Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Stuttering Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/stuttering

  Stuttering usually affects children ages 2 to 5 years and is more common in boys. It may last for several weeks to several years. […] For a small number of children, stuttering does not go away and may get worse. This is called developmental stuttering and it is the most common type of stuttering. […] Stuttering persists into adulthood more in boys than in girls. […] Stuttering may start with repeating consonants (k, g, t). If stuttering becomes worse, words and phrases are repeated. […] Later, vocal spasms develop. There is a forced, almost explosive sound to speech. The person may appear to be struggling to speak. […] Stressful social situations and anxiety can make symptoms worse. […] Children with mild stuttering are often unaware of their stuttering. In severe cases, children may be more aware. Facial movements, anxiety, and increased stuttering may occur when they are asked to speak.

• #2 Stuttering | Health Library | Memorial Health System

  https://www.mhsystem.org/health-library/con-20319029/

  Stuttering, sometimes called stammering, is a speech condition that involves problems with rhythm and flow when speaking. […] Stuttering is a speech condition that disrupts the normal flow of speech. Fluency means having an easy and smooth flow and rhythm when speaking. With stuttering, the interruptions in flow happen often and cause problems for the speaker. […] But sometimes stuttering is a long-term condition that remains into adulthood. This type of stuttering can affect self-esteem and communicating with other people. […] Stuttering symptoms may include: Having a hard time starting a word, phrase or sentence. Stretching out a word or sounds within a word. Repeating a sound, syllable or word. Brief silence for certain syllables or words, or pausing before or within a word. Adding extra words such as um if expecting to have problems moving to the next word. A lot of tension, tightness or movement of the face or upper body when saying a word. Anxiety about talking. Not being able to communicate well with others.

• #3 Stuttering, Cluttering, and Fluency

  https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/fluency-disorders/?srsltid=AfmBOoovRYz_Uzw5FtTqv90UAC2pVdSQaRmRmXMAJvkxYBiiJbSJT0cu

  Stuttering typically begins in childhood. Approximately 95% of children who stutter start to do so before the age of 4 years, and the average age of onset is approximately 33 months. Onset may be progressive or sudden. […] Some children go through a disfluent period of speaking. It is also not unusual for disfluencies to first be apparent and then to seem to go away for a period of weeks or months only to return thereafter. Yairi and Ambrose (2013) estimated that the recovery rates (with or without intervention) are approximately 88%-91%. Rates may be lower (approximately 60%) when considering child-reported recovery in addition to clinician and parent reports (Einarsdttir et al., 2020). […] The frequency, duration, and tension associated with overt stuttering may fluctuate from day to day and in relation to the speaking situation.

• #4 Stuttering | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/stuttering

  Stuttering normally begins in children aged two to three years. […] Stuttering may develop gradually or suddenly. […] If stuttering is not treated in the preschool years, it starts to become difficult to treat in later years.

• #5

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stammering/symptoms/

  Stammering usually becomes apparent while your child is still learning to speak, between the ages of 2 and 5. […] Stammering may develop gradually, although it often starts suddenly in a child who has previously been talking well. […] Stammering can be worse in situations where a child feels self-conscious about their speech and so they may be trying hard not to stammer. […] A child who stammers can also develop involuntary movements like eye blinking, quivering lips, grimacing, tapping their fingers or stamping their feet. […] They may also feel fear, frustration, shame or embarrassment because of their stammering.

• #6 What Is Stuttering? Diagnosis & Treatment | NIDCD

  https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/stuttering

  Stuttering is a speech disorder characterized by repetition of sounds, syllables, or words; prolongation of sounds; and interruptions in speech known as blocks. […] Symptoms of stuttering can vary significantly throughout a persons day. […] Approximately 5 to 10 percent of all children will stutter for some period in their life, lasting from a few weeks to several years. […] For the remaining 25 percent who continue to stutter, stuttering can persist as a lifelong communication disorder. […] Developmental stuttering occurs in young children while they are still learning speech and language skills. […] Neurogenic stuttering may occur after a stroke, head trauma, or other type of brain injury. […] Although there is currently no cure for stuttering, there are a variety of treatments available.

• #7 Stuttering (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth

  https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/stutter.html

  Many young kids go through a stage between the ages of 2 and 5 when they stutter. This might make them: […] Stuttering is a form of dysfluency, an interruption in the flow of speech. […] In many cases, stuttering goes away on its own by age 5. In some kids, it goes on for longer. Effective treatments are available to help a child overcome it. […] A child may stutter for a few weeks or several months, and the stuttering may come and go. Most kids who begin stuttering before the age of 5 stop without any need for help such as speech or language therapy. […] But if your child’s stuttering happens a lot, gets worse, or happens along with body or facial movements, seeing a speech-language therapist around age 3 is a good idea. […] Usually, stuttering lets up when kids enter elementary school and start sharpening their communication skills. A school-age child who continues to stutter is likely aware of the problem and may be embarrassed by it. […] If your child is 5 years old and still stuttering, talk to your doctor or a speech-language therapist. […] Most schools will offer testing and appropriate therapy if stuttering lasts for 6 months or more.

• #8

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stammering/

  Stammering, also sometimes referred to as stuttering, affects speech and is relatively common in childhood. It can also can persist into adulthood. […] Stammering varies in severity from person to person, and from situation to situation. Someone might have periods of stammering followed by times when they speak relatively fluently. […] Stammering can happen if some parts of this developing system are not co-ordinated. This can cause repetitions and stoppages, particularly when the child has lots to say, is excited, or feels under pressure. […] As the brain continues to develop, stammering may resolve or the brain can compensate, which is why many children stop stammering as they get older. […] Around 2 in 3 children who stammer will go on to speak fluently, although it’s difficult to predict when this will happen in a particular child. […] It’s estimated that stammering affects around 1 in 50 adults, with men being around 3 to 4 times more likely to stammer than women.

