes in serotonin levels. […] Genetic factors, particularly in developmental stuttering, have been the subject of research for decades. […] While further investigation is needed, this variant of CYP-40, integral to the functionally crucial chaperone machinery of heat shock proteins, may yield novel stuttering pathomechanisms associated with this protein and others performing molecular chaperone functions.
  • #12 Stuttering (Stammering) | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/150683
    Psychogenic stuttering is classified as a functional disorder, a modern term for what was previously known as conversion disorder, where psychological symptoms manifest as physical ones. […] Various pathophysiological mechanisms have been postulated to contribute to drug-induced stuttering; however, further research is needed in this domain. Proposed mechanisms include elevated cerebral dopamine levels, alterations in the acetylcholine or dopamine balance, GABA depletion, and changes in serotonin levels. […] The exact mechanisms underlying developmental stuttering remain incompletely understood. However, a consensus exists that stuttering arises from a complex interplay of linguistic, motoric, and emotional factors, interacting in nonlinear ways. Overall, it is generally believed that stuttering results from defects in the brain regions responsible for speech planning, coordination, and execution, with individual variations in the specific abnormalities observed.
  • #13 The science of stammering | STAMMA
    https://stamma.org/features/science-stammering
    If stuttering is caused by anomalies in brain structure, what causes those anomalies in the first place? […] Drayna believes that the gene mutations he identified in stammerers could cause a breakdown in the healthy recycling of cells in areas of the brain related to speech processing, resulting in the sort of anomalies such as missing neural connections observed in areas like the arcuate fasciculus. […] By peering inside the brains of people who stammer, brain imaging techniques are also offering hope for more scientific treatments. […] Activity in the motor and auditory areas of the brains of people who stutter was out of sync. […] The Oxford research builds on research in 2010 by Oren Civier at The Leslie and Susan Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center in Israel which also pointed to a malfunction in the how the brains of stammerers handle auditory feedback as they try to speak. […] Maguire believes dopamine blockers are the likeliest candidates as anti-stuttering medication.
  • #14 Star-shaped brain cells may be linked to stuttering | UCR News | UC Riverside
    https://news.ucr.edu/articles/2021/02/11/star-shaped-brain-cells-may-be-linked-stuttering
    Astrocytes star-shaped cells in the brain that are actively involved in brain function may play an important role in stuttering, a study led by a University of California, Riverside, expert on stuttering has found. […] The mechanism of risperidones action in stuttering, in part, appears to involve increased metabolism or activity of astrocytes in the striatum. […] Maguire and SheikhBahaei have now found evidence that astrocytes in the striatum may be crucially involved in how risperidone is able to reduce stuttering. […] What we know is that it activates astrocytes. The astrocytes then release a signaling molecule that affects neurons in the striatum by blocking their dopamine receptors. […] Our data, which suggests astrocytes in the striatum may be playing an important role in the development of stuttering, helps unify some of the findings the scientific literature has seen recently on astrocytes and could help connect the dots. […] These circuits will shed more light on the mechanism involved in stuttering.
  • #15
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stammering/
    Stammering is when: […] Stammering can happen if some parts of this developing system are not co-ordinated. This can cause repetitions and stoppages, particularly when the child has lots to say, is excited, or feels under pressure. […] Developmental and inherited factors may play a part, along with small differences in how efficiently the speech areas of the brain are working. […] Genes are also thought to have a role. Around 2 in 3 people who stammer have a family history of stammering, which suggests the genes a child inherits from their parents might make them more likely to develop a stammer.
  • #16 The Pathogenesis, Assessment and Treatment of Speech Fluency Disorders (05.06.2017)
    https://di.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/189154/Clinical-practice-guideline-The-pathogenesis-assessment-and-treatment-of-speech-fluency-disorders
    Twin studies have confirmed that stuttering has a heritability of 6985%. […] The molecular genetic search for types of genetic predisposition has thus far identified more than a dozen relevant loci. […] Stuttering is regarded as a multifactorial polygenic disorder, with many loci of different effects and interactions between genome and environment. […] Because a substantial proportion of the effects is of an additive nature, the currently favored model is a risk-threshold model. […] The evidence does not support the efficacy of pharmacotherapy, rhythmic speaking, or breathing regulation as the sole or main form of treatment, or that of hypnosis or eclectic, unspecified stuttering therapies.
