Ból kończyny resztkowej
Rokowania, prognozy i postęp choroby

Ból kończyny resztkowej (RLP) dotyka około 50% pacjentów po amputacji i może utrzymywać się przez wiele lat, nawet ponad 20 lat po zabiegu, jak wykazano u pacjentów po amputacji kończyny dolnej z powodu nowotworów złośliwych. W przeciwieństwie do bólu fantomowego (PLP), który zwykle utrzymuje się na stałym poziomie, RLP ma tendencję do zmniejszania się w pierwszych miesiącach po amputacji, choć u niektórych pacjentów może przekształcić się w przewlekły problem. Czynniki wpływające na rokowanie obejmują jakość zabiegu chirurgicznego (np. nieprawidłowe ukształtowanie kikuta, wyrównanie kości), dopasowanie protezy, obecność neuromów, występowanie bólu przed amputacją oraz współwystępowanie bólu fantomowego. Intensywność RLP, oceniana na 10-punktowej skali, koreluje z codziennym funkcjonowaniem i wykorzystaniem protezy (r = 0,8; p = 0,003), a brak możliwości używania protezy w pierwszych 6 miesiącach zwiększa ryzyko bólu fantomowego i RLP.

Prognoza bólu kończyny resztkowej

Ból kończyny resztkowej (RLP) jest częstym zjawiskiem występującym po amputacji, dotykającym około 50% pacjentów w okresie poamputacyjnym. Rokowanie w przypadku bólu kończyny resztkowej jest zmienne i zależy od wielu czynników, które wpływają na jego rozwój, nasilenie i trwałość.12

Długoterminowe utrzymywanie się bólu

Badania wskazują, że ból kończyny resztkowej może utrzymywać się przez długi czas po amputacji. W jednym z badań obejmującym pacjentów po ponad 20 latach od amputacji kończyny dolnej z powodu nowotworów złośliwych, 15 z 21 badanych pacjentów zgłaszało występowanie bólu kończyny resztkowej w ciągu ostatniego roku. Oznacza to, że nawet po kilku dekadach od zabiegu, znaczna część pacjentów wciąż doświadcza tego typu dolegliwości.3

W przeciwieństwie do bólu fantomowego (PLP), który często utrzymuje się na stałym poziomie przez długi czas, ból kończyny resztkowej ma tendencję do zmniejszania się w pierwszych miesiącach po amputacji. Jest to najczęściej związane z gojeniem się rany pooperacyjnej. Jednakże, w przypadku niektórych pacjentów, ból kończyny resztkowej może przekształcić się w przewlekły problem.45

Czynniki wpływające na rokowanie

Rokowanie w przypadku bólu kończyny resztkowej zależy od wielu czynników. Do najważniejszych należą:

  • Jakość zabiegu chirurgicznego – niewłaściwe przygotowanie kikuta (np. niekorzystne ukształtowanie kostnego końca kikuta), nieprawidłowe wyrównanie długości kości w kikutach z 2 lub więcej kośćmi (np. śródstopie, podudzie lub przedramię) mogą prowadzić do przewlekłego bólu6
  • Dopasowanie protezy – brak odpowiedniej podkładki tłuszczowej pod przeszczepem siatkowym po chirurgicznym leczeniu urazów tkanek miękkich skutkujący nieprawidłowym dopasowaniem protezy7
  • Występowanie bólu przed amputacją – choć wyniki badań są niejednoznaczne, ciężki ból przedoperacyjny jest jednym z najbardziej spójnych czynników ryzyka przewlekłego bólu pooperacyjnego8
  • Obecność neuromy – splątane zakończenia nerwowe, które często tworzą się po amputacji, są główną przyczyną bólu kończyny resztkowej9
  • Współwystępowanie bólu fantomowego – istnieje silna korelacja między bólem kończyny resztkowej a bólem fantomowym; pacjenci z bólem fantomowym wykazują wyższą częstość występowania bólu kończyny resztkowej w porównaniu do pacjentów bez bólu fantomowego1011

