Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Rectal Cancer | Baylor Scott & White Health

  https://www.bswhealth.com/conditions/rectal-cancer

  Rectal cancer may be found during routine rectal examination or as a result of testing when you’re experiencing unusual or uncomfortable digestive symptoms. […] With rectal cancer, early diagnosis is key. When this type of cancer is diagnosed in its earliest stages, your care team may be able to surgically remove all the cancer without the need for other treatments. […] Your healthcare provider will also partner with you to discuss your options for rectal cancer screenings and other routine care to protect yourself against cancer of the rectum. […] If you have any symptoms of rectal cancer, your doctor will start by asking you questions about your medical and family history and completing a physical exam. […] During an endoscopic procedure, your care team uses a thin tube with a light and camera to get a closer look at the inside of your rectum.

• #1 Testing for Colorectal Cancer | How Is Colorectal Cancer Diagnosed? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  If you have symptoms that might be from colorectal cancer, or if a screening test shows something abnormal, your doctor will recommend one or more of the exams and tests below to find the cause. […] Your doctor will ask about your medical history to learn about possible risk factors, including your family history. […] You may also have a digital rectal exam (DRE). During this test, the doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into your rectum to feel for any abnormal areas. […] If you are seeing the doctor because of anemia or symptoms you are having (other than obvious bleeding from your rectum or blood in your stools), a stool test might be recommended to check for blood that isnt visible to the naked eye (occult blood), which might be a sign of cancer. […] Your doctor might also order certain blood tests to help determine if you have colorectal cancer.

• #1 Rectal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493202/

  Colon and rectal cancers together are the third most commonly diagnosed cancer in the United States and the second deadliest. […] All newly diagnosed patients with rectal cancer should be universally screened for DNA mismatch repair/microsatellite status present in up to 13% of all sporadic rectal cancer cases. […] A careful history and physical examination, including a digital rectal exam, are paramount on clinical suspicion. An endoscopy examination with rigid sigmoidoscopy is required to measure the distance from the lesion to the anal verge (less than 15 cm) and for tissue biopsy for pathological confirmation of rectal cancer. […] The initial evaluation may involve barium enema or computed tomography (CT) colonography, but endoscopy is ultimately required for tissue biopsy. […] Rigid sigmoidoscopy measures the distal extension of the tumor from the anal verge and is further divided into low (less than 5 cm), middle (less than 10 cm), or high (less than 15 cm) rectal cancer.

• #1 Rectal cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rectal-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352889

  During a colonoscopy, a healthcare professional puts a colonoscope into the rectum to check the entire colon. […] Rectal cancer diagnosis often begins with an imaging test to look at the rectum. A thin, flexible tube with a camera may be passed into the rectum and colon. A sample of tissue may be taken for lab testing. […] Rectal cancer can be found during a screening test for colorectal cancer. Or it may be suspected based on your symptoms. Tests and procedures used to confirm the diagnosis include: […] Colonoscopy is a test to look at the colon and rectum. It uses a long, flexible tube with a camera at the end, called a colonoscope, to show the colon and rectum. Your healthcare professional looks for signs of cancer. […] A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue for testing in a lab. To get the tissue sample, a healthcare professional passes special cutting tools through a colonoscope. The health professional uses the tools to remove a very small sample of tissue from inside the rectum. The tissue sample is sent to a lab to look for cancer cells.

• #1 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/rectal-cancer/rectal-cancer-diagnosis.html

  A sigmoidoscopy combined with a stool-based test can also be used for routine rectal cancer screening. […] If doctors remove any polyps during a colonoscopy, they will be examined under a microscope for the presence of cancer cells. The process of removing and examining suspected disease tissue is called a biopsy. […] There are several types of non-invasive rectal cancer screening tests that can be taken at home. These tests do not provide a definitive diagnosis for rectal cancer, but they can indicate that other, more accurate tests should be used. […] If you have symptoms of rectal cancer, or if you have an abnormal screening test result, your doctor may recommend additional tests. […] At present, no blood test can definitively diagnose rectal cancer. However, they can provide your doctor with additional information.

• #1 Rectal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493202/

  All newly diagnosed patients with rectal cancer should be universally screened for DNA mismatch repair/microsatellite status present in up to 13% of all sporadic rectal cancer cases. […] A careful history and physical examination, including a digital rectal exam, are paramount on clinical suspicion. An endoscopy examination with rigid sigmoidoscopy is required to measure the distance from the lesion to the anal verge (less than 15 cm) and for tissue biopsy for pathological confirmation of rectal cancer. […] Baseline computed tomography of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis may initially grossly rule out metastatic stage disease. Nevertheless, a combined approach by magnetic resonance imaging or transrectal ultrasound will accurately determine tumor extension and node status of the local rectal disease at diagnosis.