  • #17 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Genetic-Factors-in-Stuttering-Disorders.aspx
    The pathogenesis of stuttering is like the mechanism of subcortical dysarthria and is often referred to as dysrhythmic dysarthria. […] Representatives of the American Association for Speech, Language, and Hearing suggest that many people who have some speech impairment inherit certain traits, such as weak central speech mechanisms. However, this is not a reason for pessimism, because, despite the presence of certain links between stuttering and genetics, one must also remember that genetically inherited pathology manifests itself only in the presence of additional negative factors. […] American scientists from the National Institute for Deafness and Speech Disorders conducted research in which they found substantial evidence that stuttering can be inherited. […] In the process of studying the problem, the researchers found a strong connection on the long arm of the 12th chromosome. The results were obtained from a control group of Pakistani relatives who suffered from stuttering. Several unrelated families from Pakistan, North America, and the United Kingdom were also analyzed. […] The twin method, carried out by the same group of scientists, showed that in identical twins, who passed on the same number of identical genes, both children will stutter in 20-63% of cases.
  • #18 Surprising Pathway Implicated in Stuttering | Stuttering Foundation: A Nonprofit Organization Helping Those Who Stutter
    https://www.stutteringhelp.org/surprising-pathway-implicated-stuttering
    Researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis have shown that at least some persistent stuttering is caused by mutations in a gene governing not speech, but a metabolic pathway involved in recycling old cell parts. […] Beyond a simple association, the study provides the first evidence that mutations affecting cellular recycling centers called lysosomes actually play a role in causing some people to stutter. […] Our main finding is that these three mutations in NAGPA in people with persistent stuttering all have harmful effects. This is biochemical evidence that these mutations are meaningful, and not just markers of some other genetic change that is the real cause. […] Having described the three harmful mutations in NAGPA, Kornfeld’s group is now performing biochemical analyses on the other two mutated genes Drayna’s group identified GNPTAB and GNPTG. […] Drayna and his colleagues estimate that these three mutated genes account for only about 10 percent of people who stutter with a family history. As such, they are continuing the search for additional genes responsible for stuttering.
  • #19 Stuttering Blocks and How We Can Stop Them – Valsalva Stuttering Therapy %
    https://stutteringtherapist.com/stuttering-blocks-and-how-we-can-stop-them/
    A stuttering block is an involuntary interruption in the flow of speech that prevents a speaker from voicing a word or syllable. The blockage of words begins in the brain rather than the mouth, as evidenced by the fact that persons who stutter often feel that an upcoming word contains a brick wall, even before they try to say it. […] At the core of stuttering blocks is an interference with the brains motor program for phonating the principal vowel sound of a word. This is the loudest part of the word, without which the word cannot be spoken. […] There is a growing body of evidence that persons who stutter may have various underlying neurological deficiencies compared to non-stutterers, as indicated by brain scans and other scientific studies. However, such deficiencies alone would not necessarily cause stuttering blocks.
  • #20 The Mechanism Underlying Stammering – SSEP – Stammering Self-empowerment Programme
    https://stammeringresearch.org/onlinecourse/understanding-stammering/the-mechanism-underlying-stammering/
    The Mechanism Underlying Stammering […] The VRT hypothesis provides a plausible, detailed explanation for why trying to avoid speech errors results in the production of stammered disfluencies. […] Essentially, the block is like a temporary paralysis of your speech muscles As a result of this temporary paralysis, the word simply doesnt come out when it should. This is completely outside of your immediate conscious control. […] This experience (of temporary paralysis of your speech muscles) results when you try to say a syllable or word which is not sufficiently activated. In other words, when its activation level is still below the release threshold. […] The primary purpose of this online course is to teach you how to reduce your tendency to block by ensuring that the words you try to say have a level of activation that is above the release threshold. The two techniques that we teach (Orchestral Speech and The Jump) both help to bring the release threshold down. […] A more detailed exposition of the VRT hypothesis, and its grounding within the broader theoretical framework of anticipatory struggle hypotheses, is available in the Journal of Communication Disorders publication: Brocklehurst Lickley Corley (2013) Revisiting Bloodsteins Anticipatory Struggle Hypothesis from a psycholinguistic perspective: A variable release threshold hypothesis of stuttering A free pre-print version of which is available here.
