Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/

  The etiology of most psychiatric conditions involves various degrees and types of biological, psychological, and social contributors. […] Although psychological factors particularly impact the development of anxiety disorders, there are multiple biological components to pathological anxiety. […] The study of inheritance patterns has revealed a general familial aggregation among major anxiety disorders. […] Twin studies have demonstrated stronger inheritance patterns for monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins, suggesting a genetic component to the development of pathological anxiety. […] Although the study of anxiety and gene-environment interactions is limited, it is known that epigenetic mechanisms, particularly DNA methylation, contribute to mediating transcription factors for stress-related genes, which may underlie the development of pathological anxiety.

• #1 Phobia causes: what causes specific phobias to develop?

  https://barendspsychology.com/specific-phobia-causes/

  Specific fears do not all develop around the same age; some fears develop around the age of 4 years (fear of ghosts), others develop later in life (fear of blood and injury). In the majority of people, these fears disappear over time. In some cases, however, these specific fears develop into specific phobias. One of the specific phobia causes seems to be inheritance: specific phobias run in the family. Other specific phobia causes could be environmental: parenting and life events. […] Specific phobias run in the family. If your mother, father, sibling or to a lesser extend grandmother or grandfather has a specific phobia, then there is a higher chance that you may develop a specific phobia at one point in your life. Research shows that fear and specific phobias are moderately inheritable. There are different inheritance estimates for the specific phobia subtypes: Animal phobias 32%, Blood-Injury-Injection phobias 33%, and Situational phobias 25%. This means that 32% of the factors that contribute to the development of animal phobia can be explained by genetics. The other 68% of the factors that contribute to the development of an animal phobia can be explained by environmental factors.

• #1 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/

  Children of parents with depression and anxiety disorders are at a higher risk of developing a depressive or anxiety disorder. […] Another mechanism for developing a specific phobia is through modeling, in which a person observes a reaction in another person and internalizes that other person’s fears or warnings about the dangers of a specific object or situation.

• #1 Specific phobias | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/specific-phobias?content_id=CON-20228093

  Much is still not known about what causes specific phobias. Causes may include: […] Many phobias start because of a bad experience or panic attack related to a specific object or situation. Sometimes even seeing or hearing about a bad experience can be enough to trigger a phobia. […] There may be a link between your specific phobia and the phobia or anxiety of your parents. This could be due to a blend of genetics and learned behaviors. […] Those with specific phobias trigger certain parts of the brain, while a person without these phobias does not have the same response in the brain. Also, a person with a specific phobia can have a different brain structure than a person without that specific phobia.

• #1 Phobias (Specific Phobias) – The Human Condition

  https://thehumancondition.com/phobias-specific-phobias/

  Specific phobias may also have neurobiological underpinnings, but these factors are less understood. When people encounter feared objects or situations, their bodies undergo many physiological changes. […] In a study published in Learning Memory, researchers surmised that some people develop specific phobias because of the way they process fear in the amygdala malfunctions. Further research is required to reach definitive conclusions.

• #1 Phobias: Symptoms, types, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/249347

  They may also be an echo of the habits of early humans, leftover from a time in which open spaces and unknown people generally posed a far greater threat to personal safety than in today’s world. […] Researchers have found that phobias are often linked to the amygdala, which lies behind the pituitary gland in the brain. The amygdala can trigger the release of fight-or-flight hormones. These put the body and mind in a highly alert and stressed state.

• #1 Specific Phobias (Symptoms) | Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety | Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania

  https://www.med.upenn.edu/ctsa/phobias_symptoms.html

  As with any psychological disorder, the etiology of specific phobias are complex, and include a number of factors such a learned history, past experiences, and biology. […] Specific phobias can sometimes begin following a traumatic experience in the feared situation. For example, a child who is bitten by a dog might develop a fear of dogs, or someone who has a car accident might develop a fear of driving. […] Some people may learn to fear certain situations by watching others show signs of fear in the same situation. For example, a child growing up with a father who is afraid of heights may learn to fear heights himself. […] Sometimes, people develop specific phobias after hearing about reading about a situation that may be dangerous. For example, a person learns to fear flying after watching news footage of 9/11.

• #1 Specific phobia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_phobia

  However, a 2014 study found evidence against this evolutionary theory, which stated: „Our findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that fears/phobias of individual stimuli result from genetic and environmental factors unique to that stimulus. Instead, we observed substantial sharing of risk factors across individual fears.” […] There is also evidence for the validity of a genetic component contributing to blood-injection-injury phobias and animal phobias, although this evidence did not support the idea that other specific phobias had genetic influence. […] The classical conditioning model of learning has also been used to suggest that a phobia will be learned when an event that causes a fear or anxiety reaction is paired with a neutral event. […] An alternative proposed mechanism of association is through observational learning.

• #1 Phobias: Causes, Types, Treatment, Symptoms & More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/phobia-simple-specific

  Genetic and environmental factors can cause phobias. Children who have a close relative with an anxiety disorder are at risk of developing a phobia. Distressing events, such as nearly drowning, can bring on a phobia. Exposure to confined spaces, extreme heights, and animal or insect bites can all be sources of phobias. […] People with ongoing medical conditions or health concerns often have phobias. Theres a high incidence of people developing phobias after traumatic brain injuries. Substance abuse and depression are also connected to phobias.