• #1 Rectal cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rectal-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352889

  If you’re diagnosed with rectal cancer, the next step is to determine the cancer’s extent, called the stage. Your healthcare team uses the cancer staging test results to help create your treatment plan. […] Staging tests include: […] CT scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis. This imaging test helps determine whether rectal cancer has spread to other organs, such as the liver or lungs. […] MRI of the pelvis. An MRI provides a detailed image of the muscles, organs and other tissues surrounding cancer in the rectum. An MRI also shows the lymph nodes near the rectum and different layers of tissue in the rectal wall more clearly than a CT does. […] The stages of rectal cancer range from 0 to 4. A stage 0 rectal cancer is small and only involves the superficial lining of the rectum. As the cancer gets larger and grows deeper into the rectum, the stages get higher. A stage 4 rectal cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

• #1 Rectal cancer | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/rectal-cancer?lang=us

  Rectal cancer, although sharing many of the features of generic colorectal carcinoma (CRC), has different preoperative imaging assessment, with MRI rectum as the mainstay for local staging and distinct surgical techniques (i.e. total mesorectal excision). […] MRI has become the fundamental imaging modality for evaluation and staging due to better soft-tissue contrast. Endorectal ultrasound also has a role in the staging, particularly for assessment and differentiation between T1 and T2 disease, but is not commonly performed by a radiologist. […] MRI is able not only to assess tumor stage but other important prognostic features such as extramural venous invasion (EMVI), tumor deposits and lymph node metastases. […] Factors to be assessed and described on MRI report include morphology of primary tumor, invading edge of tumor, distance of distal edge from the anal verge, distance of distal edge from puborectalis sling, longitudinal extent, confirmation that the tumor is distal to the sigmoid take-off, whether it lies above or below the peritoneal reflection, T stage, distance from the mesorectal fascia, extramural venous invasion (EMVI), presence of tumor deposits, and N (locoregional) stage.

• #1 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/rectal-cancer/rectal-cancer-diagnosis.html

  Imaging tests can help to provide detailed information about the size or location of rectal cancer and assess if cancer has spread to other parts of the body. […] PET/CT scans are not routinely part of rectal cancer diagnosis. They are generally used to further evaluate abnormal findings on CT or MRI scans or to monitor patients who have a confirmed case of advanced rectal cancer. […] Rectal cancer testing can also include these other tests, which are used less often.

• #1 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  Diagnosis is the process of finding out the cause of a health problem. Diagnosing colorectal cancer usually begins with a visit to your family doctor. Your doctor will ask you about any symptoms you have and may do a physical exam. Based on this information, your doctor may refer you to a specialist or order tests to check for colorectal cancer or other health problems. […] The following tests are usually used to rule out or diagnose colorectal cancer. Many of the same tests used to diagnose cancer are used to find out the stage (how far the cancer has spread). Your doctor may also order other tests to check your general health and to help plan your treatment. […] A physical exam allows your doctor to look for any signs of colorectal cancer. During a physical exam, your doctor may: […] DRE is an exam in which the doctor inserts a gloved finger into the rectum to check for lumps or swelling, or to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. DRE is used with a transrectal ultrasound or pelvic MRI to find out the stage of the rectal cancer, including how deep the tumour has grown into the wall of the rectum.

• #1 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  A colonoscopy is the most common test used to diagnose colorectal cancer. During a colonoscopy, the doctor looks inside the colon and rectum using a flexible tube with a light and lens on the end (called an endoscope). […] A biopsy is usually done during a colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy (called an endoscopic biopsy) to remove polyps or small amounts of tissue from the colon or rectum. […] A CT scan is used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to lymph nodes or organs in the chest, abdomen and pelvis. A CT scan of the pelvis may be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. […] An ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to make images of parts of the body. It may be used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to the liver. […] An MRI of the pelvis may be used to find out the stage of rectal cancer and where it has spread within the pelvis. It may also be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. […] A PET-CT scan combines images from a PET scan and a CT scan, which are done at the same time using the same machine. It may be used to help with staging colorectal cancer or to plan surgery for metastatic tumours.

• #1 Rectal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21733-rectal-cancer

  Surgery to remove cancerous tumors is one of the most common rectal cancer treatments. […] Treatments other than surgery may include: Chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, Immunotherapy, Targeted therapy. […] Regular cancer screening may reduce the chance that you’ll develop rectal cancer because screenings may detect precancerous polyps. […] Colonoscopy is the most common screening test, but there are also other options: Fecal occult blood test (FOBT), Guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT), Fecal DNA test, Sigmoidoscopy, Virtual colonoscopy. […] Your follow-up appointments will vary depending on your situation, and may include the following timeline and tests: Colonoscopy, Proctoscopy, Imaging tests, CEA tests. […] If you’ve been diagnosed with rectal cancer, you’ll want to gather as much information as you can. Here are some questions to ask your healthcare provider: What stage of rectal cancer do I have? How far has the cancer spread? What are my treatment options? If I have surgery, will I need to have a colostomy? […] Talk to a healthcare provider if you have questions or concerns about rectal cancer. They’ll be glad to help you understand your personal risk for rectal cancer and recommend screening tests that make sense for you.