• #9 Stuttering: An Overview | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0501/p1271.html

  Speech dysfluency (stuttering) is common in children. Although stuttering often resolves before adulthood, it can cause significant anxiety for children and their families. Stuttering speech patterns are often easily identifiable; when a child is learning to talk, repetition of sounds or words, prolonged pauses, or excessively long sounds in words usually occur. […] Stuttering occurs in persons of all ages, but it is most common in young children who are developing and learning language and speech. Stuttering resolves by adulthood in nearly 80 percent of children with developmental stuttering. Less than 1 percent of adults stutter, 80 percent of whom are men. […] Patients with developmental stuttering initially present with mild symptoms that resolve or progress to more serious symptoms with secondary behaviors.

• #10 Stuttering: What It Is, Causes, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14162-stuttering

  Stuttering is a condition that happens when muscles you use for speaking twitch or move uncontrollably while you talk. This disrupts the flow of your speech and causes pauses, unintended sounds and sticking on words. This condition usually affects children but can have impacts at any age. Its treatable, and most people ultimately recover. […] Stuttering is a speech disorder that affects the rhythm and flow of how you talk. This disorder disrupts how you speak, causing unintended sounds, pauses or other problems with talking smoothly. […] Seven key symptoms make up the official criteria for stuttering, and you have to have at least one of them for a healthcare provider to diagnose it: Repeating sounds or syllables. This usually happens on the first syllable of a word. Youll repeat the sound or syllable until you can say the whole word and then resume speaking.

• #11 Stuttering: Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/stutter-5223277

  More specifically, the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for childhood-onset fluency disorder require repeated occurrences of one or more of the following seven stutter symptoms: Audible or silent blocking (pauses in speech), Broken words (e.g., pauses within a word), Circumlocutions (overuse of words) that use substitutions to avoid problematic words, Monosyllabic whole-word repetitions („I-I-I-I see it”), Prolongation of consonants or vowels („mmmmilk”), Sound and syllable repetitions („d-d-d-dog”), Excess physical tension when producing words. […] Most kids with childhood-onset fluency disorder outgrow stuttering as they get older. It’s estimated that 75%80% of all children who undergo speech therapy will stop stuttering within one to two years. […] Up to 25% of cases of childhood stuttering will continue into adulthood. […] The causes of stuttering are not clearly understood, but evidence suggests that atypical brain wiringnot underlying anxietyis the root cause. Although there isn’t a cure for stuttering, speech therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy can help people who stutter speak with more fluency.

• #12 Stuttering: Types, Symptoms, and Causes

  https://www.healthline.com/health/stuttering

  Stuttering is characterized by repeated words, sounds, or syllables and disruptions in the normal rate of speech. […] The stress caused by stuttering may show up in the following symptoms: physical changes like facial tics, lip tremors, excessive eye blinking, and tension in the face and upper body. […] Although most children outgrow stuttering, the NIDCD states that up to 25 percent of children who don’t recover from stuttering will continue to stutter as adults. […] Social settings and high-stress environments can increase the likelihood that a person will stutter. Public speaking can be challenging for those who stutter. […] Not all children who stutter will require treatment because developmental stuttering usually resolves with time. […] Whether or not you decide to seek treatment, creating a low-stress environment can help reduce stuttering.

• #13 Stuttering | Texas Children’s

  https://www.texaschildrens.org/content/conditions/stuttering

  Stuttering is a disorder in which the flow of speech is broken when speech sounds are disrupted (also called disfluencies). Stuttering is also referred to as stammering. […] Symptoms usually appear between the ages of 2½ and 4 years. […] Symptoms include: Repeating sounds more than twice (li-li-li-li-like this). The facial muscles, especially around the mouth, may tense up. […] About 75% of preschoolers who begin to stutter will eventually stop. It is not possible to say with certainty whether your child will continue to stutter into adulthood.

• #14 Stuttering, Cluttering, and Fluency

  https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/fluency-disorders/?srsltid=AfmBOoovRYz_Uzw5FtTqv90UAC2pVdSQaRmRmXMAJvkxYBiiJbSJT0cu

  The signs and symptoms presented below are consistent with the diagnostic and associated features of childhood-onset fluency disorder listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., text rev.; DSM-5-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2022). […] Stuttering can be described as overt or covert: Overt stuttering occurs when a person stutters openly with minimal attempts to suppress or conceal. Covert stuttering occurs when a person hides, or attempts to hide, their stuttering by using avoidance and escape behaviors. […] Concealment can begin as early as the preschool years but is more common in childhood and beyond (Gerlach-Houck et al., 2023). Efforts to conceal stuttering are associated with increased adverse impact of stuttering and psychological distress (i.e., anxiety and depression; Gerlach et al., 2021) as well as reduced quality of life (Boyle et al., 2018; Gerlach-Houck et al., 2023).