• #1 Specific Phobia (300.29) | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-abnormalpsych/chapter/specific-phobia-300-29/

  There are two possible frameworks to view the development of SP: associative and nonassociative. […] The associative model of SP developed from animal models of fear, with some of the earliest work being done by John B. Watson using only classical conditioning (the famous or infamous Little Albert studies). […] As knowledge about operant conditioning grew, however, Mowrers two-factor theory of avoidance learning became highly influential. […] Vicarious conditioning can also play an important role in associative learning, via modeling (a child sees a parent display fear or disgust to stimuli, and then patterns his behavior after that), information transmission (hearing about how dangerous it is to fly due to terrorists), and visual observation of fear (watching someone else encounter a stimuli and display phobic reactions).

• #1 Specific Phobias (Symptoms) | Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety | Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania

  https://www.med.upenn.edu/ctsa/phobias_symptoms.html

  However, it is important to remember that learning is not the sole cause of specific phobias. Many people are bitten by dogs or get into car accidents and do not go on to develop phobias. […] Risk factors may include genetic susceptibilities, but not much is known about the biological factors that cause and maintain specific phobias. However, when a person encounters a feared stimulus, many biological changes occur in the body, including changes in brain activity, the release of cortisol, insulin, and growth hormone, and increases in blood pressure and heart rate.

• #1 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/

  Behavioral scientists have contributed significantly to uncovering the psychological mechanisms contributing to anxiety. […] Conditioned responses of learned fear are more significant among anxiety-disordered individuals compared to controls, with an explanation of 2 likely mechanisms: first, there is greater excitatory conditioning to danger cues, and second, there is impaired inhibitory conditioning to safety signals. […] Parenting behaviors implicate cross-generational influences on the development of childhood anxiety. […] These parenting behavioral systems include vicarious learning, social referencing, and modeling of parental anxiety. […] Furthermore, overly protective and overly critical parenting styles, parental response to child anxiety, and family accommodation of a child’s anxiety all contribute to the conditioning and development of childhood anxiety.

• #1 Phobias: Symptoms, types, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/249347

  Specific phobias are known as simple phobias as they can be linked to an identifiable cause that may not frequently occur in the everyday life of an individual, such as snakes. […] These usually develop before the age of 4 to 8 years. In some cases, it may be the result of a traumatic early experience. One example would be claustrophobia developing over time after a younger child has an unpleasant experience in a confined space. […] Phobias that start during childhood can also be caused by witnessing the phobia of a family member. A child whose mother has arachnophobia, for example, is much more likely to develop the same phobia. […] More research is needed to confirm exactly why a person develops agoraphobia or social anxiety. Researchers currently believe complex phobias are caused by a combination of life experiences, brain chemistry, and genetics.

• #1 Causes of phobias – Mental Health UK

  https://mentalhealth-uk.org/help-and-information/conditions/phobias/causes/

  Some phobias may come from learning about dangerous or frightening events. For example, reading about a death by spider bite may lead to developing arachnophobia, or hearing about a plane crash may lead to developing a fear of flying. […] There is an increased risk of someone developing a phobia if they experience ongoing physical illness. Additionally, those who experience traumatic brain injuries have an increased likelihood of developing a phobia.

• #1 Specific Phobia – Definition, Symptoms, and Causes

  https://www.mentalhealth.com/library/specific-phobias

  A specific phobia is an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that poses little or no actual danger. […] The cause or origin of certain specific phobias is still a mystery, even to experts. Some causes and risk factors include: […] Traumatic experience: distressing events such as almost drowning can bring about specific phobias. […] Learned reaction/parenting: children who see their parents react with exaggerated fear to something specific may mimic this behavior. […] Genetics: those with a close relative with an anxiety disorder. […] Temperament: those with behavioral inhibitions such as shyness. […] Ongoing health issues: a higher incidence of phobia is found in those who have suffered traumatic injuries. […] Substance abuse: may make phobia symptoms worse. […] Brain function: changes in brain functioning may lead to the development of phobias. […] Age: phobias can appear in childhood, usually by age 10, but can also start later in life. […] Receiving negative information: learning about events and repeatedly hearing information can lead to a phobia, e.g., COVID-19 news leading to the phobia of germs.

• #1 Specific phobia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_phobia

  Specific phobia is an anxiety disorder, characterized by an extreme, unreasonable, and irrational fear associated with a specific object, situation, or concept which poses little or no actual danger. […] The exact cause of specific phobias is not known. The mechanisms for development of specific phobias can be distinguished between innate (genetic and neurobiological) factors, and learned factors. […] In neurobiology, one explanation proposed for specific phobia is that the typical activation of the amygdala in response to stimuli may be exaggerated due to pathological changes. […] Certain phobias that are less lethal (e.g. dogs) seem to be more frequently observed and easily acquired in comparison to potentially lethal fears which are more relevant to developed human society (e.g. cars and guns).

• #1 Specific Phobia – Understanding Psychological Disorders

  https://openbooks.library.baylor.edu/understandingpsychdisorders/chapter/specific-phobias/

  Phobia is a Greek word that means fear. A person diagnosed with a specific phobia (formerly known as simple phobia) experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (such as animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying) (APA, 2013). […] Many theories suggest that phobias develop through learning. Rachman (1977) proposed that phobias can be acquired through three major learning pathways. […] Interestingly, people are more likely to develop phobias of things that do not represent much actual danger to themselves, such as animals and heights, and are less likely to develop phobias toward things that present legitimate danger in contemporary society, such as motorcycles and weapons (hman Mineka, 2001). […] This theory argues that throughout our evolutionary history, our ancestors associated certain stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, heights, and thunder) with potential danger.