  • #21 Stuttering Blocks and How We Can Stop Them – Valsalva Stuttering Therapy %
    https://stutteringtherapist.com/stuttering-blocks-and-how-we-can-stop-them/
    The interference with stutterers speech processing can be attributed to the amygdala a part of the brain that stores fearful memories. […] When we are confronted by an enemy, the stress hormones prepare us to fight harder to defend ourselves, to run faster to escape danger, or, when neither of these options are feasible, to freeze in place to make ourselves less noticeable. […] Unfortunately, when the amygdala intervenes by triggering a fight-flight-freeze response, the usual result is a stuttering block. […] The more the speaker builds up air pressure to force out the word, the more strongly the lips, tongue, or larynx automatically close to resist the air pressure. […] The speakers inability to voice the vowel sound may trigger an overwhelming urge to exert physical effort in an attempt to force out the word or syllable.
  • #22 Stuttering When Stressed: Why It Happens (& How to Combat It)
    https://www.casrf.org/post/stuttering-when-stressed-why-it-happens-how-to-combat-it
    Stuttering, also called stammering, is a fluency disorder that disrupts the flow of speech. […] What causes a developmental stutter? Researchers are still studying the exact causes, but there may be several factors at play. […] When a stutter is caused by signal problems between the brain and all the various speech mechanisms in our body, this is called neurogenic stuttering. […] Psychogenic stuttering is rare but was once believed to represent all stuttering. […] The reason why stutters increase with stress is physiologically related. When we’re stressed, this has a negative response on our bodies. Our bodies secrete hormones and our muscles tighten; building up tension in the chest, shoulders, jaw, neck, tongue, or lips. The muscle movements that the brain directs to control speech tense up, which can aggravate the stutter that is already existing there.
  • #23 Stuttering When Stressed: Why It Happens (& How to Combat It)
    https://www.casrf.org/post/stuttering-when-stressed-why-it-happens-how-to-combat-it
    This causes a negative feedback loop. The child has a stutter, which causes anxiety, which then causes the stutter to become more pronounced. […] Half of the adults who stutter also have social anxiety. […] Having a stutter can make you 6-7 times more likely to have anxiety and 16 to 34 times more likely to be diagnosed with social anxiety. […] If you suspect your child has a chronic stutter, consider visiting your child’s healthcare provider for a proper diagnosis and treatment plan. […] It is often best to attack the issue at its core. Luckily, stuttering itself is treatable, which will automatically alleviate the associated anxiety. […] CBT can help alleviate social anxiety by identifying, neutralizing, and preventing self-defeating thoughts. […] Learning mindfulness and meditation practices can do wonders for relaxation. […] When someone avoids social settings, this can make the anxiety worse. […] You do not want your child to feel like a burden.
  • #24 What causes stammering? – The Michael Palin Centre for Stammering
    https://michaelpalincentreforstammering.org/about-stammering/young-people/why-do-people-stammer/
    Brain imaging studies (with children as young as 3) have shown that stammering is linked to subtle differences in the way that the brain has developed and how it processes speech. […] This is genetically influenced. If you have a relative who stammers, or who used to stammer, this helps to explain why you stammer. It is not completely dictated by genes however other things play a role. […] Research has also found that adults who stammer have a less efficient speech mechanism and need a fraction more time when they are speaking. […] This means that the faster you talk the more likely it is that you stammer. […] If you used to have, or still do have, any difficulties with language skills then this also helps to explain why you stammer. […] Some situations feel more pressured and this makes you more likely to stammer.
  • #25 Stuttering: An Overview | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0501/p1271.html
    Growing evidence supports a link between genetics and stuttering. […] The sex of the patient clearly influences stuttering. […] Environmental influences, such as stressful social situations, talking on the telephone, and negative experiences associated with speaking, may also contribute to the persistence of stuttering.