• #1 Rectal Cancer Workup: Laboratory Studies, Screening for Colon and Rectal Cancer, Staging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/281237-workup

  Routine laboratory studies should include a complete blood count (CBC); serum chemistries, including liver and kidney function tests; and a carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) test. A cancer antigen (CA) 19-9 assay, if available, may also be useful to monitor the disease. […] Perform a CEA test in all patients with rectal cancer. A baseline level is obtained before surgery and a follow-up level is obtained after surgery. If a previously normalized CEA begins to rise in the postoperative period, this suggests possible recurrence. A CEA level higher than 100 ng/mL usually indicates metastatic disease and warrants a thorough investigation. […] Fecal immunochemical tests appear to be accurate for detecting colorectal cancer. In a meta-analysis that examined 8 different brands of fecal immunochemical tests (FITs), Lee and colleagues found that FITs had high accuracy, high specificity, and moderately high sensitivity for the detection of colorectal cancers.

• #1 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/rectal/diagnosis

  Your care team may recommend CT and MRI scans to determine the stage of the cancer and to see if it has spread to other organs. […] For some advanced cancers, pathologists at Memorial Sloan Kettering will do molecular testing on the tumor to find somatic mutations. These mutations can predict how a tumor might react to treatments. Knowing as much as possible about a tumors genetic makeup can help your care team choose the treatments that are most likely to help you. […] If the cancer has spread outside the rectum, your doctor will test tumor samples for mutations in genes called EGFR, KRAS, and BRAF. These are common in rectal cancer. We will also test for mutations in less common genes.

• #1 Colon & Rectal Cancer Diagnosis – The Detection and Diagnosis of Colon & Rectal Cancers – Arizona Oncology

  https://arizonaoncology.com/colon-rectal-cancer/diagnosis/colon-rectal-cancer-diagnosis/

  They are often the lead physician over managing your cancer treatment process. […] Spending time with a medical oncologist will allow him or her to develop a plan that would be best for your situation. […] A colorectal cancer diagnosis will raise some questions, from both you and your loved ones. […] A colorectal cancer diagnosis is serious, and treatment for this cancer is intensive. […] If you have any doubts whatsoever about the treatment of your colon or rectal cancer, you should absolutely get a second opinion to put your mind at ease. […] After a colon cancer or rectal cancer diagnosis, you should request a full description of your medical benefits from your insurance provider. […] If you have more than 10 total colon polyps, were diagnosed with colon cancer prior to age 50, or have multiple family members with colon, uterine, stomach and/or ovarian cancer, you should ask your doctor about genetic counseling and testing. […] In addition, after a diagnosis of colon cancer at any age, your tumor is automatically screened for Lynch syndrome in the pathology lab.

• #1 Rectal cancer: An evidence-based update for primary care providers

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4491955/

  Rectal adenocarcinoma is an important cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, and key anatomic differences between the rectum and the colon have significant implications for management of rectal cancer. […] Many advances have been made in the diagnosis and management of rectal cancer. These include clinical staging with imaging studies such as endorectal ultrasound and pelvic magnetic resonance imaging, operative approaches such as transanal endoscopic microsurgery and laparoscopic and robotic assisted proctectomy, as well as refined neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapies. […] The goal in rectal cancer treatment is to optimize disease-free and overall survival while minimizing the risk of local recurrence and toxicity from both radiation and systemic therapy. […] The successful management of rectal cancer requires a multidisciplinary approach, with the involvement of enterostomal nurses, gastroenterologists, medical and radiation oncologists, radiologists, pathologists and surgeons.

• #1 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Colorectal cancer (cancer that develops in the colon and/or the rectum) is a disease in which abnormal cells in the colon or rectum divide uncontrollably, ultimately forming a malignant tumor. […] Most colorectal cancers begin as an abnormal growth, or lesion, in the tissue that lines the inner surface of the colon or rectum. […] Colorectal cancer is the third most common type of non-skin cancer in both men (after prostate cancer and lung cancer) and women (after breast cancer and lung cancer). It is the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States after lung cancer. […] Expert medical groups, including the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), strongly recommend screening for colorectal cancer. […] Most groups now generally recommend that people at average risk of colorectal cancer get screened at regular intervals beginning at age 45.

• #1 Rectal Cancer Workup: Laboratory Studies, Screening for Colon and Rectal Cancer, Staging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/281237-workup

  The process of malignant transformation from adenoma to carcinoma takes several years. The purpose of screening is to eradicate potential cancers while they are still in the benign stage of the adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Screening also increases the likelihood of discovering existing cancers while they are still in the early stage. […] Screening techniques include the following: Guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (FOBT), Stool DNA screening (SDNA), Fecal immunochemical test (FIT), Rigid proctoscopy, Flexible sigmoidoscopy (FSIG), Combined glucose-based FOBT and flexible sigmoidoscopy, CT colonography (CTC), Fiberoptic flexible colonoscopy (FFC). […] People who are asymptomatic, younger than 50 years, and have no other risk factors are considered at average risk for developing colorectal cancer. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) guidelines give a grade A recommendation for screening of the average-risk population beginning at age 50 years and ending at age 75 years; however, in view of the rising rate of early-onset colorectal cancer, the USPSTF gives a grade B recommendation for screening adults aged 45 to 49 years.