• #1 Specific Phobia (300.29) | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-abnormalpsych/chapter/specific-phobia-300-29/

  Evolutionary preparedness is a nonassociative theory that we as a species may be genetically primed to fear certain stimuli, thanks to our evolutionary history. […] The theory is that, due to the inherent dangerousness of such things throughout the history of our species, those individuals with a natural tendency to avoid such things were more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on the genes related to such a behavioral expression. […] It would also help to explain why things that are actually more dangerous, such as guns and cars, but have been around a relatively short period of time are not seen in phobic individuals nearly as often. […] As such, the reality seems to be that it is not whether a given fear is associative or nonassociative, but instead how much learning is needed to evoke that particular fear.

• #1 Specific Phobia | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/specific-phobia

  Specific phobias can emerge at any age, but usually start in childhood or adolescence, and the symptoms can be lifelong. […] While the exact cause is unknown, certain factors and personality traits appear to increase one’s risk of developing specific phobias. Neuroticism and frequent worries may also increase the risk. […] Certain specific experiences can elevate the risk as well, such as having overprotective parents, losing a parent, sexual or physical abuse, and trauma related to the specific fear. […] Genetics may also play a role; individuals who have a first-degree relative with a specific phobia are more likely to have that same specific phobia. […] Specific phobias sometimes develop following a traumatic event (such as being attacked by an animal), the observation of others going through a traumatic event (such as watching someone drown), or learning about a traumatic event (such as a plane crash).

• #1 Specific Phobia | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/specific-phobia

  Evidence for a genetic basis for phobias exists, however, but presents more often as neuroticism or anxiousness, rather than as a specific phobia, according to research. […] It is also possible that phobias are inherited, but not through genes. Family attitudes and fears can be taught through the generations. […] Women are twice as likely to have specific phobias, compared to men, according to the DSM-5. […] The role human evolution plays in causing specific phobias is a topic of debate in the academic world.

• #1 Causes – Phobias – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/phobias/causes/

  A phobia can develop during childhood, adolescence or early adulthood. […] They can be linked to a frightening event or stressful situation. However, it’s not always clear why some phobias occur. […] Specific or simple phobias, such as a fear of heights (acrophobia), usually develop during childhood. […] Simple phobias can be linked to an early negative childhood experience. For example, if you’re trapped in a confined space when you’re young, you may develop a fear of enclosed spaces (claustrophobia) when you’re older. […] It’s also thought that phobias can sometimes be „learnt” from an early age. For example, if someone in your family has a fear of spiders (arachnophobia), you may also develop the same fear yourself. […] Other factors in the family environment, such as having parents who are particularly anxious, may also affect the way you deal with anxiety later in life. […] It’s not known what causes complex phobias, such as agoraphobia and social phobia. However, it’s thought that genetics, brain chemistry and life experiences may all play a part in these type of phobias.

• #1 List of Phobias: Common Phobias From A to Z

  https://www.verywellmind.com/list-of-phobias-2795453

  A phobia is an anxiety disorder involving excessive and persistent fear of a situation or object. Exposure to the source of the fear triggers an immediate anxiety response. […] The exact causes of phobias are not known, but a combination of factors likely plays a part. Some factors that increase the risk of developing a phobia include: […] Genetics: People with a close family member with a phobia or another anxiety disorder also have a greater risk of a phobia. It is important to note, however, that people who don’t have family members with the condition still develop phobias. […] Traumatic experiences: A difficult, stressful, or traumatic experience can also trigger the onset of a phobia. For example, being bitten by a dog as a child might trigger a fear of dogs in adulthood. […] Some factors may increase your risk of developing a specific phobia. Women are more likely to develop specific phobias than men. People with certain mental health conditions, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are more likely to have a specific phobia.

• #1 Anxiety Disorders: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9536-anxiety-disorders

  Specific phobias: A phobia is when something causes you to feel fear or anxiety that’s so severe it consistently and overwhelmingly disrupts your life. There are hundreds of different types of phobias, and there’s one diagnosis for almost all of them: specific phobia. Only one phobia, agoraphobia, is a distinct diagnosis. […] What causes anxiety disorders? Like other types of mental health conditions, researchers don’t know exactly what causes anxiety disorders. But they think a combination of factors plays a role: […] Genetics: Anxiety disorders tend to run in biological families. This suggests that genetics may play a role. You may be at an increased risk of developing one if you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with an anxiety disorder. […] Environmental factors: Severe or long-lasting stress can change the balance of neurotransmitters that control your mood. Experiencing a lot of stress over a long period can contribute to an anxiety disorder. Experiencing a traumatic event can also trigger anxiety disorders.

• #1 Specific Phobias Guide: Symptoms, Definition, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.iwanttochangemylife.org/anxiety/specific-phobias.htm

  A number of medical conditions can cause anxiety symptoms. These include an overactive thyroid, hypoglycemia, mitral valve prolapse, anemia, asthma, COPD, inflammatory bowel disease, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia among others. Your physician may perform certain tests to rule out these conditions. But it is important to remember that anxiety is more often due to poor coping skills or substance abuse than any medical condition.

• #1 Specific Phobia: Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://crownviewpsych.com/blog/specific-phobia-treatment/

  Garcia’s article notes that individual experiences and individual variations within the brain can increase risk for developing specific phobia. […] According to researchers Carlos M. Coelho, Daniela Gonçalves-Bradley, and Andras N. Zsido, the answer is simple: “No.” […] Specific phobia is associated with an increased risk of alcohol use disorder (alcoholism). […] The causes, effects, and optimal treatment options for specific phobia can vary considerably from one person to the next.