Wpływ na codzienne funkcjonowanie i użytkowanie protezy

Intensywność bólu kończyny resztkowej ma istotny wpływ na codzienne funkcjonowanie pacjentów po amputacji. Badania wykazały, że mniejsze nasilenie bólu kończyny resztkowej (definiowane na 10-punktowej skali, gdzie 1 oznacza brak bólu, a 10 – ekstremalnie silny ból) wiąże się z większym codziennym wykorzystaniem protezy. Po kontroli istotnych zmiennych zakłócających, takich jak wiek w momencie amputacji, wiek w momencie badania i długość kikuta, stwierdzono znaczącą korelację (95% CI 0,3 do 1,0; r = 0,8; p = 0,003).12

Warto zauważyć, że pacjenci, którzy nie są w stanie korzystać z protezy w ciągu pierwszych 6 miesięcy po amputacji, częściej doświadczają bólu fantomowego, co może również wpływać na doświadczanie bólu kończyny resztkowej ze względu na silną korelację między tymi dwoma rodzajami bólu.13

Opcje leczenia wpływające na prognozę

Prognoza bólu kończyny resztkowej może ulec poprawie dzięki odpowiedniemu leczeniu. Dostępne opcje terapeutyczne obejmują:

  • Regeneracyjny interfejs nerwów obwodowych (RPNI) – nowsza procedura, która pomaga zapobiegać powstawaniu neurom i bólu z już istniejących neurom14
  • Techniki desensytyzacji – masaż, opukiwanie, uderzanie, owijanie i pocieranie kikuta są często stosowane w leczeniu dokuczliwego bólu kończyny resztkowej15
  • Używanie protezy – pacjenci często zauważają, że ich ból zmniejsza się pod wpływem stymulacji związanej z używaniem protezy16
  • Farmakoterapia – w tym leki przeciwdepresyjne, które okazały się skuteczne w różnych stanach bólu neuropatycznego17
  • Neuroliza pod kontrolą ultrasonograficzną – procedura, która powinna być uwzględniona w wykazie zalecanych zabiegów w leczeniu przewlekłego bólu kończyny resztkowej18

Podejście interdyscyplinarne i jego wpływ na prognozę

Chociaż nie wykazano tego w dedykowanych badaniach, pacjenci z zespołami bólowymi po amputacji prawdopodobnie odnoszą korzyści z oceny, leczenia i monitorowania w ramach zespołu interdyscyplinarnego obejmującego chirurgów, anestezjologów i lekarzy zajmujących się leczeniem bólu, psychologów, terapeutów zajęciowych i fizjoterapeutów oraz techników ortopedycznych. Takie kompleksowe podejście może poprawić długoterminowe rokowanie.1920

Ze względu na nieliczne randomizowane badania kontrolowane, serie przypadków ze znacznymi słabościami metodologicznymi, brak grup kontrolnych i małą liczbę przypadków, obecnie istnieją ograniczone dowody naukowe dotyczące farmakologicznej i niefarmakologicznej profilaktyki i leczenia bólu po amputacji, co wpływa na trudności w przewidywaniu rokowania.2122

Znaczenie wczesnego leczenia dla długoterminowej prognozy

Wczesne i skuteczne leczenie bólu kończyny resztkowej może znacząco wpłynąć na długoterminowe rokowanie. Oprócz konsekwentnego leczenia ostrego bólu okołooperacyjnego, istotnym aspektem wydaje się wczesne przywrócenie schematu ciała i funkcji, w miarę możliwości związane z sensomotorycznym wejściem eferentnym.23

Podejścia prewencyjne obejmują odpowiednie techniki chirurgiczne w celu optymalizacji/normalizacji funkcji i schematu ciała po amputacji poprzez osiągnięcie jak najlepszej adaptacji do protezy i statycznej nośności. Badanie wykazało, że zastosowanie zoptymalizowanej analgezji zewnątrzoponowej lub dożylnej PCA (analgezja kontrolowana przez pacjenta), rozpoczętej 48 godzin przed operacją i kontynuowanej przez 48 godzin po operacji, zmniejsza nasilenie bólu po 6 miesiącach.2425

Wnioski i oczekiwania pacjentów

Pacjenci powinni być świadomi, że ból kończyny resztkowej może być zjawiskiem długotrwałym, choć jego nasilenie często zmniejsza się w pierwszych miesiącach po amputacji. Dziesiątki lat po zabiegu wielu pacjentów z amputacjami kończyn dolnych doświadcza bólu, który ogranicza ich w zakresie codziennych czynności i zmniejsza codzienne użytkowanie protezy.26