• #1 Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests | Sigmoidoscopy & Colonoscopy | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/screening-tests-used.html

  Several tests can be used to screen for colorectal cancer. Colonoscopy, a screening test, can even prevent colorectal cancer by finding polyps before they turn into cancer. […] If you choose to be screened with a test other than colonoscopy, any abnormal test result should be followed up with a timely colonoscopy. […] If the result from a stool-based test is abnormal, you will still need a colonoscopy to see if you have colorectal cancer. […] If a pre-cancerous polyp (an adenoma) or colorectal cancer is found, you’ll need to have a colonoscopy later to look for polyps or cancer in the rest of the colon. […] Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal. […] Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal. […] Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal.

• #1 Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests: MedlinePlus Medical TestLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/colorectal-cancer-screening-tests/

  Visual exams are procedures that allow your provider to look inside your colon and rectum. […] Types of visual exams include: Colonoscopy. This test lets your provider view your entire rectum and colon (large intestine). […] If you have polyps, your provider may remove them or tissue samples using special tools inserted through the scope. […] Stool tests look at stool samples for blood or other signs of cancer you can’t see. […] If your fecal occult blood test or stool DNA test had abnormal results, it doesn’t necessarily mean you have cancer. But your provider will probably order more tests, such as a colonoscopy, to help make a diagnosis. […] Most polyps aren’t cancerous but can turn into cancer if not removed. Depending on the size and number of polyps, your provider may recommend more frequent colonoscopies. […] Each type of screening test has advantages and disadvantages. You and your provider should discuss the benefits and risks of each option.

• #1 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #1 Revolutionizing Rectal Cancer Diagnosis with Advanced Imaging

  https://reachmd.com/news/revolutionizing-rectal-cancer-diagnosis-with-advanced-imaging/2473897/

  Recent innovations in medical imaging have introduced attention mechanism-based multi-parametric MRI ensemble models, significantly improving diagnostic precision for predicting tumor budding grade in rectal cancer. […] The integration of attention mechanisms with multi-parametric MRI allows for a more nuanced evaluation of tumor characteristics, crucial for identifying budding grades accurately. […] Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) and other multi-parametric techniques offer valuable insights into tumor vascularity and growth patterns, key elements in assessing rectal cancer severity. […] Studies have demonstrated that integrating attention-based models into MRI protocols can significantly improve the stratification of tumor aggressiveness, offering a more individualized approach to patient care.

• #1 Diagnostics | Special Issue : Diagnosis and Management of Rectal Cancer

  https://www.mdpi.com/journal/diagnostics/special_issues/diagnrectal_cancer

  Diagnosis and Management of Rectal Cancer […] As you are all aware, rectal cancer has one of the highest incidences of all the malignant neoplasms in the world. As the title suggests, this Special Issue aims to address the most popular topics in current practice. […] Novel diagnostic approaches are now available, despite the fact that they are not always routinely used in clinical practice (e.g., confocal laser endomicroscopy, augmented endoscopy and indocyanine green) other than with biomarkers that might also have a role as screening tools. The role of dedicated MRI sequences is also very much debated, even in restaging after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. […] Particular attention will be paid to surgical techniques and the effectiveness of minimally invasive surgery, including laparoscopic, robotic and transanal surgery; in fact, despite consistent improvements, a better quality of life and reduced morbidity are always gained by both surgeons and patients.

• #1 Diagnostics | Special Issue : Diagnosis and Management of Rectal Cancer

  https://www.mdpi.com/journal/diagnostics/special_issues/diagnrectal_cancer

  Additionally, this Issue will shed light on the topic of locally advanced rectal cancer and its diagnostic/therapeutic features, as well as its oncological outcomes. Furthermore, we are particularly interested in highlighting the effectiveness and feasibility of predicting patients’ responses to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (CRT) and their further therapeutic management. Exploring the following questions is also important; How should we view the ‘watch and wait’ approach? When should one operate? When should one not operate? […] In conclusion, this Special Issue will include original contributions and review articles which focus on the above-mentioned topics, and which help to consistently improve the quality of patients’ care.

• #1 Revolutionizing Rectal Cancer Diagnosis with Advanced Imaging

  https://reachmd.com/news/revolutionizing-rectal-cancer-diagnosis-with-advanced-imaging/2473897/

  The promising results from these imaging models suggest a paradigm shift in rectal cancer diagnostics, moving towards more accurate, data-driven evaluations. […] As evidence accumulates, incorporating these advanced imaging techniques into standard clinical practice could enhance treatment planning and improve patient outcomes.

• #1 Rectal cancer: An evidence-based update for primary care providers

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4491955/

  The identification of patients who are candidates for combined modality treatment is particularly useful to optimize outcomes. […] This article provides an overview of the diagnosis, staging and multimodal therapy of patients with rectal cancer for primary care providers. […] The work-up and management of rectal cancer requires detailed knowledge regarding its precise location. […] The diagnosis, staging and treatment regimens for rectal cancer differ significantly from those for colon cancer and have undergone recent advances that are important for primary care providers, gastroenterologists and general surgeons to be aware of. […] The mainstay of treatment for patients with rectal cancer has been curative surgical resection. […] Significant improvements in local control and survival have been seen with the implementation of total mesorectal excision (TME) and the addition of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (CRT).