  • #26 Atypical gut microbiota composition in a mouse model of developmental stuttering | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-74766-x
    Developmental stuttering is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by disfluent speech. It has been associated with mutations in genes involved in lysosomal enzyme trafficking. Mice with mutations in one such gene, Gnptab, exhibit atypical vocalizations analogous to stuttering in humans. This mouse model has enabled the study of various molecular mechanisms related to the disorder. […] Simultaneously, an increasing number of reports have suggested the role of gut microbiota in altered brain function and development in neurological disorders. […] In this study, we compared gut microbiota profiles from Gnptab mutant mice to wildtype control mice. Microbiome analysis demonstrated a distinct microbiota profile in Gnptab mutant mice. The most significant alteration was an increased relative abundance of Akkermansia, a genus of mucin degrading bacteria, which has previously been associated with multiple neurological disorders.
  • #27 Atypical gut microbiota composition in a mouse model of developmental stuttering | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-74766-x
    Moreover, the altered microbiota profile of these mice was predicted to result in differences in abundance of several metabolic pathways, including short chain fatty acid and lipopolysaccharide synthesis. These pathways may play a role in the onset, progression and persistence of developmental stuttering. […] This study is the first to show a potential link between stuttering-related mutations in Gnptab and changes in gut microbiota composition. […] These diversity measures suggest that Gnptab mutant mice develop a distinct gut bacteria composition early in development. […] However, the pathophysiology linking the Gnptab mutations, beta diversity, and stutter-like murine vocalization remains largely unclear. […] There are a number of predicted biological pathways that may link atypical microbiota composition to stutter-like vocalization including bacterial dysregulation influencing short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and increased risk of inflammation due to atypical lipopolysaccharide (LPS) synthesis.
  • #28 Atypical gut microbiota composition in a mouse model of developmental stuttering | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-74766-x
    The analysis of predicted microbial functional pathways revealed upregulation or downregulation of bacterial energy metabolism and nucleotide metabolism, as well as vitamin, amino acid, nitrogen, heme, short-chain fatty acid (SCFA), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) synthesis in mutant mice. […] These pathways are integral for bacterial survival and homeostasis, and their dysregulation may exacerbate gut dysbiosis which in turn may contribute to CNS alterations via the gut-brain axis. […] The findings in this study suggest that the gut microbiota may be an important microenvironmental factor influencing stuttering.
  • #29 Stuttering (Stammering) | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/150683
    Stuttering can be broadly conceptualized as having either a developmental or an acquired etiology. […] This form of speech disfluency is the most prevalent type and occurs in young children during the critical period while they are still developing their speech and language abilities. One theory suggests that developmental stuttering arises when a child’s speech and language skills fail to meet their verbal demands. Genetic conditions, such as Prader-Willi syndrome, Down syndrome, and Fragile X syndrome, have also been associated with stuttering, where the stuttering pattern is phonologically similar to the developmental variant. […] Acquired stuttering can be further categorized into neurogenic, psychogenic, and drug-induced causes. […] Neurogenic stuttering arises from damage to specific brain tissue regions due to an insult. Potential causes of such damage or injury include stroke (the most prevalent), significant traumatic brain injury, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, various dementing diseases, Parkinson’s disease, sequelae of dialysis, corticobasal ganglionic degeneration, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy.
  • #30 Dismantling the “Brick Wall” of Stuttering – International Stuttering Awareness Day
    https://isad.live/isad-2013/papers-presented-by-2013/dismantling-the-brick-wall-of-stuttering/
    The perception of a brick wall, together with other aspects of the foregoing scenario, appears to be almost universal among persons with persistent developmental stuttering. […] I find that standard stuttering therapies, including the stuttering modification and fluency shaping approaches, focus primarily on treating the external symptoms of stuttering, without addressing the internally perceived obstacle that triggers them. Therefore, their techniques tend to fall apart when stutterers encounter the brick wall in actual speaking situations. […] I believe that the brick wall is at the heart of stuttering. In order to understand and deal with stuttering effectively, we must first understand what the brick wall is and what causes it. […] Because the brick wall is perceived prior to the act of speaking, it is likely that the underlying stuttering block arises in the motor programming for speech probably in the neuromotor tuning phase rather than in the execution of the physical movements of speech.