• #15 Stuttering Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/stuttering

  Stuttering usually affects children ages 2 to 5 years and is more common in boys. It may last for several weeks to several years. […] For a small number of children, stuttering does not go away and may get worse. This is called developmental stuttering and it is the most common type of stuttering. […] Stuttering persists into adulthood more in boys than in girls. […] Stuttering may start with repeating consonants (k, g, t). If stuttering becomes worse, words and phrases are repeated. […] Later, vocal spasms develop. There is a forced, almost explosive sound to speech. The person may appear to be struggling to speak. […] Stressful social situations and anxiety can make symptoms worse. […] Children with mild stuttering are often unaware of their stuttering. In severe cases, children may be more aware. Facial movements, anxiety, and increased stuttering may occur when they are asked to speak.

• #16 Developmental Levels of Disfluency – Center for Stuttering Therapy

  https://www.coloradostutteringtherapy.com/developmental-levels-of-disfluency/

  In Stuttering: An Integrated Approach to Its Nature and Treatment (1998), Barry Guitar presents a model of how stuttering develops and why it should be treated differently at different stages. It is a hierarchical model of five levels, the first level being normal disfluency. The next four levels- borderline stuttering, beginning stuttering, intermediate stuttering and advanced stuttering- reflect the progressive stages of the development of the disorder. […] An important point is that a child may progress through these levels without it necessarily being apparent, especially to untrained listeners, that the stuttering is getting worse.

• #17 Stuttering, Cluttering, and Fluency

  https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/fluency-disorders/?srsltid=AfmBOoovRYz_Uzw5FtTqv90UAC2pVdSQaRmRmXMAJvkxYBiiJbSJT0cu

  Lower levels of overt stuttering do not directly relate to lower levels of psychological, emotional, social, or functional impacts that an individual experiences (Lucey et al., 2019; Tichenor Yaruss, 2019a, 2020). […] The following factors may be associated with persistent stuttering: Sex of the child boys are more likely to develop persistent stuttering than girls (Craig et al., 2002; Yairi Ambrose, 2013); it is unclear if studies used sex assigned at birth or gender identity to determine these categories. […] It is not possible to determine with certainty which children will continue to stutter, but there are some factors that indicate a greater likelihood that stuttering will become persistent.

• #18 Stuttering in Children: When Should Parents Be Concerned?

  https://blog.cincinnatichildrens.org/healthy-living/child-development-and-behavior/stuttering-in-young-kids-when-is-it-concerning/

  The majority of children do tend to recover from stuttering. Determining the difference between a child who is stuttering and a child who is simply passing through a developmental stage can be confusing. Here are some factors, which may indicate that your child is at greater risk: Family history of stuttering, Age at onset (if your child began stuttering after age 3 ½ years), Time since onset (if you child has stuttered for longer than 1 year), Gender (males are 3 to 4 times more likely than females to persist in stuttering), Speech is difficult to understand with many speech sound errors, High frequency of disfluencies (more than 10 stutters per 100 words), Higher percentage of stuttering-like disfluencies (stutters comprise more than 50% of total disfluencies). […] It is important to note that stuttering is highly variable in its nature and frequency among children and even within the same child. A common saying is, “The only constant with stuttering is its variability.” While there is actually some overlap between a young child who is stuttering and one that is passing through the developmental disfluency period, there are clearly very discernible differences.

• #19 Stuttering: An Overview | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0501/p1271.html

  The likelihood of eliminating stuttering behaviors decreases if they persist beyond eight years of age. […] Although the level of severity within the first six months of onset does not reflect the likelihood of spontaneous recovery, a pattern of recovery should demonstrate reduction in symptoms after six months. […] In most patients with severe cases, stuttering occurs with less than 20 percent of words; however, stuttering occurs with almost every phrase or sentence, is usually accompanied by secondary and avoidance behaviors, and often leads to embarrassment and fear of speaking. […] Even with normal dysfluency or mild stuttering, patients and families may benefit from referral to a fluency subspecialist or speech-language pathologist for additional support and acknowledgment of individual concerns. […] Although there is no cure for stuttering, successful elimination of mild stuttering is likely when treatment is initiated before four years of age.

• #20 Signs of developmental stuttering up to age eight and at 12 plus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1885473/

  Clinicians who are familiar with the general DSM-IV-TR scheme may want to know how to identify whether a child does, or (equally importantly) does not, stutter and what differences there are in the presenting signs for children of different ages. […] Dysfluency types mainly involved repetition of one or more whole function words up to age eight whereas at age 12 plus, dysfluency on parts of content words often occurred. […] At age 12 plus, socio-environmental influences (like state anxiety) occurred in the children who persist, but were not evident in the children who recover from the disorder. […] Knowing the distinguishing features of the disorder allows it to be contrasted with other disorders which show superficially similar features. […] The review identifies extra details that might be considered to improve the classification of stuttering (e.g. sensory and motor assessments).

• #21 Signs of developmental stuttering up to age eight and at 12 plus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1885473/

  A high frequency of whole word dysfluencies (Johnson’s signs 23) is a sign of early stuttering, and the chances of recovery when speakers show this pattern are high. This type of dysfluency may arise in anticipation of difficult words that are coming up. […] To summarize this section, part-word stuttering (signs 46) can be acquired or lost over development. […] The 5% point prevalence and the 1% annual incidence rate noted in the 1000-Family Survey (Andrews Harris, 1964) show four out of five (80%) of the respondents recovered from stuttering and only 20% persisted. […] Children who stutter at age 12 plus change the balance between types of dysfluency in different ways depending whether they persist or recover. […] The increase in 46 on content words, specifically for persistent speakers, shows these speakers diverge from the speakers who recover. […] State anxiety differs between speakers who persist in their stuttering at teenage compared with fluent controls. When speakers recover, the state differences disappear. […] Dysfluency in language samples offers a clear sign that distinguishes persistent and recovered cases.