• #1 Rectal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21733-rectal-cancer

  Rectal cancer happens when cancerous cells develop in your rectum. […] Cancer screening like colonoscopies often detect polyps that can become cancer. Regular screenings to detect and remove polyps reduce your risk of developing rectal cancer. If you have rectal cancer, surgery to remove small cancerous tumors may cure the condition. […] Diagnosis begins with routine screening tests, including digital rectal examination (DRE) and colonoscopy. Your provider may do a biopsy during your colonoscopy to obtain tissue samples for examination by a pathologist. […] If lab tests detect cancer, your provider may refer you to an oncologist for additional tests. Those tests may include blood tests, imaging tests, procedures to confirm diagnosis, and lab tests for closer examination of cancerous cells in tissue samples.

• #1 Discover Rectal Cancer Diagnosis And Treatment diagnosis and treatment at HCG Oncology

  https://www.hcgoncology.com/types-of-cancers/rectal-cancer-diagnosis-and-treatment/

  The latest treatments available for rectal cancer include targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and precision medicine. These approaches personalize rectal tumor treatment and help treat the disease effectively. […] There are multiple treatment approaches available for rectal cancer. Depending on the individual case factors, treatment for rectal cancer may comprise surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. […] Thanks to the advanced treatment facilities available today, rectal cancer can be cured. However, the success rates largely depend on the disease stage. The earlier the diagnosis, the better the clinical outcomes. Being mindful of different rectal cancer symptoms and opting for rectal cancer screening can play important roles in the successful management of rectal cancer.

• #2 Colon & Rectal Cancer Diagnosis

  https://newyorkoncology.com/colon-cancer-rectal-cancer/diagnosis

  If you have screening test results that suggest colon cancer or rectal cancer or you have symptoms, your doctor must find out whether they are due to cancer or some other cause. Your doctor asks about your personal and family medical history and gives you a physical exam before giving a colon or rectal cancer diagnosis. […] If tests show an abnormal area (such as a polyp), a biopsy to check for cancer cells may be necessary. Often, the abnormal tissue can be removed during colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. A pathologist checks the tissue for cancer cells using a microscope. […] If you’ve recently been diagnosed with colon or rectal cancer diagnosis, we have more information on our website.

• #2 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  Diagnosis is the process of finding out the cause of a health problem. Diagnosing colorectal cancer usually begins with a visit to your family doctor. Your doctor will ask you about any symptoms you have and may do a physical exam. Based on this information, your doctor may refer you to a specialist or order tests to check for colorectal cancer or other health problems. […] The following tests are usually used to rule out or diagnose colorectal cancer. Many of the same tests used to diagnose cancer are used to find out the stage (how far the cancer has spread). Your doctor may also order other tests to check your general health and to help plan your treatment. […] A physical exam allows your doctor to look for any signs of colorectal cancer. During a physical exam, your doctor may: […] DRE is an exam in which the doctor inserts a gloved finger into the rectum to check for lumps or swelling, or to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. DRE is used with a transrectal ultrasound or pelvic MRI to find out the stage of the rectal cancer, including how deep the tumour has grown into the wall of the rectum.

• #2 Rectal Cancer and Rectal Tumors – Gastrointestinal Cancer | UCLA Health Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center

  https://www.uclahealth.org/cancer/cancer-services/gi-cancer/conditions/rectal-cancer

  Doctors diagnose more than 44,000 new cases of rectal cancer, a common form of colorectal cancer, every year. […] UCLA brings together nationally recognized providers in rectal cancer diagnosis and treatment. […] Regular colonoscopies are important to screen for precancerous polyps (growths) or possible rectal cancer. To confirm a rectal cancer diagnosis, doctors may use: […] Physical exam: Your doctor will feel your abdomen and examine the rest of your body. The doctor may do a digital rectal exam, inserting a gloved finger into your rectum to check for lumps or growths. […] Stool tests: Blood in your stool can indicate possible colorectal cancer. Your doctor may have you take a fecal occult blood test (FOBT) or fecal immunochemical test (FIT). You can do these tests at home, using stool samples.

• #2 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/rectal-cancer/rectal-cancer-diagnosis.html

  Rectal cancer can be identified during a routine screening. Everyone with an average risk for rectal cancer should start getting rectal cancer screenings starting at age 45. […] People who have symptoms of rectal cancer should be tested regardless of their age. This is considered a diagnostic test. […] The following tests may be used as screening and/or diagnostic tests for rectal cancer. They can also show if the cancer has spread and monitor how the disease is responding to treatment. […] Endoscopic tests are the most effective tests for rectal cancer. They can be used for routine screening that everyone should have starting at age 45. They are also used for patients who have rectal cancer symptoms and need a diagnostic test. […] Colonoscopies are used for routine screening and to diagnose people with rectal cancer symptoms.