Dla niektórych osób z bólem kończyny resztkowej, ból może ustąpić z czasem bez leczenia, ale wielu pacjentów wymaga kompleksowego, interdyscyplinarnego podejścia terapeutycznego, aby osiągnąć satysfakcjonującą kontrolę bólu i poprawić jakość życia.2728

Zrozumienie faktu, że ból może nie zmienić się wraz z upływem czasu, jest kluczowe dla zarządzania oczekiwaniami pacjentów. Choć niektóre przekrojowe i retrospektywne badania sugerowały stopniowe zmniejszanie się bólu w czasie, dowody te opierają się na retrospektywnym przypominaniu sobie intensywności bólu, co jest uznawane za niewiarygodne. Z prospektywnych badań podłużnych, przynajmniej do 3,5 roku po amputacji, istnieją dowody sugerujące, że częstość występowania lub intensywność bólu pozostają stałe.29

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Phantom limb pain is highly prevalent after amputation. Treatment results will probably benefit from an interdisciplinary team and individually adapted surgical, prosthetic and pain medicine approaches. […] In the immediate postamputation period, about 50% of patients experience amputation residual limb pain (RLP). There is a strong correlation between RLP and PLP: patients affected with PLP show a higher presence of RLP in comparison to patients without PLP. […] Residual limb pain is also associated with inappropriate preparation of the stump (eg, unfavorable formation of the bony stump end), inaccurate alignment of bone lengths in stumps with 2 or more bones (eg, metatarsus, lower leg, or forearm), and missing fat pad under mesh-graft after surgical treatment of soft tissue injuries resulting in improper fit of the prosthesis.
  • #2 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    Post-amputation phenomena include phantom limb sensation (PLS), phantom limb pain (PLP) and residual limb pain (RLP). PLS refers to the persistent perception of a body part even after it has been removed by amputation or trauma, whereas PLP refers to the perception of pain experienced in the missing body part. The term RLP refers to pain in the remaining limb. […] The incidence of PLP varies from 0% to 88% after lower extremity amputations, 51% to 72% after upper extremity amputations with increase seen in more proximal amputations. […] Therefore, a prompt and effective treatment of PLP is essential in caring for the amputee population. […] Treatment of PLP continues to be difficult and mostly unsuccessful. […] Management options for PLP fall into three general categories: Physical, Behavioral and Psychological Therapies, Pharmacotherapy, and Surgery/Interventional Management summarized in Table 1.
  • #3 How Common Are Chronic Residual Limb Pain, Phantom Pain, and Back Pain More Than 20 Years After Lower Limb Amputation for Malignant Tumors?
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8373555/
    After major lower limb amputation, persistent pain is common, with up to 85% of patients reporting recurring phantom or residual-limb pain. […] Seventeen of 21 patients reported phantom limb and back pain, and 15 patients reported residual limb pain in the past year. […] After controlling for relevant confounding variables such as age at amputation, age at survey, and stump length, we found that less intense residual limb pain (defined on a 10-point scale with 1 representing no pain at all and 10 representing extremely strong pain [95% CI 0.3 to 1.0]; r = 0.8; p = 0.003) was associated with greater daily prosthesis use. […] Decades after surgery, many patients with lower limb amputations experience pain that restricts them in terms of ADLs and decreases their daily prosthesis use. […] Most patients with lower limb amputations experience pain that restricts them in terms of ADLs and decreases their daily prosthesis use, even many years after amputation.
  • #4 Making sense of phantom limb pain | Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
    https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/93/8/833
    Considering the high covariation between PLP and RLP, it is essential to understand whether these two pain phenomena relate to each other mechanistically. […] An interesting potential dissociation between these related forms of pain is that over the first months following amputation, RLP tends to decrease most likely due to the resolution of postoperative surgical wound pain while chronic PLP remains consistent. […] According to the meta-analysis by Limakatso and colleagues, preamputation pain was the second most common factor positively associated with PLP. […] Mechanistically, the positive relationship between preamputation limb pain and PLP suggests there may be shared pain elements. […] While certain cross-sectional and retrospective studies have suggested there is a gradual decrease in PLP over time, this evidence relies on retrospective recall of pain intensity, which is known to be unreliable. […] However, from prospective longitudinal studies, at least up to 3.5 years post amputation, there is evidence to suggest that PLP prevalence or intensity scores remain constant. […] Understanding that PLP does not change with time is crucial for managing patient expectations.
  • #5 Residual limb pain – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/residual-limb-pain/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20541405