• #1 Understanding Specific Phobias: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.darwynhealth.com/mental-health/mental-health-disorders/anxiety-and-stress-disorders/specific-phobias/understanding-specific-phobias-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/?lang=en

  Specific phobias can develop due to a combination of genetic factors, traumatic experiences, and learned behaviors. While the exact cause of specific phobias is not fully understood, researchers believe that these factors play a significant role in their development. […] Genetic factors: Studies have shown that specific phobias can run in families, suggesting a genetic predisposition. It is believed that certain genes may influence the brain’s response to fear and anxiety, making some individuals more susceptible to developing specific phobias. […] Traumatic experiences: Traumatic experiences, such as being involved in a car accident or being attacked by an animal, can trigger the development of specific phobias. These experiences create a strong association between the feared object or situation and the intense fear response, leading to the development of a phobia.

• #1 Specific phobias – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/specific-phobias/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355162

  You may start by seeing your primary care provider. […] To diagnose a specific phobia, your health care professional or mental health care professional may: […] Knowing the cause of a phobia is less important than focusing on how to treat the avoidance behavior that has developed over time. […] Although genetics likely plays a role in how specific phobias start, seeing someone else’s phobic response over and over again can trigger a specific phobia in children.

• #1

  https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/phobias/what-causes-specific-phobia

  Avoidance is a common behavioural reaction to a specific phobia as it allows people to avoid feelings of fear and anxiety. However, avoidance prevents opportunities to learn to challenge fearful beliefs and develop effective coping skills to manage anxiety. As a result, the specific phobia is maintained and not overcome.

• #1 Specific Phobias – Mental Health Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/mental-health-disorders/anxiety-and-stressor-related-disorders/specific-phobias

  It is also possible for a person to have a specific phobia along with another mental health condition, such as the anxiety disorders already mentioned, depression, bipolar disorder, substance-related disorders, somatic symptom and related disorders, and personality disorders particularly dependent personality disorder. […] Exposure therapy, a type of psychotherapy, is the treatment of choice. […] Exposure therapy helps more than 90% of people who do it faithfully. […] Medications are not very useful in helping people overcome specific phobias. An exception is the use of benzodiazepines (antianxiety medications) for some specific phobias.

• #1 Specific Phobias – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/anxiety-and-stressor-related-disorders/specific-phobias

  Specific phobias consist of persistent, unreasonable, intense fears (phobias) of specific situations, circumstances, or objects. […] The causes of phobias are unknown. […] The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger (taking into account sociocultural norms). […] The diagnosis of a specific phobia should not be made if the clinical situation is better described by another diagnosis. […] Phobias can also compromise medical care, such as when fear of needles leads to avoidance of blood tests and/or vaccination. […] The prognosis for untreated specific phobias varies because certain uncommon situations or objects (eg, snakes, caves) are easy to avoid, whereas other situations or objects (eg, bridges, thunderstorms) are common and difficult to avoid. […] Short-term therapy with a benzodiazepine (eg, lorazepam) or a beta-blocker (eg, propranolol) can be helpful when exposure to an object or situation cannot be avoided.

• #1 Causes of Phobias

  https://cogbtherapy.com/causes-of-phobias

  There is no one cause of phobias, also known as specific phobias. For some people with specific phobia, an apparent environmental cause or life event causes or triggers fear or anxiety, eventually resulting in a phobia. For others, there seems to be a stronger genetic predisposition to a phobic response. However, biology and environment likely come together to play a role in developing a phobia. […] Sometimes, a phobia may develop as a result of environmental factors. Undergoing certain situations, such as a traumatic event, can create a strong association between an object or situation reminiscent of the event and intense fear in the form of a panic attack. […] Phobias are not only the result of past trauma. In reality, most people with phobias are not able to identify a causal trauma that provided the spark for the phobia. There is some evidence that phobias, to a large degree, are hardwired in our genes. […] In addition to evolutionary theory, other evidence supports the idea that genes and biology play a role in the risk of developing a phobia.

• #2 Causes of phobias – Mental Health UK

  https://mentalhealth-uk.org/help-and-information/conditions/phobias/causes/

  Most phobias dont have a single cause and are often a complex interplay of factors. […] There may be a genetic component to the predisposition to developing specific phobias, though this isnt clearly understood. […] Some research suggests that an imbalance of certain brain chemicals, known as neurotransmitters, may also contribute to specific phobias but further research is needed to understand this relationship. […] Traumatic or upsetting experiences may contribute to the development of a specific phobia. For example, a traumatic experience with dogs may lead to developing cynophobia, the fear of dogs. […] Phobias may be influenced by behaviours learned or observed in childhood. For example, having a parent who has arachnophobia, or the fear of spiders, may lead to developing that same phobia.

• #2 Phobia causes: what causes specific phobias to develop?

  https://barendspsychology.com/specific-phobia-causes/

  Specific fears do not all develop around the same age; some fears develop around the age of 4 years (fear of ghosts), others develop later in life (fear of blood and injury). In the majority of people, these fears disappear over time. In some cases, however, these specific fears develop into specific phobias. One of the specific phobia causes seems to be inheritance: specific phobias run in the family. Other specific phobia causes could be environmental: parenting and life events. […] Specific phobias run in the family. If your mother, father, sibling or to a lesser extend grandmother or grandfather has a specific phobia, then there is a higher chance that you may develop a specific phobia at one point in your life. Research shows that fear and specific phobias are moderately inheritable. There are different inheritance estimates for the specific phobia subtypes: Animal phobias 32%, Blood-Injury-Injection phobias 33%, and Situational phobias 25%. This means that 32% of the factors that contribute to the development of animal phobia can be explained by genetics. The other 68% of the factors that contribute to the development of an animal phobia can be explained by environmental factors.