• #22 Stuttering | Health Library | Memorial Health System

  https://www.mhsystem.org/health-library/con-20319029/

  Stuttering may be worse when the person is excited, tired or under stress, or when feeling self-conscious, hurried or pressured. […] Stuttering that continues may need treatment to improve speech fluency. […] Stuttering can lead to: Problems communicating with others. Not speaking or staying away from situations that require speaking. Not taking part in social, school or work activities and opportunities for success. […] Treatment may not get rid of all stuttering, but it can teach skills that help you or your child: Improve speech fluency. Develop effective communication. Participate fully in school, work and social activities. […] Although some medicines have been tried for stuttering, and studies continue, no medicines have been proved yet to help the condition.

• #23 Stuttering – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/stuttering/symptoms-causes/syc-20353572

  Stuttering is a speech condition that disrupts the normal flow of speech. […] Stuttering is common among young children as a usual part of learning to speak. […] But sometimes stuttering is a long-term condition that remains into adulthood. This type of stuttering can affect self-esteem and communicating with other people. […] Stuttering symptoms may include: Having a hard time starting a word, phrase or sentence. […] Stuttering may be worse when the person is excited, tired or under stress, or when feeling self-conscious, hurried or pressured. […] But stuttering that continues may need treatment to improve speech fluency. […] Stuttering that happens in children while they’re learning to speak is called developmental stuttering. […] Stuttering tends to run in families. […] Stress in the family and other types of stress or pressure can worsen existing stuttering. […] Stuttering can lead to: Problems communicating with others.

• #24 Stuttering and Cluttering

  https://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/stuttering/?srsltid=AfmBOorNZJqhBFsIX8_eLYyDWnj5KqwpFVl8WGN-8QLlE4kcxikung55

  People who stutter usually have more and different types of disfluencies than other people. […] Stuttering can change from day to day. At times, you may be more fluent; at other times, you may stutter more. Stress or excitement can lead to more stuttering. […] Personal feelings, situations, and the actions of others can affect the amount a person stutters. […] Stuttering usually starts between 2 and 6 years of age. Many children go through normal periods of disfluency lasting less than 6 months. […] Some factors make it more likely that someone will have an ongoing stutter: Boys are more likely to continue stuttering than girls. […] Children who start stuttering at age 3 years or later are more likely to continue stuttering. […] Children with family members who continue to stutter are also more likely to continue stuttering.

• #25 Stuttering: Symptoms, diagnosis, and causes

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/10608

  The majority of children experience fewer and fewer symptoms as this developmental stage progresses until they can speak flowingly. […] Psychological factors may make stuttering worse for people who already stutter. […] For instance, stress, embarrassment, and anxiety can make the stutter more pronounced, but, typically, these are not the underlying cause. […] A child who begins stuttering before 3.5 years of age is less likely to stutter later in life. […] About three-quarters of all young children who stutter will stop doing so within 1 or 2 years without speech therapy. […] Long term stuttering is three-to-four times more common among boys than girls. […] Stuttering, or stammering, causes a disruption in speech that may involve a person elongating or repeating words and syllables or preventing them from pronouncing words altogether. […] Stuttering is common in children still developing their speech and language skills, but it can persist into adulthood. […] A person may develop a stutter following an injury to their central nervous system, and some psychological conditions can worsen existing symptoms.

• #26 Stuttering When Stressed: Why It Happens (& How to Combat It)

  https://www.casrf.org/post/stuttering-when-stressed-why-it-happens-how-to-combat-it

  The reason why stutters increase with stress is physiologically related. […] This causes a negative feedback loop. The child has a stutter, which causes anxiety, which then causes the stutter to become more pronounced. […] Half of the adults who stutter also have social anxiety. […] Having a stutter can make you 6-7 times more likely to have anxiety and 16 to 34 times more likely to be diagnosed with social anxiety. […] Severe stuttering is likely to persist into adulthood.

• #27 What is a Stammer? | Causes, types, signs, symptoms & treatments

  https://cpdonline.co.uk/knowledge-base/safeguarding/what-is-a-stammer/

  For some people, their stammer may be caused by a serious brain injury, or a stroke. […] Genetics can be the cause of stammers in some individuals, as 66% of people with a stammer have a family history of stammering. […] While stammers are not known to be onset by environmental factors, traumatic events, extreme stress and anxiety can cause a stammer. […] There are three different known types of stammer: developmental stammer, neurogenic stammer and psychogenic stammer. […] Developmental stammering or stuttering refers to a stammer that develops in children when they are still acquiring the skills of speech, language and communication. […] Neurogenic stammering or stuttering is when an individual is prone to elongated sounds, pauses or repetition due to an injury affecting the brain.

• #28 Neurogenic Stuttering | Stuttering Foundation: A Nonprofit Organization Helping Those Who Stutter

  https://www.stutteringhelp.org/neurogenic-stuttering

  Neurogenic stuttering is a type of fluency disorder in which a person has difficulty in producing speech in a normal, smooth fashion. Individuals with fluency disorders may have speech that sounds fragmented or halting, with frequent interruptions and difficulty producing words without effort or struggle. Neurogenic stuttering typically appears following some sort of injury or disease to the central nervous system i.e. the brain and spinal cord, including cortex, subcortex, cerebellar, and even the neural pathway regions. […] In the majority of cases, the injury or disease that caused the stuttering can be identified. In a small number of cases, however, the individual may only show evidence of some form of speech disruption without any clear evidence of neurological damage. […] Neurogenic stuttering can occur at any age; however, it appears more often in adulthood, and the highest incidence is in the geriatric population.