  • #31 Dismantling the “Brick Wall” of Stuttering – International Stuttering Awareness Day
    https://isad.live/isad-2013/papers-presented-by-2013/dismantling-the-brick-wall-of-stuttering/
    Therefore, the brick wall appears to be a failure of the brain to program the larynx to phonate the vowel sound of a word or syllable. […] The cause of this vowel phonation gap appears to be the substitution of a motor program for effort in place of phonation of the vowel sound. […] The external behaviors regarded as stuttering can be understood as the speakers attempt to overcome an internal block caused by the neurological substitution of effort in place of phonation of the vowel sound. […] Valsalva Stuttering Therapy seeks to address all elements of stuttering psychological, emotional, neurological, and physiological as an interactive system. […] The Valsalva Stuttering Therapy approach is fundamentally different from stuttering modification. Stuttering modification techniques focus largely on modifying the overt symptoms of stuttering, which are actually the stutterers struggle or avoidance behaviors in response to the brick wall. Valsalva Stuttering Therapy focuses instead on resisting the effort impulse, relaxing the Valsalva mechanism, and programming the larynx to phonate the vowel sound.
  • #32 Valsalva Stuttering Therapy
    https://stutteringtherapist.com/valsalva-stuttering-therapy/
    Valsalva Stuttering Therapy is a comprehensive new approach to treating stuttering blocks by controlling the underlying psychological, neurological, and physiological factors that cause them. […] It recognizes that the interference with speech does not begin in the mouth, but rather in the brain. Therefore, persons who stutter often feel that an upcoming word contains a brick wall, even before they try to say it. This interference may occur when the brains amygdala triggers a fight-flight-freeze response, which inhibits phonation of the vowel sound the loudest part of a word or syllable without which the word cannot be spoken. […] Valsalva Stuttering Therapy treats stuttering not as a fluency problem or an articulation problem, but rather as a specific kind of voice problem. Once the interference with vowel phonation is overcome, the stuttering behaviors will diminish on their own.
  • #33 The Neurological Causes of Stuttering | Serendip Studio
    https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/serendipupdate/neurological-causes-stuttering
    This suggests that if stuttering goes uncorrected in early age, the brain starts to remember the stuttering and builds different neural pathways so that in the future those moments are remembered and the same words cause a stutterer to trip up. […] One group of researchers found a connection between the functioning of the lateral and medial areas of the brain and stuttering. The lateral area of the brain controls the formation of words (Broca’s area), muscle movements (motor areas) and the understanding of language (Wernicke’s area) in what is known as closed-loop motor control. […] The Valsalva Mechanism, which is a natural bodily function, may turn the extra effort put into speech into the block that stutterers fight with every day. […] The reason that this mechanism is thought to be tied to stuttering is because stutterers put a lot of force and effort into the words that they stumble over.
  • #34 Unveiling Stuttering Fluctuations: A Genetic Role-Blocking Mechanism – Human Roles; Specialization; Hierarchy; Evolution; Stammering; Identity; True Self – Understanding Dysfluency
    https://understandingdysfluency.com/2020/08/19/unveiling-stuttering-fluctuations-a-genetic-role-blocking-mechanism-human-roles-specialization-hierarchy-evolution-stammering-identity-true-self/
    Stuttering is also a condition with significant genetic contributions (Kraft Yairi, 2012). […] The stuttering mechanism attempts to block an individual who stutters from occupying certain roles (Sheehan, Hadley, Gould, 1967). […] The genetic stuttering mechanism is of benefit to the species as a whole but is often frustrating or detrimental to the thriving of the individual with the trait. Its evolutionary genetic payoff is role-blocking. The stuttering mechanism activates to block an individual from occupying certain roles (Gerlach, Totty, Subramanian, Zebrowski 2018). […] The stuttering mechanisms job is to block the person who stutters from occupying certain roles within the species. […] The genetic mechanism of stuttering has evolved to inhibit the person who stutters expression when attempting to occupy certain roles. However, the stuttering mechanism lies dormant when a person who stutters is in a role that the stuttering mechanism deems appropriate to fill. […] The evolutionary hypothesis that stuttering is a valued evolutionary mechanism to serve the species as a whole by blocking individuals who stutter from occupying certain roles within the species to force them to fill other needed roles can function to explain numerous elements of the condition.