• #2 Specific phobia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_phobia

  However, a 2014 study found evidence against this evolutionary theory, which stated: „Our findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that fears/phobias of individual stimuli result from genetic and environmental factors unique to that stimulus. Instead, we observed substantial sharing of risk factors across individual fears.” […] There is also evidence for the validity of a genetic component contributing to blood-injection-injury phobias and animal phobias, although this evidence did not support the idea that other specific phobias had genetic influence. […] The classical conditioning model of learning has also been used to suggest that a phobia will be learned when an event that causes a fear or anxiety reaction is paired with a neutral event. […] An alternative proposed mechanism of association is through observational learning.

• #2 Phobias: Causes, Types, Treatment, Symptoms & More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/phobia-simple-specific

  Genetic and environmental factors can cause phobias. Children who have a close relative with an anxiety disorder are at risk of developing a phobia. Distressing events, such as nearly drowning, can bring on a phobia. Exposure to confined spaces, extreme heights, and animal or insect bites can all be sources of phobias. […] People with ongoing medical conditions or health concerns often have phobias. Theres a high incidence of people developing phobias after traumatic brain injuries. Substance abuse and depression are also connected to phobias.

• #2 Phobias: Symptoms, types, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/249347

  They may also be an echo of the habits of early humans, leftover from a time in which open spaces and unknown people generally posed a far greater threat to personal safety than in today’s world. […] Researchers have found that phobias are often linked to the amygdala, which lies behind the pituitary gland in the brain. The amygdala can trigger the release of fight-or-flight hormones. These put the body and mind in a highly alert and stressed state.

• #2 Phobia: Symptoms, Causes, Types, Diagnosis And Treatment

  https://valleyspringrecovery.com/mental-health/phobia/

  Phobias result from imbalances in brain chemistry, particularly involving neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, as studied by Garcia R. et al. 2017 titled Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias. […] Traumatic events, such as accidents, attacks, or other distressing experiences, lead to the development of phobias. Upbringing and learned behavior also play a crucial role; for instance, children develop phobias by observing fearful reactions from parents or peers, reinforcing their fear responses. […] Phobias develop through a process that begins with an initial exposure to a fear trigger—specific objects, situations, or experiences that induce intense fear, as explained by Moawad H et al. 2016, titled Phobias and Brain Activity. […] This exposure creates a lasting impression in the individual’s mind, particularly when it coincides with stressful events, such as those associated with addiction or substance abuse.

• #2 Specific Phobias (Symptoms) | Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety | Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania

  https://www.med.upenn.edu/ctsa/phobias_symptoms.html

  However, it is important to remember that learning is not the sole cause of specific phobias. Many people are bitten by dogs or get into car accidents and do not go on to develop phobias. […] Risk factors may include genetic susceptibilities, but not much is known about the biological factors that cause and maintain specific phobias. However, when a person encounters a feared stimulus, many biological changes occur in the body, including changes in brain activity, the release of cortisol, insulin, and growth hormone, and increases in blood pressure and heart rate.

• #2 Causes – Phobias – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/phobias/causes/

  A phobia can develop during childhood, adolescence or early adulthood. […] They can be linked to a frightening event or stressful situation. However, it’s not always clear why some phobias occur. […] Specific or simple phobias, such as a fear of heights (acrophobia), usually develop during childhood. […] Simple phobias can be linked to an early negative childhood experience. For example, if you’re trapped in a confined space when you’re young, you may develop a fear of enclosed spaces (claustrophobia) when you’re older. […] It’s also thought that phobias can sometimes be „learnt” from an early age. For example, if someone in your family has a fear of spiders (arachnophobia), you may also develop the same fear yourself. […] Other factors in the family environment, such as having parents who are particularly anxious, may also affect the way you deal with anxiety later in life. […] It’s not known what causes complex phobias, such as agoraphobia and social phobia. However, it’s thought that genetics, brain chemistry and life experiences may all play a part in these type of phobias.

• #2 Specific Phobia (300.29) | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-abnormalpsych/chapter/specific-phobia-300-29/

  There are two possible frameworks to view the development of SP: associative and nonassociative. […] The associative model of SP developed from animal models of fear, with some of the earliest work being done by John B. Watson using only classical conditioning (the famous or infamous Little Albert studies). […] As knowledge about operant conditioning grew, however, Mowrers two-factor theory of avoidance learning became highly influential. […] Vicarious conditioning can also play an important role in associative learning, via modeling (a child sees a parent display fear or disgust to stimuli, and then patterns his behavior after that), information transmission (hearing about how dangerous it is to fly due to terrorists), and visual observation of fear (watching someone else encounter a stimuli and display phobic reactions).

• #2

  https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/phobias/what-causes-specific-phobia

  While many phobias have no obvious cause, several factors have been linked to the development of a specific phobia. These include: […] Many phobias (especially those related to animals, injections, and enclosed spaces) occur following a negative or previous traumatic experience, for example, a person may develop a phobia of dogs after being bitten by a dog. […] A person may become fearful of a particular object or situation after observing another persons fearful response to that same object or situation, for example a child observing how their parent is fearful of and avoids flying. […] People with a family history of animal phobias, situational phobias, and blood, injection, and injury phobias have a higher chance of developing the phobia than those without a family history. […] Unhelpful thoughts such as overestimating the chance of harm or incorrect beliefs about the consequences of confronting a feared object/situation are also thought to contribute to the continued experience of a phobia.