• #29 What Is Neurogenic Stuttering: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://connectedspeechpathology.com/blog/neurogenic-stuttering-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Neurogenic stuttering is a type of speech disorder that begins in adulthood. It can significantly impact a person’s speech fluency and make communicating difficult. […] Symptoms may include repetitions, prolongations, blocks, interjections, and revisions, often occurring throughout speech rather than primarily at the beginning of words, as in developmental stuttering. […] The abrupt onset of neurogenic stuttering often coincides with a neurological event, such as a stroke or head injury. Symptoms may include difficulty initiating speech, repeating words or syllables, or prolonging sounds. […] Adult-onset stuttering presents as interruptions in the flow of speech, including: Repeating words, syllables, or sounds. Holding a sound out longer than usual. Stopping in the middle of a word or sentence without being able to produce the next sound. Adding unnecessary words or sounds to speech, such as „um” or „uh.” Changing words or phrases in the middle of a sentence.

• #30 Neurogenic Stuttering | Stuttering Foundation: A Nonprofit Organization Helping Those Who Stutter

  https://www.stutteringhelp.org/neurogenic-stuttering

  Because it results from a very diverse set of diseases and disorders, the symptoms of neurogenic stuttering may vary widely between different individuals. Neurogenic stuttering might be considered as a possible diagnosis if one or more of the following symptoms are observed: Excessive levels of normal disfluencies or interruptions in the forward flow of speech, such as interjections and revisions; Other types of disfluencies, such as repetitions of phrases, words, and parts of words (sounds or syllables, prolongations of sounds), etc; Hesitations and pauses in unexpected or inappropriate locations in an utterance; Cessation of speech during the production of a word without finishing the word; Intrusive or extraneous additional sounds during speech production; Rapid bursts of speech which may be unintelligible; Extraneous movements of lips, jaw, or tongue while attempting to speak, including posturing.

• #31 What Is Neurogenic Stuttering: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://connectedspeechpathology.com/blog/neurogenic-stuttering-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Unlike developmental stuttering, these symptoms often occur throughout speech rather than predominantly at the beginning of sentences or phrases. […] The causes of neurogenic stuttering are rooted in neurological events or conditions, including: Damage to brain areas responsible for speech and language. Injuries disrupting motor control of speech. Pressure on speech-related brain areas. Disorders like Parkinson’s disease or multiple sclerosis. Surgical complications affecting the brain or nervous system. Conditions such as aneurysms or arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). Brain inflammation causing speech disruptions. Side effects from medications affecting the central nervous system. […] Neurogenic stuttering therapy often incorporates techniques designed to reduce disfluencies and improve confidence. Examples include: Learning to use diaphragmatic breathing to support speech and reduce tension during communication. A tool that alters how a speaker hears their own voice, helping to improve fluency by slowing down speech and reducing repetitions. Visual aids are designed to help individuals control the rate of their speech, promoting smoother and more deliberate communication. Technology that provides real-time feedback on muscle tension or speech production, allowing individuals to adjust their speech patterns and reduce disfluencies. Techniques that emphasize relaxation and focus, helping individuals manage stress or anxiety that can affect speech fluency. Methods like light articulatory contact, continuous phonation, and smooth sound transitions help replace disfluent patterns with controlled, fluent speech. Digital platforms and mobile apps that guide users through targeted speech exercises while tracking their progress over time, providing additional practice between therapy sessions. […] Early intervention is key to improving outcomes for individuals with neurogenic stuttering. Seeking treatment as soon as symptoms appear allows healthcare professionals to address underlying causes and implement effective fluency strategies.

• #32 What is a Stammer? | Causes, types, signs, symptoms & treatments

  https://cpdonline.co.uk/knowledge-base/safeguarding/what-is-a-stammer/

  Psychogenic stammering or stuttering is stammering that is onset by a wide range of psychological issues. […] In children, stammering can be more difficult to identify, as many children under the age five experience some kind of hesitancy when they speak, as they are learning how to form sentences. […] Stammers are usually diagnosed between the ages of 2 to 5 years old, when signs of a communication impairment become more apparent. […] There is no cure for stammering. A stammer can last a lifetime, or disappear in a few years, and there are no medications available that have an effect on stammering. […] People with stammers may be severely affected by their stammer, depending on the severity of the stammer.

• #33 How To Recognize the Early Symptoms of Stuttering | Ability Central

  https://abilitycentral.org/article/how-recognize-early-symptoms-stuttering

  Neurogenic stuttering symptoms may include: Excessive levels of disfluencies […] Hesitations and pauses in speech […] Not finishing words […] Adding extra sounds or words while speaking […] Psychogenic stuttering is also called psychogenic disfluency or psychogenic speech disorder. It often emerges suddenly in adulthood, triggered by trauma or emotional stress. […] The symptoms of psychogenic stuttering are the same as neurological stuttering, but they are related to psychological or emotional distress rather than physical injury. […] There is a higher frequency of stuttering among people with Tourettes Syndrome (TS) than in the general population, but having one diagnosis does not guarantee having the other. […] Some people who stutter may have functional difficulties in a part of the brain called the basal ganglia. […] A speech language pathologist (SLP), also known as a speech therapist, is a healthcare professional trained to diagnose and treat speech, language, voice, and fluency disorders.

