Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Mitral Stenosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430742/

  Mitral stenosis (MS) is a form of valvular heart disease characterized by the narrowing of the mitral valve orifice. The most common cause of mitral stenosis is rheumatic fever, though the stenosis typically does not become clinically relevant until several decades later. […] The prevalence of rheumatic disease in developed countries is declining, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 100,000. The prevalence is higher in developing nations than in the United States. In Africa, for example, the prevalence is 35 cases per 100,000. […] Rheumatic mitral stenosis is more common in females. The onset is usually between the third and fourth decades of life. […] Mitral stenosis is a relatively common disorder, which, if left untreated, is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Mitral stenosis rates had decreased in the US four decades ago, but with the mass migration of individuals from other countries, a resurgence of cases has been observed. The number one cause for most cases of mitral stenosis is rheumatic fever.

• #1 Mitral Stenosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430742/

  Mitral valve stenosis can remain asymptomatic for years, especially when resulting from rheumatic fever. It can take decades following rheumatic fever before mitral valve stenosis develops. […] Once symptoms become apparent, the progression of the disease generally accelerates, particularly when it is secondary to rheumatic fever. Approximately 80% of patients will not survive ten years from symptomatic onset. In patients with pulmonary hypertension secondary to mitral valve stenosis, survival is around three years. Heart failure often accompanies advanced cases.

• #2 Mitral Stenosis: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/897204-overview

  The prevalence of rheumatic disease in developed nations is steadily declining with an estimated incidence of 1 in 100,000. […] The prevalence of rheumatic disease is higher in developing nations than in the United States. In India, for example, the prevalence is approximately 100-150 cases per 100,000, and in Africa the prevalence is 35 cases per 100,000. However, rheumatic fever has been decreasing in industrialized countries. […] Two thirds of all patients with rheumatic mitral stenosis are female. […] The onset of symptoms usually occurs between the third and fourth decade of life.

• #3 Mitral stenosis epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Mitral_stenosis_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of mitral stenosis is approximately 1 per 100,000 in developed countries. The prevalence of mitral stenosis continues to decline as the prevalence of rheumatic fever declines. Currently, the estimated incidence in the United States is 1:100,000. The incidence in higher in developing countries. […] The prevalence of rheumatic (the main cause of MS) mitral stenosis is approximately 1 per 100,000 in developed countries. The prevalence of mitral stenosis continues to decline as the prevalence of rheumatic fever declines. Currently, the estimated incidence in the United States is 1:100,000. The incidence in higher in developing countries. […] Rheumatic fever is a disease of childhood. Mitral stenosis usually becomes symptomatic in the third or fourth decade of life. […] Although rheumatic fever occurs in equal numbers in males and females, two thirds of all patients with rheumatic mitral stenosis are females.

• #4 Mitral stenosis epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Mitral_stenosis_epidemiology_and_demographics

  Despite a decline in rheumatic fever, rheumatic disease remains the major cause of mitral valve stenosis. The prevalence of rheumatic disease in developed nations is steadily declining. In United States the prevalence rate is less than 5 per 100,000 persons. This could be attributed to the introduction of penicillin or a change in the virulence of the Streptococcus. […] In countries with low prevalence of rheumatic disease, mitral stenosis may be congenital. Though the incidence is low, these patients have high mortality rates. […] Developing countries have higher rates of rheumatic fever and consequently higher rates of mitral stenosis with prevalence of more than 10 cases per 1,000 in India and 4-10 cases per 1,000 in China, Russia, Africa, and Australia.

• #5 Heart valve disease module 1: epidemiology – The British Journal of Cardiology

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2016/03/heart-valve-disease-module-1-epidemiology-2/5/

  Rheumatic disease is the overwhelming aetiology world-wide and causes isolated mitral stenosis in 40% of cases. However the population prevalence of mitral stenosis in the USA is only 0.1% and accounts for only 10% of cases in European hospital-based series. […] Valve disease is correctly regarded as an epidemic waiting to happen. Degenerative aortic stenosis has become the most common valve disease in Europe, and the United States, due to prolonged life-expectancy and the associated degenerative effects on cardiac structures. […] In the USA, valve disease is most common in the elderly with a prevalence of 13% in those aged over 75.

• #6 Valvular heart disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvular_heart_disease

  Mitral stenosis is caused almost exclusively by rheumatic heart disease, and has a prevalence of about 0.1% in the United States. […] Mitral stenosis is the most common valvular heart disease in pregnancy. […] In the United States, about 2.5% of the population has moderate to severe valvular heart disease. […] The prevalence of these diseases increase with age, and 75 year-olds in the United States have a prevalence of about 13%. […] In industrially underdeveloped regions, rheumatic disease is the most common cause of valve diseases, and it can cause up to 65% of the valve disorders seen in these regions.