    To diagnose residual limb pain, a healthcare professional looks for the cause. […] Treatment for residual limb pain depends on the cause. For some people with residual limb pain, the pain gets better in time without treatment. […] Regenerative peripheral nerve interface. Also called RPNI, this newer procedure helps prevent neuroma, a tangle of nerve endings that often forms after an amputation. It also helps prevent pain from neuromas that have formed. Neuromas are a major cause of residual limb pain.
  • #6
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Phantom limb pain is highly prevalent after amputation. Treatment results will probably benefit from an interdisciplinary team and individually adapted surgical, prosthetic and pain medicine approaches. […] In the immediate postamputation period, about 50% of patients experience amputation residual limb pain (RLP). There is a strong correlation between RLP and PLP: patients affected with PLP show a higher presence of RLP in comparison to patients without PLP. […] Residual limb pain is also associated with inappropriate preparation of the stump (eg, unfavorable formation of the bony stump end), inaccurate alignment of bone lengths in stumps with 2 or more bones (eg, metatarsus, lower leg, or forearm), and missing fat pad under mesh-graft after surgical treatment of soft tissue injuries resulting in improper fit of the prosthesis.
  • #7
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Phantom limb pain is highly prevalent after amputation. Treatment results will probably benefit from an interdisciplinary team and individually adapted surgical, prosthetic and pain medicine approaches. […] In the immediate postamputation period, about 50% of patients experience amputation residual limb pain (RLP). There is a strong correlation between RLP and PLP: patients affected with PLP show a higher presence of RLP in comparison to patients without PLP. […] Residual limb pain is also associated with inappropriate preparation of the stump (eg, unfavorable formation of the bony stump end), inaccurate alignment of bone lengths in stumps with 2 or more bones (eg, metatarsus, lower leg, or forearm), and missing fat pad under mesh-graft after surgical treatment of soft tissue injuries resulting in improper fit of the prosthesis.
  • #8
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Preventive approaches include adequate surgical techniques to optimize/normalize function and body scheme postamputation by achieving the best possible adaptability to the prosthesis and static load capacity. […] Although studies on preamputation pain as risk factor for later PLP showed contradictory results, severe preoperative and postoperative pain are the most consistent risk factors for chronic postsurgical pain per se. […] Therefore, selection and timing of the technique should primarily be based on the patient’s individual risk and clinical condition. If preoperative pain is severe and systemic analgesia insufficient, initiation of a continuous epidural or perineural infusion even days before surgery can be indicated.
  • #9 Residual limb pain – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/residual-limb-pain/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20541405
    To diagnose residual limb pain, a healthcare professional looks for the cause. […] Treatment for residual limb pain depends on the cause. For some people with residual limb pain, the pain gets better in time without treatment. […] Regenerative peripheral nerve interface. Also called RPNI, this newer procedure helps prevent neuroma, a tangle of nerve endings that often forms after an amputation. It also helps prevent pain from neuromas that have formed. Neuromas are a major cause of residual limb pain.
  • #10
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Phantom limb pain is highly prevalent after amputation. Treatment results will probably benefit from an interdisciplinary team and individually adapted surgical, prosthetic and pain medicine approaches. […] In the immediate postamputation period, about 50% of patients experience amputation residual limb pain (RLP). There is a strong correlation between RLP and PLP: patients affected with PLP show a higher presence of RLP in comparison to patients without PLP. […] Residual limb pain is also associated with inappropriate preparation of the stump (eg, unfavorable formation of the bony stump end), inaccurate alignment of bone lengths in stumps with 2 or more bones (eg, metatarsus, lower leg, or forearm), and missing fat pad under mesh-graft after surgical treatment of soft tissue injuries resulting in improper fit of the prosthesis.
  • #11 Phantom Limb Pain: Mechanisms and Treatment Approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3198614/