  • #35 Stuttering and Cluttering
    https://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/stuttering/
    People who stutter usually have more and different types of disfluencies than other people. […] Stuttering usually starts between 2 and 6 years of age. Many children go through normal periods of disfluency lasting less than 6 months. […] There is no „one cause” of stuttering. Possible causes include the following: Family history Many people who stutter have a family member who also stutters. […] A person who stutters may have small differences in the way that their brain works during speech, compared with people who do not stutter. […] The causes of cluttering aren’t clear. Researchers are working hard to find out more about causes.
  • #36 Stuttering | Minnesota State University, Mankato
    https://ahn.mnsu.edu/services-and-centers/center-for-communication-sciences-and-disorders/services/stuttering/professional-education/the-comdis-field/remembering-the-contributions-of-those-who-have-passed-on/j.-david-williams/stuttering/
    The most common age of onset is between three and four years, though parents have reported onset as early as 18 months and as late as 13 years. […] In almost all cases, the child has been regarded as a normal or nonstuttering speaker for some time before the parents feel that he has developed a stuttering problem. […] The overt stuttering behavior tends to progress from a simpler pattern with minimal tension to manifestly greater complexity and tension, while the degree of emotionality frequently changes from apparent indifference to strongly negative emotional reactions. […] It is possible that, as time goes on, the specific disfluencies that define stuttering become more frequent and severe, independent of whatever the stutterer does in reaction to them. […] A third possibility is that both factors – increasing disfluency and increasing reactions to the disfluency – may contribute to the increased severity of the problem.
  • #37 Stuttering: What It Is, Causes, Treatment & Types
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14162-stuttering
    Stuttering is a speech disorder that affects the rhythm and flow of how you talk. This disorder disrupts how you speak, causing unintended sounds, pauses or other problems with talking smoothly. […] Stuttering is a specific type of fluency disorder. These fall into the overall category of speech impediments. […] Experts dont fully understand why stuttering happens. However, they suspect that several factors can contribute to it. […] Youre three times more likely to stutter if you have a first-degree relative (a parent or sibling) who stutters. […] People who stutter are more likely to have differences in certain brain areas. These are usually areas that control speaking muscles or muscle coordination. […] Speech therapy is the main form of treatment for all forms of stuttering. […] However, medications can treat mental health conditions like anxiety or depression, which often happen with and contribute to stuttering. […] Stuttering isnt a dangerous condition, and most people recover from it. Treatment especially speech therapy can speed up recovery. […] Theres no cure for stuttering, but you can recover from it. Speech therapy and other treatments can help make recovery faster and easier.
  • #38 Stuttering (Stammering) – MD Searchlight
    https://mdsearchlight.com/health/stuttering-stammering/
    Stuttering happens due to two main reasons: its either developmental or acquired. […] Developmental stuttering is more common and it happens in young children when they are still learning to speak. […] Acquired stuttering can be divided further into neurogenic, psychogenic, and drug-induced types. Neurogenic stuttering occurs when a part of the brain that controls speech gets damaged. […] Psychogenic stuttering is classified as a mental health disorder; psychological symptoms leading to physical ones. […] Drug-induced stuttering happens when certain drugs cause a person to stutter. […] Genetic factors in developmental stuttering have been researched for several years. […] Regardless, further investigation is necessary to know more about how this gene might cause stuttering. […] Neurogenic stuttering may be preceded by a recent neurological event like a stroke and may have other symptoms such as shaking, headaches, problems with coordination, or weakness on one side of the body.
  • #39 What is a Stammer? | Causes, types, signs, symptoms & treatments
    https://cpdonline.co.uk/knowledge-base/safeguarding/what-is-a-stammer/
    Genetics can be the cause of stammers in some individuals, as 66% of people with a stammer have a family history of stammering. Studies observing the presence of stammers in twins have shown that one twin may develop a stammer, and one may not, but the rate of stammers are higher in identical twins than in non-identical same-sex twins, suggesting that there is a genetic link. […] While stammers are not known to be onset by environmental factors, traumatic events, extreme stress and anxiety can cause a stammer. […] There are three different known types of stammer: developmental stammer, neurogenic stammer and psychogenic stammer. Each type of stammer has a different cause, though the symptoms for each remain consistent with each other. […] Developmental stammering or stuttering refers to a stammer that develops in children when they are still acquiring the skills of speech, language and communication.