• #2 Phobias: Causes, Types, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.jrsh.co.in/phobias

  Phobias don’t seem to have any particular cause. Various factors can contribute to the development of a phobia. Often, there is no obvious cause for its onset. […] Past incidents or traumas. There are certain situations that might have a lasting effect on how you perceive them. Flying phobias may develop as a result of experiencing turbulence on a plane as a child. Perhaps you developed a phobia of dogs after being injured by a dog years ago. […] Learned responses from early life. The environment in which you grew up may have contributed to your phobia. Parents or guardians might be anxious or worried about you, for example. Taking care of your anxiety now may affect how you cope with it in the future. The phobia you develop may be the same as those of your parents or older siblings. It is possible that you may have the same feelings about something they fear if they have a severe reaction to it.

• #2 Understanding Specific Phobias: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.darwynhealth.com/mental-health/mental-health-disorders/anxiety-and-stress-disorders/specific-phobias/understanding-specific-phobias-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/?lang=en

  Learned behaviors: Specific phobias can also be learned through observation or direct conditioning. For example, if a child witnesses a parent displaying extreme fear or avoidance towards a specific object or situation, they may learn to fear it as well. Similarly, if someone has a panic attack in a certain situation, they may develop a phobia of that situation due to the association of fear with it. […] It’s important to note that not everyone who experiences genetic predisposition, traumatic experiences, or learned behaviors will develop a specific phobia. The interplay of these factors with an individual’s unique psychological and environmental factors determines the likelihood of developing a specific phobia.

• #2 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/

  Behavioral scientists have contributed significantly to uncovering the psychological mechanisms contributing to anxiety. […] Conditioned responses of learned fear are more significant among anxiety-disordered individuals compared to controls, with an explanation of 2 likely mechanisms: first, there is greater excitatory conditioning to danger cues, and second, there is impaired inhibitory conditioning to safety signals. […] Parenting behaviors implicate cross-generational influences on the development of childhood anxiety. […] These parenting behavioral systems include vicarious learning, social referencing, and modeling of parental anxiety. […] Furthermore, overly protective and overly critical parenting styles, parental response to child anxiety, and family accommodation of a child’s anxiety all contribute to the conditioning and development of childhood anxiety.

• #2 Specific Phobias: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://agapebehavioral.com/treatment-overview/anxiety/specific-phobias/

  People typically develop specific phobias between four and eight years old. Researchers think phobias can develop as the result of a traumatic experience during early childhood. […] Researchers also believe that children can develop phobias as a result of witnessing a parent or family member with a phobia. For example, a child whose mother has a phobia of snakes may develop the same phobia later on.

• #2 Phobia causes: what causes specific phobias to develop?

  https://barendspsychology.com/specific-phobia-causes/

  The majority of factors contributing to the development of specific phobias are determined by environment: parenting and life events. […] Parenting styles can have a significant effect on the development of specific phobias in children. Parental overprotection and control, for instance, increases anxiety levels and chances of developing anxiety disorders (including specific phobias) in children. The development of children is strongly dependent on the way their parents raise them. Parents who are overprotective teach their children that the world is an unsafe place and that there is a high risk to getting hurt or injured. […] Major life events or traumatic experiences not only play a role in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder, but also in the development of specific phobia, such as dental phobia. Almost 75% of people with high dental fear experienced a traumatic event in the past.

• #2 Specific Phobia – St. Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton

  https://www.stjoes.ca/health-services/mental-health-addiction-services/mental-health-services/anxiety-treatment-research-clinic-atrc-/definitions-and-useful-links/specific-phobia

  A specific phobia is an extreme fear of a specific object or situation that is out of proportion to the actual danger or threat. […] The causes of specific phobias are complex, probably involving a history of negative experiences in the feared situation, other psychological factors, as well as biological factors. […] Direct Learning Experiences – Specific phobias can sometimes begin following a traumatic experience in the feared situation. […] Observational Learning Experiences – There is evidence that people can learn to fear particular situations by watching others show signs of fear in the same situation. […] Informational Learning – This involves learning to fear a particular object or situation by hearing or reading that the situation is dangerous. […] Several factors may contribute to any one individual developing a specific phobia after having a negative experience that involves a particular object or situation. […] Unlike other types of anxiety disorders, there has been relatively little research on the role of biology in causing or maintaining specific phobias. Still, there is evidence that specific phobias sometimes run in families and that genetics may play a role.

• #2 Phobia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis And Treatment

  https://laopcenter.com/mental-health/symptoms/phobia/

  Phobias often develop after a person has a negative or traumatic experience with a specific object or situation. For example, a person who a dog bites may develop a phobia of dogs (cynophobia). According to the study Trauma and the Development of Phobias by McNally (2002), Traumatic experiences are a common precursor to the development of specific phobias. […] Phobias are also acquired by observing others fearful reactions or by receiving information that increases fear. For instance, hearing about plane crashes repeatedly can lead to a phobia of flying. The article Observational Learning and the Development of Phobias by Mineka and Zinbarg (2006) states, Phobias can be learned through informational transmission, where individuals acquire fears by observing or hearing about others fearful experiences.

• #2 Causes of phobias – Mental Health UK

  https://mentalhealth-uk.org/help-and-information/conditions/phobias/causes/

  Some phobias may come from learning about dangerous or frightening events. For example, reading about a death by spider bite may lead to developing arachnophobia, or hearing about a plane crash may lead to developing a fear of flying. […] There is an increased risk of someone developing a phobia if they experience ongoing physical illness. Additionally, those who experience traumatic brain injuries have an increased likelihood of developing a phobia.