• #34 Stuttering in Children | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/stuttering

  People who stutter know what they want to say, but have trouble expressing it fluently. Stuttering is a speech disorder that disrupts the flow of speech with repeated sounds, syllables, and words; prolonged sounds; and blocks (interruptions in speech). Some children also have eye blinks, breaks in eye contact, and tension in their lips, tongue, and jaw, when they stutter. […] Most children outgrow stuttering, however, in about 1 percent of people, stuttering persists into adulthood (persistent stuttering). […] If a preschool-age child has been stuttering for more than 15 months, it is likely they will continue stuttering. […] Symptoms of stuttering in preschool-age children include: Whole-word repetitions: “I like to-to-to go to the park.”; Part-word repetitions: “I li-li-li-like to go to the park.”; Sound repetitions: “I like t-t-t-to go to the park.”; Prolonged sounds: “I llllllike to go to the park.”; Blocks: “I like (pause) to go to the park.”

• #35

  https://www.nuhs.edu.sg/patient-care/find-a-condition/stuttering-children

  Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a physical speech disorder where the rhythm and flow of speech is disrupted. Stuttering often occurs at ages 2 to 5. During this time, the child may have a vocabulary spurt and will start to put words together to form sentences. It is natural for a child to stutter sometimes at this stage. […] A child may stutter for a few weeks or several months, and the stuttering may come and go. Most children who begin stuttering before the age of five often stop stuttering without any need for intervention. […] Consult your developmental paediatrician if the stuttering: Lasts more than six months, Occurs with other speech or language problems, Occurs with muscle tightening or visible struggles to speak, Affects the child’s ability to effectively communicate at school or in social interactions, Causes anxiety or emotional problems such as fear or avoidance of situations where speaking is required.

• #36 Stuttering in Children: When Should Parents Be Concerned?

  https://blog.cincinnatichildrens.org/healthy-living/child-development-and-behavior/stuttering-in-young-kids-when-is-it-concerning/

  Your child should be evaluated by a speech-language pathologist who specializes in stuttering if: You have a concern about your child’s speech, You notice tension, facial grimaces, or struggle behaviors during talking, Your child avoids situations in which he or she will have to talk, Your child expresses concerns about speech, Your child avoids saying certain words or sounds. […] Diagnosing stuttering can be difficult as stuttering is a complex disorder and no one child stutters in the same way. For children that do continue to stutter, early treatment can substantially reduce and sometimes eliminate their stuttering. […] The majority of children do tend to recover from stuttering. Determining the difference between a child who is stuttering and a child who is simply passing through a developmental stage can be confusing.

• #37 Stuttering Symptoms & Causes | Baptist Health

  https://www.baptisthealth.com/care-services/conditions-treatments/stuttering

  Stuttering mostly occurs in children, who often outgrow the condition with age. This is called developmental stuttering. […] In some cases, stuttering persists into adulthood and becomes a permanent condition (persistent stuttering). Adult-onset or acquired stuttering is rare, and usually occurs as the result of traumatic injury. […] Stuttering is marked by involuntary spasms that disrupt the smooth coordination of these muscles, making speech more difficult. Symptoms include: […] Stuttering is sometimes brought on by the speaker feeling excited, tired, hurried, or anxious. Speaking in front of groups or on a phone can be particularly stressful for someone who stammers. […] Children that undergo developmental delays or have conditions such as autism or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are also more likely to experience stuttering or other forms of disfluency.

• #38 Stuttering: Symptoms, diagnosis, and causes

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/10608

  Stuttering often involves repeating words or parts of words, prolonging certain speech sounds, and having difficulty finding some words. […] According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, some individuals who stutter appear extremely tense or out of breath when they talk. They may experience the sensation that their speech is being blocked or stopped. […] Blocked is when a persons mouth is in the correct position to say the word, but virtually no sound comes out. This may last several seconds. […] While stuttering is more common in children, around 25% of people with a developmental stutter continue to have it into their adult life. […] People may also develop a psychogenic stutter later in life due to psychological conditions, such as anxiety or depression. […] A small 2021 study reported that most adults who stutter do not do so in private speech.

• #39 Stuttering in Adults: Treatment, Diagnosis, Symptoms & Causes

  https://stamurai.com/blog/stuttering-treatment-for-adults/

  A significant number of adults have persistent stuttering characterized by repetitions, blocks and prolongations. […] Stuttering treatment is an intensive process. Advanced stuttering not only requires the attention of a good speech-language pathologist (SLP) but also a cognitive behavioural therapist (CBT) or psychological counsellor. […] Repeated words, syllables or sounds along with the disruption of the normal rate of speech characterize stuttering. Repetitions, prolongations and blocks comprise the three core behaviors of stuttering. […] Secondary behaviours of stuttering in adults are much more complex. Adults have acquired and perfected them through years of practice. Avoidance and escape are difficult to detect in adults who have been stuttering for more than a decade or two.

• #40 Stuttering in Adults: Treatment, Diagnosis, Symptoms & Causes

  https://stamurai.com/blog/stuttering-treatment-for-adults/

  The negative emotions and attitudes are stronger in adults who stutter than in children. Negative reactions from listeners contribute to the increasing negativity among adults who stutter. […] Negative attitudes may manifest in the form of withdrawal from social situations, damage of self-esteem and/or reduced self-confidence. […] The treatment of adolescents and adults who stutter can take a long time since it needs to focus on many aspects such as – the emotions of the individual, integral beliefs associated with stuttering, the secondary behaviours. […] An adult has to unlearn a significant amount of coping behaviour they have learned over the years they have been stuttering. It requires hard work on the part of the therapist, counsellor and their client. […] Each client comes with different levels of stuttering severity, emotional turmoil and stuttering related beliefs. Therefore, it is impossible to stretch one particular stuttering treatment to every adult. […] Adults who stutter may continue to possess some speech-processing deficits even after the completion of successful treatment. […] Dealing with residual stuttering is a long-term commitment and it can be a continuing task for the client and his/her therapist.