• #2 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  A colonoscopy is the most common test used to diagnose colorectal cancer. During a colonoscopy, the doctor looks inside the colon and rectum using a flexible tube with a light and lens on the end (called an endoscope). […] A biopsy is usually done during a colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy (called an endoscopic biopsy) to remove polyps or small amounts of tissue from the colon or rectum. […] A CT scan is used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to lymph nodes or organs in the chest, abdomen and pelvis. A CT scan of the pelvis may be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. […] An ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to make images of parts of the body. It may be used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to the liver. […] An MRI of the pelvis may be used to find out the stage of rectal cancer and where it has spread within the pelvis. It may also be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. […] A PET-CT scan combines images from a PET scan and a CT scan, which are done at the same time using the same machine. It may be used to help with staging colorectal cancer or to plan surgery for metastatic tumours.

• #2 Rectal Cancer and Rectal Tumors – Gastrointestinal Cancer | UCLA Health Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center

  https://www.uclahealth.org/cancer/cancer-services/gi-cancer/conditions/rectal-cancer

  Blood tests: A colorectal tumor releases substances called tumor markers. Your doctor will order a complete blood count and other tests to check for tumor markers. Tests that measure your liver enzymes can tell your doctor if cancer may have spread to your liver. […] Diagnostic colonoscopy: To check the location and status of growths in the colon or rectum, your doctor may do a diagnostic colonoscopy. During this test, the doctor can take a sample (biopsy) of a growth. The laboratory evaluates the sample, including doing genetic testing, to provide a diagnosis. […] Proctoscopy: This test uses a probe, inserted through the anus, that provides an image and video of the inside of your rectum. The doctor can see a tumors exact size and location to plan the right treatment. […] Imaging: To learn more about a tumor, doctors use imaging tests such as ultrasound, X-rays, CT scans, PET scans or MRI scans. For rectal cancer, your doctor may order an endorectal MRI, which uses a probe inside the rectum to get a clear image.

• #2 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/rectal/diagnosis

  Rectal cancer is often found after symptoms appear. But most people with early-stage rectal cancer dont have symptoms. Those usually only develop with more-advanced disease. Thats why we recommend regular screening tests to detect the disease at an early stage, when its easier to treat. […] If you have symptoms that suggest you may have rectal cancer, your doctor will take your medical history, perform a physical examination, and likely order diagnostic tests. […] If we suspect that you may have rectal cancer based on those results, one of our specialists will do a colonoscopy and take a biopsy. In this test, a doctor removes a small piece of tissue with a special instrument. One of our expert pathologists (doctors who specialize in diagnosing disease) then examines the tissue sample under a microscope.

• #2 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/rectal/diagnosis

  Your care team may recommend CT and MRI scans to determine the stage of the cancer and to see if it has spread to other organs. […] For some advanced cancers, pathologists at Memorial Sloan Kettering will do molecular testing on the tumor to find somatic mutations. These mutations can predict how a tumor might react to treatments. Knowing as much as possible about a tumors genetic makeup can help your care team choose the treatments that are most likely to help you. […] If the cancer has spread outside the rectum, your doctor will test tumor samples for mutations in genes called EGFR, KRAS, and BRAF. These are common in rectal cancer. We will also test for mutations in less common genes.

• #2 PRIMR | New Rectal Cancer Diagnosis – What to Expect

  https://www.primrmed.com/cancer-education/new-rectal-cancer-diagnosis

  The next step after establishing a diagnosis of cancer is staging. Blood work is required to see whether or not the cancer may be affecting other organs and to assess the extent to which any bleeding caused anemia. A CAT scan of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis is done to evaluate whether or not the tumor has spread to other organs, like the liver or lungs. […] An MRI of the pelvis is done to determine whether or not the cancer has spread to lymph nodes, as well as to see the exact size and location of the cancer. All of this information about the diagnosis and staging is put together to formulate a treatment plan. […] Surgical removal of cancer is the primary mode of treatment for rectal cancer. For more advanced disease, chemotherapy as well as radiation play a role. Typically, chemotherapy and radiation are given before surgery for rectal cancer. […] Patients who have metastatic disease, or disease that has spread from the rectum into other organs like the liver or lungs, start off with chemotherapy.

• #2 Rectal cancer | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/rectal-cancer?lang=us

  Rectal cancer, although sharing many of the features of generic colorectal carcinoma (CRC), has different preoperative imaging assessment, with MRI rectum as the mainstay for local staging and distinct surgical techniques (i.e. total mesorectal excision). […] MRI has become the fundamental imaging modality for evaluation and staging due to better soft-tissue contrast. Endorectal ultrasound also has a role in the staging, particularly for assessment and differentiation between T1 and T2 disease, but is not commonly performed by a radiologist. […] MRI is able not only to assess tumor stage but other important prognostic features such as extramural venous invasion (EMVI), tumor deposits and lymph node metastases. […] Factors to be assessed and described on MRI report include morphology of primary tumor, invading edge of tumor, distance of distal edge from the anal verge, distance of distal edge from puborectalis sling, longitudinal extent, confirmation that the tumor is distal to the sigmoid take-off, whether it lies above or below the peritoneal reflection, T stage, distance from the mesorectal fascia, extramural venous invasion (EMVI), presence of tumor deposits, and N (locoregional) stage.