• #7 Mitral Stenosis | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/mitral-stenosis-pro

  How common is mitral stenosis? (Epidemiology)4 […] The prevalence of rheumatic disease has declined in developed countries, with a consequent decline in the prevalence of mitral stenosis. […] The estimated incidence is 1 in 100,000 in developed countries, but higher in developing nations – eg, 35 cases per 100,000 in Africa. […] The onset is usually between the third and fourth decades of life. […] Rheumatic mitral stenosis is more common in females.

• #8 Valvular Heart Disease Epidemiology

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9228968/

  Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remains the most common cause of valvular disease worldwide. […] RHD was estimated to affect 40.5 million people worldwide in 2019, with an annual incidence rate of 2.8 million. […] The highest mortality rates for RHD are observed in Oceania, South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. […] The global RHD prevalence continues to increase annually, although the age-standardized prevalence has increased much slower, reflecting the predomination of growing, young populations. […] Mitral regurgitation (MR) is the third most common form of valvular heart disease, affecting approximately 24.2 million people around the world. […] The prevalence of primary MR has increased by 70% from 1990 to 2017, largely in developing nations, though age-standardized prevalence has not changed significantly, and mortality has fallen by about 32%.

• #9 Aetiology and epidemiology of mitral stenosis

  https://www.escardio.org/Journals/E-Journal-of-Cardiology-Practice/Volume-16/Aetiology-and-epidemiology-of-mitral-stenosis

  These factors, in combination with the decreasing incidence of rheumatic MS due to improved sanitation and living standards, have made calcific MS more prevalent in the developed world. […] MS appears to affect women more than men. In one study looking at 24,000 echocardiograms, rheumatic MS was approximately four times more prevalent in women than men. […] Similarly, Pai et al reported the incidence of MAC mitral stenosis to be three times higher in women than in men in a cohort of over a thousand patients.

• #9 Aetiology and epidemiology of mitral stenosis

  https://www.escardio.org/Journals/E-Journal-of-Cardiology-Practice/Volume-16/Aetiology-and-epidemiology-of-mitral-stenosis

  Mitral stenosis most commonly occurs because of rheumatic fever or degenerative MV disease. […] The global prevalence of RHD is around 1 per 1,000 in children aged 5-14 years. However, the prevalence varies widely by region with fewer cases (0.2-0.3 per 1,000) reported from the developed than from the developing countries (5.5-5.7 per 1,000). […] Once a common problem in Europe and much of the developed world, rheumatic MS now accounts for only about 10% of left-sided valve diseases. […] Relatively less is known about the true prevalence of MAC and degenerative MS. […] However, it is fair to say that, contrary to rheumatic MS, the incidence and prevalence of degenerative MS is increasing. […] Another factor is lack of medical therapy to stabilise or reverse cardiac calcifications.

• #10 Temporal changes in characteristics, incidence, and mortality in patients undergoing surgical intervention for mitral stenosis | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-74807-5

  We found that patients undergoing surgical intervention had a median age of around 60 years and were mostly female (69%) with little differences across calendar time. […] The incidence of surgical intervention for MS decreased over calendar periods from 3.3 incidences per million person-years in the first calendar period (2001-2005) to 2.2 incidences per million person-years in the last calendar period (2016-2021). […] The decrease of intervention for MS over calendar period was expected considering the incidence of rheumatic MS has generally been falling in high-income countries over several decades. […] We found an all-cause mortality rate of around one in six patients after three years of follow-up (including in hospital mortality). […] When comparing crude estimates across calendar periods, the mortality trend remained stable, which was not unexpected considering the diagnostic work-up has not changed noteworthy over this time-period.

• #10 Temporal changes in characteristics, incidence, and mortality in patients undergoing surgical intervention for mitral stenosis | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-74807-5

  To examine temporal changes in patient characteristics, the incidence rate of surgical intervention, and the three-year mortality rate for patients undergoing surgical intervention for mitral valve stenosis (MS) from 2001 to 2021 in Denmark. […] The incidence rate of surgical intervention decreased in patients with a different origin than Denmark, while it remained stable in patients with a Danish origin, as shown in Supplementary Table 124. […] The incidence rate of MS surgery steadily decreased from 3.3 incidences per million person-years in the first calendar period (2001-2005) to 2.2 incidences per million person-years in the last calendar period (2016-2021), as shown in Fig. 2. […] The incidence of patients diagnosed with first-time MS decreased over calendar periods (2001-2005: 54.5 incidences per million person-years, 2006-2010: 35.9, 2011-2015: 31.0, and 2016-2021: 41.9), as shown in Fig. 3.