• #41 Stuttering | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/stuttering

  Stuttering is a speech disorder that affects the flow of speech. Most children who stutter recover naturally, but it can be a lifelong condition for some people. Living with a stutter can be frustrating and make communication difficult. Stuttering can impact social interactions and may lead to social anxiety. Stuttering can start suddenly, or it can build up over time. It may come and go in younger children. Some people stutter occasionally, while others stutter whenever they speak. Stuttering often happens at the beginning of a sentence but can sometimes happen throughout. Stuttering happens due to problems in the brain’s speech control. Anxiety, stress and certain situations can make stuttering worse. You may stutter more when you feel nervous, excited, tired, or angry. Stuttering in adolescents and adults is often treated by learning new techniques to reduce stuttering. It’s hard to predict who will recover naturally, so early therapy is recommended to minimise the impact on your daily life. Living with a stutter can make communication challenging. It may impact your social life, work or relationships. Social anxiety disorder can develop in children over 7 years old, which makes early treatment important. Stuttering can affect people differently. Some people may find it impacts the way that they interact with other people. Others may not experience such challenges. If you or your child develop a stutter, contact a speech pathologist as soon as possible to start treatment. Therapy for stuttering has shown much better outcomes for pre-school aged children than for older children or adults. […] Stuttering can influence relationships, job performance and career choices.

• #42 Stuttering – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttering

  The disorder is variable, which means that in certain situations the stuttering might be more or less noticeable, such as speaking on the phone or in large groups. […] The moment of stuttering often begins before the disfluency is produced, described as a moment of „anticipation” where the person who stutters knows which word they are going to stutter on. […] Stuttering could have a significant negative cognitive and affective impact on the person who stutters. […] The impact of discrimination against stuttering can be severe. […] Stuttering that persists after the age of seven is classified as persistent stuttering, and is associated with a much lower chance of recovery.

• #43 Stuttering: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment Methods | DocHospitals

  https://dochospitals.com/en/stuttering-atc1262/

  Stuttering can cause feelings of frustration or shame. People who stutter are therefore more likely to have mental health problems such as anxiety or depression. […] The development of stuttering has 5 levels. Each level is assessed in 4 core areas. These areas include core behaviors, secondary behaviors, emotions and attitudes, and underlying processes. Not all people who stutter always fit neatly into one category. Instead, there are some behaviors that reflect one level and others that reflect another. The developmental process of stuttering is hierarchical and includes the following stages. […] Important features of stuttering at this stage include nervousness and rushing. Extensions also occur at this stage. Repetitions can be fast and sudden. In addition, fluctuations in pitch can also be seen during repetitions and extensions. In addition, among the features that can be seen are the following. […] This stage is usually seen when people are 14-15 years old. In general, adult treatment methods should be used.

• #44 Stammering – Health Tips, Stammering Health Articles, Health News | TheHealthSite.com

  https://www.thehealthsite.com/diseases-conditions/stammering/

  Symptoms can vary in different individuals depending on the underlying neurological condition. They may include: Repetition or prolonging of sounds and syllables at any point of their speech, unlike developmental stammering that is usually seen, Cessation of speech before finishing a word, Intrusive or extraneous sounds, Incomprehensible speech, Conditions that alleviate developmental stammering, like singing, have no effect on neurological stammering, Some individuals may suffer from anxiety and even depression, accompanied by secondary behaviors like involuntary head or limb movements and reduced eye contact while trying to speak. […] With regular speech therapy, about 80% of children with developmental stammering can develop significant fluency in their speech. For a better prognosis, early treatment is important. Once you enter adulthood, there are fewer chances for achieving favourable results. […] Due to the social stigma associated with stammering, effects of stammering on personal and professional lives, an individual who stutters may show a psychological problem which includes reports of challenges, anxiety, increased amount of stress, all of which can potentially cause depression.

• #45 Secondary Symptoms – SSEP – Stammering Self-empowerment Programme

  https://stammeringresearch.org/onlinecourse/understanding-stammering/secondary-symptoms/

  The symptoms of stammering vary greatly from individual to individual. […] In the beginning, secondary symptoms provide some short-term benefits, and because of this they develop into habitual responses. However, in the long run, they generally cause more problems than they solve. […] Because every stammerers secondary symptoms are different, because they keep changing over time, and because many secondary symptoms of stammering are very subtle and sometimes indistinguishable from some of the strategies used by non-stammerers (at times when they are experiencing word-finding or formulation difficulties) it is simply not possible for therapists or other clinicians to identify all of your secondary symptoms for you. […] Remember, not all secondary symptoms are harmful. So focus on identifying the ones that are likely to be sustaining your stammering in the long-term, as these are the ones you really need to modify in order to affect a lasting reduction in the severity of your stammering.

• #46 Secondary Symptoms – SSEP – Stammering Self-empowerment Programme

  https://stammeringresearch.org/onlinecourse/understanding-stammering/secondary-symptoms/

  Avoidance is often (correctly) cited as being one of the most damaging secondary behaviours. […] If you stammer severely, and if it takes an excessively long time to get your words out, it is likely that you will frequently experience negative reactions from the people you try to speak to. […] Such experiences can be traumatic, and may lead to the development of post-traumatic stress as a complication of stammering.