• #2 Screening and Diagnosis of Colon and Rectal Cancer | Northwestern Medicine

  https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/cancer-care/gastrointestinal-cancers/colorectal-cancer/screening-and-diagnosis

  Regular colonoscopy screenings are recommended for anyone aged 45 years and older. […] There are a variety of leading-edge tools available to diagnose colorectal cancer. Most commonly they include: […] Blood tests look for anemia, which can result from a bleeding tumor. […] Imaging tests: Procedures such as CT scan, PET scan, ultrasound or MRI of the abdomen may be done to look for tumors or other problems. These tests may also be done if you have been diagnosed with colon or rectal cancer to help determine the extent (stage) of the cancer.

• #2 Rectal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21733-rectal-cancer

  Your oncologist may order the following blood tests to look for signs of rectal cancer: Complete blood count (CBC), Comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), Liver enzyme test, Tumor marker tests. […] Tests may include a diagnostic colonoscopy, which follows up on the test that detected abnormalities in your rectum. […] Your oncologist may order the following imaging tests to determine if cancer is spreading (metastasizing) from your rectum to other areas of your body: Computed tomography (CT) scan, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tests, Pelvic ultrasound. […] Rectal cancer is categorized into five different stages: Stage 0, Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, Stage 4. […] Depending on your situation, your provider may do active surveillance. In active surveillance, sometimes known as watchful waiting, your provider carefully monitors your overall health and symptoms.

• #2 Rectal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493202/

  All newly diagnosed patients with rectal cancer should be universally screened for DNA mismatch repair/microsatellite status present in up to 13% of all sporadic rectal cancer cases. […] A careful history and physical examination, including a digital rectal exam, are paramount on clinical suspicion. An endoscopy examination with rigid sigmoidoscopy is required to measure the distance from the lesion to the anal verge (less than 15 cm) and for tissue biopsy for pathological confirmation of rectal cancer. […] Baseline computed tomography of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis may initially grossly rule out metastatic stage disease. Nevertheless, a combined approach by magnetic resonance imaging or transrectal ultrasound will accurately determine tumor extension and node status of the local rectal disease at diagnosis.

• #2 Rectal cancer: An evidence-based update for primary care providers

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4491955/

  The preoperative staging assessment of rectal carcinoma has significant implications in terms of treatment. […] Patients with rectal carcinomas that have not breached the muscularis propria layer of the rectal wall may be adequately treated by resection alone. […] On the other hand, patients who present with transmural invasion or those who have lymph node metastases benefit from neoadjuvant CRT followed by resection. […] The tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) system, as defined by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC), is the most commonly used staging system and is based on depth of local invasion, extent of regional lymph node involvement, and presence of distant sites of disease. […] The American Society of Clinical Oncology guidelines suggest a preoperative baseline carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) level.

• #2 Rectal Cancer Workup: Laboratory Studies, Screening for Colon and Rectal Cancer, Staging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/281237-workup

  The TNM system is a universal staging system for all solid cancers that is based on clinical and pathologic information. Each category is independent. […] The TNM stagedependent 5-year survival rate for rectal carcinomas is as follows: Stage I – 90%, Stage II – 60-85%, Stage III – 27-60%, Stage IV – 5-7%.

• #2 Rectal Cancer Types, Symptoms, and Diagnosis

  https://www.ahn.org/services/cancer/types/rectal

  If we discover a polyp (mass of cells) during a colonoscopy, we can perform a biopsy, a minimally invasive procedure, at the same time. […] All colorectal cancer specimens are tested for genomic abnormalities, including mismatch repair (MMR), also known as MSI-H. […] Understanding the type and stage of rectal cancer can be helpful for you to make informed choices with your care team and emotionally prepare for any treatments or surgeries. […] If you have a rectal cancer diagnosis, know that you have options. […] Before treatment can begin, staging must be completed and each patient must be presented to the AHN Cancer Institute colorectal cancer multidisciplinary tumor board, a weekly conference including 20-30 health care providers with expertise and training in rectal cancer care to ensure an optimal treatment plan is developed. […] Treating rectal cancer requires advanced medical oncology therapies. Your care team will review your specific diagnosis and configure an effective treatment plan.

• #2 How We Diagnose Rectal Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute

  https://www.dana-farber.org/cancer-care/types/rectal-cancer/diagnosis

  If you have been diagnosed with rectal cancer, it is important to be seen quickly to start timely treatment. We are committed to seeing patients for an initial diagnosis or second opinion within days. We will assemble the team of specialists that is right for your stage and type of rectal cancer. […] If you are diagnosed with rectal cancer, there is often a series of tests to help our team to better understand the extent of the disease to determine the best treatment for you. These tests may be needed to stage the cancer. […] Our gastroenterology, radiology, and pathology experts specialize in gastrointestinal cancer imaging and diagnostics. This gives us in-depth experience with the disease process and an extraordinary depth of knowledge which can help inform your treatment plan. […] Our radiologists are leading cutting-edge research on better diagnostic tools to study cancer and determine how treatments are affecting the cancer.