    The incidence of PLP has been reported to range from 42.2 to 78.8% in patients requiring amputation. […] A significant association has been reported between the PLP and residual limb pain. […] The presence of preamputation pain is also reported to increase the risks of developing PLP. […] A study has found that amputees with depressive symptoms were more likely to characterize their pain as more severe than those without depressive symptoms. […] The rate of phantom pain or sensation was not reported to be higher in people with bilateral limb amputation than those with single limb amputation. […] Larger population studies are needed for more definite establishment of the risks associated due to the site of involved limb or gender of the patient in development of PLP. […] The prevalence is reported to decrease over time after amputation.
  • #12 How Common Are Chronic Residual Limb Pain, Phantom Pain, and Back Pain More Than 20 Years After Lower Limb Amputation for Malignant Tumors?
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8373555/
    After major lower limb amputation, persistent pain is common, with up to 85% of patients reporting recurring phantom or residual-limb pain. […] Seventeen of 21 patients reported phantom limb and back pain, and 15 patients reported residual limb pain in the past year. […] After controlling for relevant confounding variables such as age at amputation, age at survey, and stump length, we found that less intense residual limb pain (defined on a 10-point scale with 1 representing no pain at all and 10 representing extremely strong pain [95% CI 0.3 to 1.0]; r = 0.8; p = 0.003) was associated with greater daily prosthesis use. […] Decades after surgery, many patients with lower limb amputations experience pain that restricts them in terms of ADLs and decreases their daily prosthesis use. […] Most patients with lower limb amputations experience pain that restricts them in terms of ADLs and decreases their daily prosthesis use, even many years after amputation.
  • #13 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    PLP is most commonly seen in patients who are unable to use prosthesis within the first 6 mo following amputation. […] Desensitization techniques including massaging, tapping, slapping, wrapping, and friction rubbing of the residual limb are often used to treat bothersome PLS, PLP and RLP. […] Patients frequently find that their PLP diminishes with the stimulation of using prosthesis. […] Multiple psychological modalities have been attempted in managing PLP. […] Antidepressants: Many randomized, controlled clinical trials have shown a beneficial effect of tricyclic antidepressants and sodium channel blockers on different neuropathic pain conditions and denervation syndromes, such as post herpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy. […] Opioids: Opioid analgesics are not the primary options for the treatment of PLP.
  • #14 Residual limb pain – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/residual-limb-pain/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20541405
    To diagnose residual limb pain, a healthcare professional looks for the cause. […] Treatment for residual limb pain depends on the cause. For some people with residual limb pain, the pain gets better in time without treatment. […] Regenerative peripheral nerve interface. Also called RPNI, this newer procedure helps prevent neuroma, a tangle of nerve endings that often forms after an amputation. It also helps prevent pain from neuromas that have formed. Neuromas are a major cause of residual limb pain.
  • #15 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    PLP is most commonly seen in patients who are unable to use prosthesis within the first 6 mo following amputation. […] Desensitization techniques including massaging, tapping, slapping, wrapping, and friction rubbing of the residual limb are often used to treat bothersome PLS, PLP and RLP. […] Patients frequently find that their PLP diminishes with the stimulation of using prosthesis. […] Multiple psychological modalities have been attempted in managing PLP. […] Antidepressants: Many randomized, controlled clinical trials have shown a beneficial effect of tricyclic antidepressants and sodium channel blockers on different neuropathic pain conditions and denervation syndromes, such as post herpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy. […] Opioids: Opioid analgesics are not the primary options for the treatment of PLP.
  • #16 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    PLP is most commonly seen in patients who are unable to use prosthesis within the first 6 mo following amputation. […] Desensitization techniques including massaging, tapping, slapping, wrapping, and friction rubbing of the residual limb are often used to treat bothersome PLS, PLP and RLP. […] Patients frequently find that their PLP diminishes with the stimulation of using prosthesis. […] Multiple psychological modalities have been attempted in managing PLP. […] Antidepressants: Many randomized, controlled clinical trials have shown a beneficial effect of tricyclic antidepressants and sodium channel blockers on different neuropathic pain conditions and denervation syndromes, such as post herpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy. […] Opioids: Opioid analgesics are not the primary options for the treatment of PLP.