• #47 Stuttering in Adults: Symptoms, Treatments, and risk

  https://www.1specialplace.com/treatments-for-adults/stuttering

  Stuttering can run in families, indicating that genetics plays a big part. Stammering can be brought on by neurogenic factors, such as brain tumors or strokes, which can interfere with the speech producing regions of the brain. […] Adult stuttering can be treated holistically by combining speech therapy and CBT or counseling. Adults often develop negative attitudes and sentiments following years of rejection or refusal; CBT may help counteract these effects. […] The most popular and possibly most successful is speech therapy. Renowned for being the best speech therapy for adult stammering, it concentrates on enhancing speech fluency using a variety of exercises and procedures that are customized to meet the needs of each client. […] However, therapy is more than just procedures; it’s also about fostering a friendly communication environment and boosting self-esteem. […] Recall that while the road to more fluid speech may include bumps along the way, advancement is always possible with perseverance and the appropriate assistance.

• #48 How Expressable Evaluates and Treats Stuttering in Children and Adults

  https://www.expressable.com/services/stuttering

  Stuttering, sometimes called stammering or disfluency, is a communication disorder that disrupts the natural flow of speech. Stuttering can begin gradually and develop over time, or it can appear suddenly. People of all ages, from toddlers to adults, can stutter. […] Stuttering can lead people to feel anxious or embarrassed about speaking. They may be less active or involved at school or work, or they may avoid social interactions. […] The results will be used to develop a personalized care plan, which typically includes two speech therapy sessions per week. […] Your speech therapist will help your child learn to speak more smoothly and cope with their stutter. […] For older children, teens, and adults: Treatment focuses on managing stuttering. Your speech therapist will help you feel less tense and speak more freely in school, at work, and socially. […] Techniques can focus on many aspects of stuttering, although a primary goal is usually learning to speak more freely and confidently.

• #49 Stuttering in Children | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/stuttering

  Most children who stutter start before they turn 8. Many of the symptoms are the same as in younger children — repetitions, prolongations, and blocks — and can appear suddenly. Stuttering in this age group is often accompanied by physical symptoms: Eye blinks, Arm and leg movements, Tension in the jaw, lips, and tongue, Sound insertions, Breaks in eye contact. […] If your child has symptoms of stuttering, it’s important to make an appointment with a speech-language pathologist (SLP). While many young children stop stuttering on their own, early intervention for stuttering can help children learn how to speak more fluently and may prevent persistent stuttering. […] There is currently no cure for persistent stuttering. While fluency-shaping and stuttering-modification strategies can help your child stutter less, they will not make persistent stuttering go away. As your child gets older, their therapy will include acceptance-based practices that will help them achieve their goals with a stutter.

• #50 What Is Stuttering? Diagnosis & Treatment | NIDCD

  https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/stuttering

  Many of the current therapies for teens and adults who stutter focus on helping them learn ways to minimize stuttering when they speak. […] Researchers around the world are exploring ways to improve the early identification and treatment of stuttering and to identify its causes. […] Researchers are also working to help speech-language pathologists determine which children are most likely to outgrow their stuttering and which children are at risk for continuing to stutter into adulthood. […] Brain imaging may be used in the future as a way to help treat people who stutter.

• #51 Stuttering in Adults

  https://www.mindyra.com/solutions/adults/stuttering

  The frequency and severity of stuttering may fluctuate from day to day and in relation to the speaking situation. Stuttering is often more severe when there is increased pressure to communicate (e.g., competing for talk time, giving an oral presentation). […] Approximately 25% of adults who seek treatment spontaneously recover from adult-onset stuttering. There is a significant minority of adults who relapse from their treatment. Those who relapse may have a higher risk of developing generalized or social anxiety. […] Neuroimaging studies using PET scans or functional MRI to examine adults who stutter have shown different patterns of brain activation when they stutter, with more activation of right hemisphere areas and differing patterns of usage of left hemisphere, subcortical, and cerebellar structures. The risk of stuttering among first-degree biological relatives of individuals who also stutter is more than three times the risk than the normative population. Studies have identified three gene mutations linked to stuttering. Mutations to genes GNPTAB, GNPTG and NAGPA have been found to disrupt the signal that directs enzymes to their target location in the lysosome of the cell. These gene mutations were present in close to 10% of cases of familial stuttering. However, having a genetic predisposition to stuttering does not necessarily mean that someone will develop stuttering.

• #52 The genetics of stuttering | Pursuit by the University of Melbourne

  https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/the-genetics-of-stuttering

  Our large team of researchers, led by the University of Melbourne in collaboration with 17 international institutions, has discovered a link between a newly discovered gene pathway and structural brain anomalies in some people who stutter into adulthood. […] This discovery is opening up promising research avenues to enhance the understanding of persistent developmental stuttering. […] Using brain imaging, we found remarkable structural changes in the brains of those that stutter that impact their speech and language development. […] We have known for some time that there is a genetic link to stuttering, but our study is the first to show that genetic changes passed on in families can alter brain development leading to structural anomalies that underlie stuttering. […] This suggests we should change the genetic diagnostic protocol for some people who stutter to include brain imaging studies. […] Our research also opens up further study into this new chaperone pathway and related pathways which will continue to improve our understanding of the genetic architecture of persistent developmental stuttering.

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