• #11 Mitral valve stenosis: epidemiology and causes in elderly patients

  https://www.escardio.org/Journals/E-Journal-of-Cardiology-Practice/Volume-16/Mitral-valve-stenosis-epidemiology-and-causes-in-elderly-patients

  Indeed, the prevalence and severity of mitral annular calcification is directly proportional to age. […] A history of rheumatic fever is present in between 50% and 70% of patients with mitral stenosis. […] The second cause of mitral stenosis in the elderly is mitral annular calcification. […] In developed countries this valvular disease is usually diagnosed in the age group around 50 when it becomes symptomatic, compared to developing countries where this occurs at a young age. […] An active understanding of changes in population characteristics and their consequences on the aetiological evolution allows us to continue to improve and personalise the currently available therapies for complex pathologies. […] In older patients, because of their inherent fragility and multi-comorbid characteristics, the diagnosis of mitral stenosis and the indications for treatment should always be associated with appropriate risk stratification.

• #11 Mitral valve stenosis: epidemiology and causes in elderly patients

  https://www.escardio.org/Journals/E-Journal-of-Cardiology-Practice/Volume-16/Mitral-valve-stenosis-epidemiology-and-causes-in-elderly-patients

  Mitral stenosis in the elderly is an evolving and complex pathological entity. The prevalence of rheumatic disease in developing countries is important and, due to migration, it continues to be seen as the first cause of mitral stenosis in developed countries. This remains the case despite improvements in prophylaxis, prompt diagnosis and early treatment. […] Nowadays, in this increasingly large section of the population, mitral valve stenosis is mainly due to sequelae of chronic rheumatic valvular disease and to calcific degeneration. […] In the last Euro Heart Survey, in patients referred to hospital, mitral stenosis represented 12% of valvular diseases. Rheumatic disease and degenerative calcific aetiology are the main causes contributing to the prevalence of mitral stenosis. Rheumatic disease accounts for about 85% and degenerative causes for about 12%; in all other valvular diseases this relationship is reversed.

• #12 Mitral Valve Stenosis: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21903-mitral-valve-stenosis

  Mitral valve stenosis is an uncommon disease, especially in developed countries. It affects about 1 out of every 100,000 people in the U.S. […] It’s more common in developing countries, especially when there’s limited access to antibiotics and medical care. […] Mitral valve stenosis is much more likely to happen in females. In developed countries, people in their 50s and 60s make up the majority of mitral valve stenosis cases. In developing countries, it’s a more common diagnosis in younger adults. […] When it happens in infants and children, healthcare providers find most cases before the age of 2. It may also run in families, increasing the risk of having it if one of your relatives also has it.

• #13 Mitral Stenosis – The Cardiology Advisor

  https://www.thecardiologyadvisor.com/ddi/mitral-valve-stenosis/

  Mitral stenosis (MS), also known as mitral valve stenosis, is a condition in which the opening between the left atrium and left ventricle of the heart, also known as the mitral valve orifice, is narrowed. This condition is a type of valvular heart disease. The narrowing of the mitral valve orifice can be caused by a number of issues, including infective endocarditis, mitral calcifications, congenital heart defects, and rheumatic heart disease. […] Rheumatic heart disease mitral stenosis is the most common type of mitral stenosis. […] In developed countries such as the United States, the estimated incidence of rheumatic disease is 1 in 100,000. […] The diagnostic workup of mitral stenosis includes noninvasive approaches (for example, auscultation, electrocardiogram [ECG], chest imaging, echocardiogram and exercise echocardiogram) and invasive approaches (for example, cardiac catheterization).

• #14 Pathophysiology and natural history of mitral stenosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathophysiology-and-natural-history-of-mitral-stenosis

  The hemodynamic consequence of mitral stenosis (MS) is an increased impedance or resistance to transmitral flow. MS attenuates the atrial contribution to left ventricular filling and it also poses a hydraulic opposition or resistance to early filling. […] However, the prevalence of calcific MS in resource-abundant countries has increased as populations age. […] Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is the most common cause of mitral stenosis (MS); other causes are much less frequent. […] RHD remains a major public health problem in resource-limited countries. […] Rheumatic MS has become less common in resource-rich countries given marked reductions in the incidence of rheumatic fever. […] Involvement of the mitral valve is present in approximately 90 percent of individuals with RHD. […] Rheumatic MS is a continuously progressive lifelong disease.