  • #17 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    PLP is most commonly seen in patients who are unable to use prosthesis within the first 6 mo following amputation. […] Desensitization techniques including massaging, tapping, slapping, wrapping, and friction rubbing of the residual limb are often used to treat bothersome PLS, PLP and RLP. […] Patients frequently find that their PLP diminishes with the stimulation of using prosthesis. […] Multiple psychological modalities have been attempted in managing PLP. […] Antidepressants: Many randomized, controlled clinical trials have shown a beneficial effect of tricyclic antidepressants and sodium channel blockers on different neuropathic pain conditions and denervation syndromes, such as post herpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy. […] Opioids: Opioid analgesics are not the primary options for the treatment of PLP.
  • #18 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    Several neurosurgical procedures, including deep brain stimulation (DBS), and motor cortex stimulation (MCS) have been used to treat refractory PLP. […] The study concluded that using optimized epidural analgesia or intravenous PCA, starting 48 hours preoperatively and continuing for 48 h postoperatively, decreases PLP at 6 mo. […] The study concluded that high-resolution sonographically guided neurosclerosis should be included in the list of recommended procedures to manage chronic PLP and RLP.
  • #19
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Although this has not been shown in dedicated studies, patients with postamputation pain syndromes probably benefit from assessment, treatment, and monitoring within an interdisciplinary team including surgeons, anesthetists and pain physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists and physiotherapists, and orthopedic technicians. […] Due to few randomized controlled trials, case series with significant methodological weaknesses, lack of control groups, and small case numbers, currently there is limited evidence base for pharmacological and nonpharmacological prevention and treatment of PLP. […] In addition to consequent treatment of severe perioperative pain, the essential aspect seems the early restoration of body scheme and function if possible associated with sensomotoric efference input.
  • #20 Phantom Limb Pain: Mechanisms and Treatment Approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3198614/
    Phantom limb pain is considered a neuropathic pain, and most treatment recommendations are based on recommendations for neuropathic pain syndromes. […] Most successful treatment outcomes include multidisciplinary measures. […] Specific mechanism-based treatments are still evolving, and most treatments are based on recommendations for neuropathic pain.
  • #21
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Although this has not been shown in dedicated studies, patients with postamputation pain syndromes probably benefit from assessment, treatment, and monitoring within an interdisciplinary team including surgeons, anesthetists and pain physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists and physiotherapists, and orthopedic technicians. […] Due to few randomized controlled trials, case series with significant methodological weaknesses, lack of control groups, and small case numbers, currently there is limited evidence base for pharmacological and nonpharmacological prevention and treatment of PLP. […] In addition to consequent treatment of severe perioperative pain, the essential aspect seems the early restoration of body scheme and function if possible associated with sensomotoric efference input.
  • #22 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    Post-amputation phenomena include phantom limb sensation (PLS), phantom limb pain (PLP) and residual limb pain (RLP). PLS refers to the persistent perception of a body part even after it has been removed by amputation or trauma, whereas PLP refers to the perception of pain experienced in the missing body part. The term RLP refers to pain in the remaining limb. […] The incidence of PLP varies from 0% to 88% after lower extremity amputations, 51% to 72% after upper extremity amputations with increase seen in more proximal amputations. […] Therefore, a prompt and effective treatment of PLP is essential in caring for the amputee population. […] Treatment of PLP continues to be difficult and mostly unsuccessful. […] Management options for PLP fall into three general categories: Physical, Behavioral and Psychological Therapies, Pharmacotherapy, and Surgery/Interventional Management summarized in Table 1.
  • #23
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Although this has not been shown in dedicated studies, patients with postamputation pain syndromes probably benefit from assessment, treatment, and monitoring within an interdisciplinary team including surgeons, anesthetists and pain physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists and physiotherapists, and orthopedic technicians. […] Due to few randomized controlled trials, case series with significant methodological weaknesses, lack of control groups, and small case numbers, currently there is limited evidence base for pharmacological and nonpharmacological prevention and treatment of PLP. […] In addition to consequent treatment of severe perioperative pain, the essential aspect seems the early restoration of body scheme and function if possible associated with sensomotoric efference input.