  • #40 Practice tip: medication-induced stuttering in psychiatric patients | This Changed My Practice (TCMP) by UBC CPD
    https://thischangedmypractice.com/medication-induced-stuttering/
    Patients with schizophrenia can, in fact, age prematurely, but many of the outward signs of aging can be prevented or buffered. […] Stuttering can occur in psychiatric patients as a result of treatment with a variety of psychotropic drugs. […] When stutter emerges in adult life, it is referred to as acquired stuttering. […] When drug-induced stuttering occurs with clozapine, it sets in at an average dose of 200-250mg/day, but can start at as a low a dose as 50mg. […] Drug-induced stutter is considered a subcategory of neurogenic stutter. […] Neurogenic stuttering has been associated with lesions in the left supplementary motor area, the putamen and internal capsule, the striatum, thalamus, and cerebellum, not necessarily linked to structural impairment of these structures but, rather, to interruption of brain networks.
  • #41 Clozapine-induced stuttering in the absence of known risk factors: a case report | Journal of Medical Case Reports | Full Text
    https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13256-021-02803-8
    Stuttering is a rare side effect of clozapine. […] The pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying stuttering remain unresolved but have been postulated to include dopamine dysregulation, genetic mechanisms, and structural and functional brain changes. […] The exact pathophysiological mechanism(s) underpinning clozapine-induced stuttering remain unknown. […] Stuttering from clozapine has also been postulated to arise from extrapyramidal reactions to the medication. […] Other less well-documented risk factors for clozapine-induced stuttering include brain pathology and a family history of stuttering. […] This case emphasizes the need for clinicians to be aware of clozapine-induced stuttering, even in the absence of known risk factors. Further, it highlights the need for future research to investigate the pathophysiology of clozapine-induced stuttering.
  • #42 Practice tip: medication-induced stuttering in psychiatric patients | This Changed My Practice (TCMP) by UBC CPD
    https://thischangedmypractice.com/medication-induced-stuttering/
    The drugs that have been reported to induce stuttering target several different neurotransmitter systems: the cholinergic systems, dopaminergic systems, noradrenergic systems, serotonergic systems and NMDA systems. […] Drug-induced stuttering is considered a subcategory of neurogenic stutter. […] As do all antipsychotics, clozapine lowers the seizure threshold and can, therefore, lead to focal seizures that manifest as stuttering. […] Many case reports of clozapine-induced stuttering note that, prior to clozapine, the patient had had severe EPS and/or TD, which disappeared when clozapine was started. […] Risk factors for developing drug-induced stuttering in psychiatric patients include: a history of disfluency problems in the family or a personal history of childhood stuttering. […] The type of drug is an important risk factor, as is the dose of the drug, and, finally, the prior presence of EPS/TD.
  • #43 Knowns and unknowns about the neurobiology of stuttering | PLOS Biology
    https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002492
    When using current imaging technologies to examine the brain of an individual who stutters, it is unlikely that we will detect apparent morphological or functional anomalies. […] Both children and adults who stutter show atypical brain structure and functional patterns that can be localized and form part of a number of major neural networks. […] Altogether, imaging findings suggest that stuttering, like other complex disorders, can be attributed to network-level disruptions. […] Despite the research advances reviewed in this section, answers to the following questions remain elusive. […] Spontaneous recovery from stuttering is common in children, reported to be 80% or more, and neural recovery patterns may give us insights into the neural basis of fluent speech production and its pathologies.
  • #44 Knowns and unknowns about the neurobiology of stuttering | PLOS Biology
    https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002492
    Stuttering occurs in early childhood during a dynamic phase of brain and behavioral development. The latest studies examining children at ages close to this critical developmental period have identified early brain alterations that are most likely linked to stuttering, while spontaneous recovery appears related to increased inter-area connectivity. […] The etiology of stuttering, however, remains enigmatic. This Unsolved Mystery highlights critical questions and points to neuroimaging findings that could inspire future research to uncover how genetics, interacting neural hierarchies, social context, and reward circuitry contribute to the many facets of stuttering. […] Clarification of the neurobiological basis of stuttering is made even more difficult by the fluctuation, variability, and heterogeneity of the symptoms.