• #15 Mitral Valve Stenosis: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mitral-stenosis

  Mitral valve stenosis, also known as mitral stenosis, occurs when the mitral valve opening is narrowed. This means that not enough blood can flow through it. […] In 2005, the journal Circulation noted that most cases of mitral stenosis in the United States were found in people who had moved from countries where rheumatic fever is common. […] Risk factors for the condition are unclear. However, its estimated that women are two to three times more likely than men to develop the condition. […] If undetected or untreated, mitral valve stenosis can result in serious complications. The most common one is arrhythmia. Atrial fibrillation, in which the upper chambers of the heart tremble, will develop in many cases. […] Endocarditis and heart failure can also occur. […] Mitral valve stenosis also affects the lungs. Pulmonary edema, or fluid buildup, and pulmonary arterial hypertension may develop as a result of mitral valve stenosis.

• #16 Unrecognised mitral valve stenosis in a London multi-ethnic community – The British Journal of Cardiology

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2011/06/unrecognised-mitral-valve-stenosis-in-a-london-multi-ethnic-community/

  Mitral valve stenosis (MS) is attributed mainly to rheumatic fever and may remain unrecognised for several years. […] However, its incidence in a multi-ethnic community has not yet been recognised. […] It is concluded that rheumatic MS is still prevalent in the UK population and is more common in subjects of Indo-Asian origin than either Caucasian or Afro-Caribbean subjects. MS was not recognised by the general practitioners: its diagnosis was only made possible by echocardiography. […] The prevalence of subclinical mitral stenosis in a community cardiology clinic serving a multi-ethnic population has not recently been studied. […] In this report, we have demonstrated that subclinical mitral stenosis is still in existence, though with a low prevalence, in patients of different ethnic backgrounds referred for various cardiac causes to a community cardiology service in a district of London. […] The majority of the patients with this lesion in our study were of Indo-Asian origin. […] Regular follow-up of such patients is necessary in order to assess the progress of the mitral stenosis and to diagnose atrial fibrillation early.

• #17 Epidemiology of left sided valvular heart disease in patients undergoing echocardiography in a Sub-Saharan African population, South West region of Cameroon – Nkoke – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/6450/html

  Of the 1,397 echocardiographic studies performed, 96 were primary left sided VHD (6.9%). […] The prevalence of left sided valvular heart disease was 6.9%. […] The burden of VHD in this setting is equally shared between RHD and degenerative VHD, both of them representing 90.7% of the causes. […] In terms of etiologies, we found that degenerative VHD (46.9%) and RHD (43.8%) were almost equally the two prominent causes of left-sided VHD in our population. […] The vast majority of patients (71.9%) in this study had severe valvular lesions. […] VHD is common in the South West region of Cameroon. Degenerative VHD and RHD are the two major causes of VHD in this region.

• #18 Mitral Stenosis – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/valvular-disorders/mitral-stenosis

  Mitral stenosis is narrowing of the mitral orifice that impedes blood flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle. The usual cause is rheumatic fever. […] Women comprise 80% of rheumatic fever and mitral annular calcification cases. […] Surveillance with serial TTE is important, because RV enlargement and rise in RV systolic pressure can occur without patients noticing a change in functional state and without a decrease in mitral valve area. […] The risk of thromboembolism in patients with atrial fibrillation and mitral stenosis is very high and is treated with a vitamin K antagonist, not a direct-acting oral anticoagulant.

• #19 Mitral Valve Stenosis: Symptoms & Causes | Mass General Brigham

  https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en/patient-care/services-and-specialties/heart/conditions/mitral-valve-stenosis

  Mitral stenosis isn’t a common disease in the U.S., but it can result in serious complications when it occurs. […] Mitral valve stenosis occurs when the opening between the two left chambers of the heart is too narrow, becomes blocked, or can’t open completely. […] Untreated mitral valve stenosis can interfere with your daily life, but it can also lead to complications, including atrial fibrillation, stroke, and heart failure. […] The most common cause of mitral stenosis is a complication of strep throat called rheumatic fever, which can cause scar tissue to form on the leaflets of the mitral valve, causing its narrowing. […] Significant risk factors for mitral stenosis include: Age: Older adults are more likely to have mitral stenosis caused by calcium buildup. […] Mitral valve stenosis is a form of heart disease called „heart valve disease.” It’s not the same as coronary heart disease which affects the blood vessels. Heart valve disease can still cause serious symptoms and complications and requires intervention.