• #2 Specific Phobia (300.29) | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-abnormalpsych/chapter/specific-phobia-300-29/

  Evolutionary preparedness is a nonassociative theory that we as a species may be genetically primed to fear certain stimuli, thanks to our evolutionary history. […] The theory is that, due to the inherent dangerousness of such things throughout the history of our species, those individuals with a natural tendency to avoid such things were more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on the genes related to such a behavioral expression. […] It would also help to explain why things that are actually more dangerous, such as guns and cars, but have been around a relatively short period of time are not seen in phobic individuals nearly as often. […] As such, the reality seems to be that it is not whether a given fear is associative or nonassociative, but instead how much learning is needed to evoke that particular fear.

• #2 Understanding Phobias: Types, Causes, And Treatments

  https://online-learning-college.com/knowledge-hub/mental-health/phobias/?srsltid=AfmBOorow9XVrGoITeY0ceFenG4mIQxA0TmkOiIGPAt7WfAMx6JF2eUd

  Phobias are linked directly to anxiety and can occur as either a result of anxiety or be the cause of it. […] The possible causes of Phobias include Evolutionary, Classical Conditioning, Learned Responses, Trauma, Genetics, and Long-Term Stress. […] Evolutionary causes of phobia attempts to explain why individuals still react in the way that they do based on how their ancestors would have needed to react in the face of fear millions of years ago. […] This explanation can be seen to apply to certain phobias very well. For example, when a person has acrophobia (phobia of heights) it may be caused because there is a risk of falling; or someone may have hemophobia (phobia of blood) as in the past it could have indicated injury and the presence of certain animals that may be dangerous. […] However, the theory states that humans are not born with a fear of things and that they must still have a negative experience with something for a fear to develop.

• #2 Specific phobia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_phobia

  Specific phobia is an anxiety disorder, characterized by an extreme, unreasonable, and irrational fear associated with a specific object, situation, or concept which poses little or no actual danger. […] The exact cause of specific phobias is not known. The mechanisms for development of specific phobias can be distinguished between innate (genetic and neurobiological) factors, and learned factors. […] In neurobiology, one explanation proposed for specific phobia is that the typical activation of the amygdala in response to stimuli may be exaggerated due to pathological changes. […] Certain phobias that are less lethal (e.g. dogs) seem to be more frequently observed and easily acquired in comparison to potentially lethal fears which are more relevant to developed human society (e.g. cars and guns).

• #2 What causes phobias (and how to overcome them) – Brightside

  https://www.brightside.com/blog/phobias-causes-and-overcoming/?srsltid=AfmBOoo8vFIifZdScdGVRcl_nt2TIRWHU2MjKHxOcNqOQO8XncXhyYdW

  It’s normal to feel scared when watching a horror movie or getting lost in a crowd, but these are situations where feeling fear is to be expected. For some people, however, certain objects, people, places, or situations, may make them feel excessively afraid even if there isn’t a real reason to be. […] When fear starts to intrude on your daily life, it might be a type of anxiety disorder known as a phobia. […] A phobia is marked by a persistent, excessive, unrealistic fear of places, objects, situations, people, or activities. […] Many phobias occur because of negative or traumatic experiences related to the object of fear. For instance, someone may have been bitten by a poisonous spider and then developed a fear of all spiders, as they associate every spider with causing them harm. […] Some people experience traumatic events, but don’t go on to develop phobias. Conversely, there are some risk factors that may put someone at a predisposition for developing one: Age: Young children are more likely to develop a specific phobia. […] Negative experiences: Having a negative experience in relation to an object, person, or place may put someone at risk of developing a phobia. Additionally, hearing about someone else’s negative experiences can lead to the development of phobias, too.

• #2 List of Phobias: Common Phobias From A to Z

  https://www.verywellmind.com/list-of-phobias-2795453

  A phobia is an anxiety disorder involving excessive and persistent fear of a situation or object. Exposure to the source of the fear triggers an immediate anxiety response. […] The exact causes of phobias are not known, but a combination of factors likely plays a part. Some factors that increase the risk of developing a phobia include: […] Genetics: People with a close family member with a phobia or another anxiety disorder also have a greater risk of a phobia. It is important to note, however, that people who don’t have family members with the condition still develop phobias. […] Traumatic experiences: A difficult, stressful, or traumatic experience can also trigger the onset of a phobia. For example, being bitten by a dog as a child might trigger a fear of dogs in adulthood. […] Some factors may increase your risk of developing a specific phobia. Women are more likely to develop specific phobias than men. People with certain mental health conditions, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are more likely to have a specific phobia.

• #2 Specific Phobia – Definition, Symptoms, and Causes

  https://www.mentalhealth.com/library/specific-phobias

  A specific phobia is an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that poses little or no actual danger. […] The cause or origin of certain specific phobias is still a mystery, even to experts. Some causes and risk factors include: […] Traumatic experience: distressing events such as almost drowning can bring about specific phobias. […] Learned reaction/parenting: children who see their parents react with exaggerated fear to something specific may mimic this behavior. […] Genetics: those with a close relative with an anxiety disorder. […] Temperament: those with behavioral inhibitions such as shyness. […] Ongoing health issues: a higher incidence of phobia is found in those who have suffered traumatic injuries. […] Substance abuse: may make phobia symptoms worse. […] Brain function: changes in brain functioning may lead to the development of phobias. […] Age: phobias can appear in childhood, usually by age 10, but can also start later in life. […] Receiving negative information: learning about events and repeatedly hearing information can lead to a phobia, e.g., COVID-19 news leading to the phobia of germs.