  • #24
    https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/fulltext/2021/01000/clinical_updates_on_phantom_limb_pain.7.aspx
    Preventive approaches include adequate surgical techniques to optimize/normalize function and body scheme postamputation by achieving the best possible adaptability to the prosthesis and static load capacity. […] Although studies on preamputation pain as risk factor for later PLP showed contradictory results, severe preoperative and postoperative pain are the most consistent risk factors for chronic postsurgical pain per se. […] Therefore, selection and timing of the technique should primarily be based on the patient’s individual risk and clinical condition. If preoperative pain is severe and systemic analgesia insufficient, initiation of a continuous epidural or perineural infusion even days before surgery can be indicated.
  • #25 Phantom limb pain: A review of evidence-based treatment options
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6182/full/v3/i2/146.htm
    Several neurosurgical procedures, including deep brain stimulation (DBS), and motor cortex stimulation (MCS) have been used to treat refractory PLP. […] The study concluded that using optimized epidural analgesia or intravenous PCA, starting 48 hours preoperatively and continuing for 48 h postoperatively, decreases PLP at 6 mo. […] The study concluded that high-resolution sonographically guided neurosclerosis should be included in the list of recommended procedures to manage chronic PLP and RLP.
  • #26 How Common Are Chronic Residual Limb Pain, Phantom Pain, and Back Pain More Than 20 Years After Lower Limb Amputation for Malignant Tumors?
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8373555/
    After major lower limb amputation, persistent pain is common, with up to 85% of patients reporting recurring phantom or residual-limb pain. […] Seventeen of 21 patients reported phantom limb and back pain, and 15 patients reported residual limb pain in the past year. […] After controlling for relevant confounding variables such as age at amputation, age at survey, and stump length, we found that less intense residual limb pain (defined on a 10-point scale with 1 representing no pain at all and 10 representing extremely strong pain [95% CI 0.3 to 1.0]; r = 0.8; p = 0.003) was associated with greater daily prosthesis use. […] Decades after surgery, many patients with lower limb amputations experience pain that restricts them in terms of ADLs and decreases their daily prosthesis use. […] Most patients with lower limb amputations experience pain that restricts them in terms of ADLs and decreases their daily prosthesis use, even many years after amputation.
  • #27 Residual limb pain – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/residual-limb-pain/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20541405
    To diagnose residual limb pain, a healthcare professional looks for the cause. […] Treatment for residual limb pain depends on the cause. For some people with residual limb pain, the pain gets better in time without treatment. […] Regenerative peripheral nerve interface. Also called RPNI, this newer procedure helps prevent neuroma, a tangle of nerve endings that often forms after an amputation. It also helps prevent pain from neuromas that have formed. Neuromas are a major cause of residual limb pain.
  • #28 Phantom Limb Pain: Mechanisms and Treatment Approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3198614/
    Phantom limb pain is considered a neuropathic pain, and most treatment recommendations are based on recommendations for neuropathic pain syndromes. […] Most successful treatment outcomes include multidisciplinary measures. […] Specific mechanism-based treatments are still evolving, and most treatments are based on recommendations for neuropathic pain.
  • #29 Making sense of phantom limb pain | Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
    https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/93/8/833
    Considering the high covariation between PLP and RLP, it is essential to understand whether these two pain phenomena relate to each other mechanistically. […] An interesting potential dissociation between these related forms of pain is that over the first months following amputation, RLP tends to decrease most likely due to the resolution of postoperative surgical wound pain while chronic PLP remains consistent. […] According to the meta-analysis by Limakatso and colleagues, preamputation pain was the second most common factor positively associated with PLP. […] Mechanistically, the positive relationship between preamputation limb pain and PLP suggests there may be shared pain elements. […] While certain cross-sectional and retrospective studies have suggested there is a gradual decrease in PLP over time, this evidence relies on retrospective recall of pain intensity, which is known to be unreliable. […] However, from prospective longitudinal studies, at least up to 3.5 years post amputation, there is evidence to suggest that PLP prevalence or intensity scores remain constant. […] Understanding that PLP does not change with time is crucial for managing patient expectations.