• #20 Disparities in Mitral Valve Disease Associated with Heart Failure

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/4/10.31083/j.rcm2504129/htm

  Heart failure (HF) affects millions of people around the world and is a prevalent health issue in the United States. […] Factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, and social determinants of health impact the prevalence, etiology, and treatment of MVD associated with HF. […] This article also identifies the differences in epidemiology and treatment of MVD associated with HF across different gender, ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic groups. […] The major cause of MS is rheumatic heart disease after prior infection with group A streptococcus. […] Overall, the incidence of rheumatic MS in developed countries is 1/100,000, making it less common than MR. […] Given that both MR and MS cause significant morbidity and mortality, especially when concurrent with HF, it is vital to understand and address these disparities to provide quality care to the patients.

• #21 Disparities in Mitral Valve Disease Associated with Heart Failure

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/4/10.31083/j.rcm2504129/htm

  It is well established that socioeconomic, gender, racial, and ethnic disparities exist in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD). […] MVD prevalence also varies widely among different populations. […] MVD prevalence also varies amongst racial and ethnic groups. […] Disparities exist in the treatment of MR and MS, though the guidelines for treating MR and MS are different. […] While medicine has made great strides in advancing treatment for MVD and associated HF, the benefits of this progression have not reached all communities equally. […] Disparities in MVD associated with HF, particularly in females and racial and ethnic minority populations, pose significant challenges in achieving equitable and optimal care for all patients. […] Due to the pervasiveness of MVD and the disparities in prevalence, management, and outcomes among various groups, it is crucial that the underlying inequities be addressed.

• #22 Disparities in Mitral Valve Disease Associated with Heart Failure

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/4/10.31083/j.rcm2504129/htm

  Social determinants of health play a significant role in an individual’s health and overall well-being, with SES shown to significantly impact CVD overall. […] By implementing these strategies and working collectively to improve the health and longevity of patients with HF and valvular heart disease, we can strive towards a more equitable and effective healthcare system for all individuals, regardless of SES, gender, race, or ethnicity.

• #23 Mitral Valve Stenosis | Heart and Vascular

  https://health.ucdavis.edu/conditions/mitral-valve-stenosis

  With the care of our experts in structural heart disease, you can get treatment for mitral stenosis and prevent complications like heart failure. […] Our world-renowned specialists in structural heart disease can help identify if you have mitral stenosis. We detect and treat the disease early with heart valve repair and replacement to potentially prevent heart failure. […] You may have greater risk for mitral valve stenosis if you have one or more of the following risk factors: […] If you are older than 60, you face a greater risk of mitral valve stenosis. […] If your family has a history of valvular disease or early coronary artery disease, you may have a greater risk of mitral valve stenosis. […] Women are more likely than men to have mitral valve stenosis. […] Your physician can confirm mitral valve stenosis using an echocardiogram. This test uses ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) to create an image of your heart.

• #24 Long COVID May Cause Long-Term Changes in the Heart and Lungs and May Lead to Cardiac and Pulmonary Diseases | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2025/long-covid-may-cause-long-term-changes-in-the-heart-and-lungs-and-may-lead-to-cardiac-and-pulmonary-diseases

  Patients suffering from long COVID may exhibit persistent inflammation in the heart and lungs for up to a year following SARS-CoV-2 infection—even when standard medical tests return normal results—potentially placing them at elevated risk for future cardiac and pulmonary conditions. […] This study brings us closer to understanding how SARS-CoV-2 affects the heart and lungs over time. We believe long COVID results in an inflammatory response that may predispose patients to premature coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular damage such as stenosis or regurgitation. […] These findings should change how we approach care and surveillance—not only recognizing SARS-CoV-2 as a potential long-term cardiovascular risk factor, but also integrating molecular imaging into post-COVID evaluation protocols.

• #25 Mitral Stenosis: Etiology, Pathophysiology, and Symptomatology – OpenAnesthesia

  https://www.openanesthesia.org/keywords/mitral-stenosis-etiology-pathophysiology-and-symptomatology/

  The prevalence of rheumatic heart disease is declining in high-income countries, with an incidence of about 1 in 100,000, compared with higher prevalence in low- and middle-income countries. In Africa, the prevalence of rheumatic heart disease is estimated at around 35 in 100,000. […] The incidence of rheumatic MS is higher in females. […] The Euro Heart survey prospectively collected data on moderate to severe native aortic and mitral valvular disease, and MS was the least common (12.1%) left-sided valvular disease compared to aortic stenosis (43.1%), aortic regurgitation (13.3%), and mitral regurgitation (31.5%).

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