• #2 Specific Phobia DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria

  https://www.verywellmind.com/diagnosing-a-specific-phobia-2671981

  A specific phobia is an intense and irrational fear of a specified object or situation. […] There are a number of different factors that can contribute to the development of specific phobias. These include: […] Research suggests that people who exhibit more behavioral inhibition have a higher risk for a variety of anxiety disorders, including specific phobias. […] People who have a family member with an anxiety disorder or phobia are more likely to also develop some type of phobia. […] Stressful or traumatic experiences can also play a role in the formation of a phobia. A single incidence of being bitten by a dog, for example, can play a role in the development of a fear of dogs.

• #2 How Specific Phobias Are Diagnosed and Treated – MEDvidi

  https://medvidi.com/blog/specific-phobias-types-diagnosis-causes-and-treatment

  Several factors can contribute to the development of the disorders, including: […] Changes in brain functions may ignite the development of phobias. […] It is possible to inherit phobias from the family lines. A person living with people who have specific disorders is likely to learn the same behaviors. […] Most phobias develop from negative experiences. For example, a snake bite encounter may ignite ophidiophobia. […] People with personality traits of neuroticism and behavioral inhibition are more likely to develop such disorders.

• #2 Specific Phobias – Mental Health Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/mental-health-disorders/anxiety-and-stressor-related-disorders/specific-phobias

  It is also possible for a person to have a specific phobia along with another mental health condition, such as the anxiety disorders already mentioned, depression, bipolar disorder, substance-related disorders, somatic symptom and related disorders, and personality disorders particularly dependent personality disorder. […] Exposure therapy, a type of psychotherapy, is the treatment of choice. […] Exposure therapy helps more than 90% of people who do it faithfully. […] Medications are not very useful in helping people overcome specific phobias. An exception is the use of benzodiazepines (antianxiety medications) for some specific phobias.

• #2 Phobias: Causes, Types, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.jrsh.co.in/phobias

  Reactions and responses to panic or fear. If you are faced with a situation or object that triggers a strong reaction, or a panic attack, then you may have a strong reaction. There may be a sense of embarrassment attached to this. Particularly if your response is met with strong reactions from people around you. The idea of this happening again might cause you even more anxiety. […] Experiencing long-term stress. It is possible to experience anxiety and depression as a result of stress. Particular situations can be made more difficult by it. As a result, you may feel more nervous or anxious in similar situations in the future. An individual could become phobic if this continues for a long time. […] Genetic factors. Phobias are more likely to develop in some people than in others, according to research.

• #2 Specific Phobias – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/anxiety-and-stressor-related-disorders/specific-phobias

  Specific phobias consist of persistent, unreasonable, intense fears (phobias) of specific situations, circumstances, or objects. […] The causes of phobias are unknown. […] The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger (taking into account sociocultural norms). […] The diagnosis of a specific phobia should not be made if the clinical situation is better described by another diagnosis. […] Phobias can also compromise medical care, such as when fear of needles leads to avoidance of blood tests and/or vaccination. […] The prognosis for untreated specific phobias varies because certain uncommon situations or objects (eg, snakes, caves) are easy to avoid, whereas other situations or objects (eg, bridges, thunderstorms) are common and difficult to avoid. […] Short-term therapy with a benzodiazepine (eg, lorazepam) or a beta-blocker (eg, propranolol) can be helpful when exposure to an object or situation cannot be avoided.

• #2 Specific Phobia: Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://crownviewpsych.com/blog/specific-phobia-treatment/

  Garcia’s article notes that individual experiences and individual variations within the brain can increase risk for developing specific phobia. […] According to researchers Carlos M. Coelho, Daniela Gonçalves-Bradley, and Andras N. Zsido, the answer is simple: “No.” […] Specific phobia is associated with an increased risk of alcohol use disorder (alcoholism). […] The causes, effects, and optimal treatment options for specific phobia can vary considerably from one person to the next.

• #3 Overview – Phobias – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/phobias/overview/

  Phobias do not seem to have a single cause, but there are a number of associated factors. […] For example: a phobia may be associated with a particular incident or trauma […] a phobia may be a learned response that a person develops early in life from a parent or sibling (brother or sister) […] genetics may play a role there’s evidence to suggest that some people are born with a tendency to be more anxious than others.

• #3 List of Phobias: Common Phobias From A to Z

  https://www.verywellmind.com/list-of-phobias-2795453

  A phobia is an anxiety disorder involving excessive and persistent fear of a situation or object. Exposure to the source of the fear triggers an immediate anxiety response. […] The exact causes of phobias are not known, but a combination of factors likely plays a part. Some factors that increase the risk of developing a phobia include: […] Genetics: People with a close family member with a phobia or another anxiety disorder also have a greater risk of a phobia. It is important to note, however, that people who don’t have family members with the condition still develop phobias. […] Traumatic experiences: A difficult, stressful, or traumatic experience can also trigger the onset of a phobia. For example, being bitten by a dog as a child might trigger a fear of dogs in adulthood. […] Some factors may increase your risk of developing a specific phobia. Women are more likely to develop specific phobias than men. People with certain mental health conditions, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are more likely to have a specific phobia.

• #3 Specific Phobias | What Causes Phobias, Symptoms & Best Treatments

  https://www.buoyhealth.com/learn/specific-phobias

  Specific phobias are most likely due to a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Some possible contributors include: […] Trauma: Most phobias seem to come out of the blue. Though some start after traumatic experiences, such as being bitten by a dog and then developing a fear of dogs. […] Genetics: People with relatives who have a certain phobia are more likely to experience the same type of phobia. […] Brain function: Changes in how the brain works may be a factor. Studies have focused on the amygdala, a part of the brain involved in perceiving and experiencing fear.

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