• #2 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #2 Colon and Rectal Cancer Detection & Diagnosis | WVCI

  https://www.oregoncancer.com/colorectal-cancer/diagnosis

  Colorectal cancer is often found after symptoms appear. […] Therefore, it’s important to understand your family history and talk with your primary care physician about scheduling regular colorectal cancer screening. […] Fortunately, several screening tests for colon and rectal cancers exist, including some recently made widely available. […] If you’re 50 or older or have colorectal cancer in your family, we recommend talking to your doctor about colorectal cancer screening. […] The best screening method depends on factors such as your age and risk for developing colon and rectal cancer. […] Screening recommendations for colon and rectal cancer are different for each person based on whether they are at average risk or at high risk for the disease. […] The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has developed guidelines for patients who are at moderate risk.

• #2 Rectal Cancer Workup: Laboratory Studies, Screening for Colon and Rectal Cancer, Staging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/281237-workup

  The process of malignant transformation from adenoma to carcinoma takes several years. The purpose of screening is to eradicate potential cancers while they are still in the benign stage of the adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Screening also increases the likelihood of discovering existing cancers while they are still in the early stage. […] Screening techniques include the following: Guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (FOBT), Stool DNA screening (SDNA), Fecal immunochemical test (FIT), Rigid proctoscopy, Flexible sigmoidoscopy (FSIG), Combined glucose-based FOBT and flexible sigmoidoscopy, CT colonography (CTC), Fiberoptic flexible colonoscopy (FFC). […] People who are asymptomatic, younger than 50 years, and have no other risk factors are considered at average risk for developing colorectal cancer. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) guidelines give a grade A recommendation for screening of the average-risk population beginning at age 50 years and ending at age 75 years; however, in view of the rising rate of early-onset colorectal cancer, the USPSTF gives a grade B recommendation for screening adults aged 45 to 49 years.

• #2 Diagnostics | Special Issue : Diagnosis and Management of Rectal Cancer

  https://www.mdpi.com/journal/diagnostics/special_issues/diagnrectal_cancer

  Diagnosis and Management of Rectal Cancer […] As you are all aware, rectal cancer has one of the highest incidences of all the malignant neoplasms in the world. As the title suggests, this Special Issue aims to address the most popular topics in current practice. […] Novel diagnostic approaches are now available, despite the fact that they are not always routinely used in clinical practice (e.g., confocal laser endomicroscopy, augmented endoscopy and indocyanine green) other than with biomarkers that might also have a role as screening tools. The role of dedicated MRI sequences is also very much debated, even in restaging after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. […] Particular attention will be paid to surgical techniques and the effectiveness of minimally invasive surgery, including laparoscopic, robotic and transanal surgery; in fact, despite consistent improvements, a better quality of life and reduced morbidity are always gained by both surgeons and patients.

• #2 Revolutionizing Rectal Cancer Diagnosis with Advanced Imaging

  https://reachmd.com/news/revolutionizing-rectal-cancer-diagnosis-with-advanced-imaging/2473897/

  Recent innovations in medical imaging have introduced attention mechanism-based multi-parametric MRI ensemble models, significantly improving diagnostic precision for predicting tumor budding grade in rectal cancer. […] The integration of attention mechanisms with multi-parametric MRI allows for a more nuanced evaluation of tumor characteristics, crucial for identifying budding grades accurately. […] Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) and other multi-parametric techniques offer valuable insights into tumor vascularity and growth patterns, key elements in assessing rectal cancer severity. […] Studies have demonstrated that integrating attention-based models into MRI protocols can significantly improve the stratification of tumor aggressiveness, offering a more individualized approach to patient care.

• #2 How We Diagnose Rectal Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute

  https://www.dana-farber.org/cancer-care/types/rectal-cancer/diagnosis

  Dana-Farber Brigham Cancer Center pathologists review your pathology slides (even if an outside hospital already reviewed them) to make sure there is agreement on your exact diagnosis. […] The process used to find out the extent of the cancer within the rectum or if it has spread to other parts of the body is called staging. This determines your prognosis and your treatment plan. […] Some staging can be done before having surgery, and other parts of the staging process are done after the cancer is removed from the rectum. During your first meeting with your team at Dana-Farber Brigham Cancer Center, we will discuss with you the best strategy to stage your cancer. […] It is important to be seen quickly if you’ve been diagnosed with rectal cancer so you can start treatment and possibly enter a clinical trial. We provide evaluation and diagnostic services for people who:

• #2 Rectal Cancer | Symptoms & Treatments | MedStar Health

  https://www.medstarhealth.org/services/rectal-cancer

  An accurate diagnosis leads to more effective treatment. […] At MedStar Health, our colorectal specialists are experts in diagnosing and treating because we see a high number of patients every year. Research shows that patients experience better outcomes, like higher survival rates and a lower risk of needing a colostomy when they seek care from a care team who treats a high volume of patients. […] We believe an accurate diagnosis is the most important step to getting treatment that will give you the best results and the highest quality of life. There are a variety of tests that your doctor may use to confirm your diagnosis and understand the size and location of your rectal tumor, as well as if it has spread, or metastasized. These may include: […] A colonoscopy may be used as both a screening and a diagnostic procedure. It allows your doctor to evaluate the inside of your rectum for polyps or other signs that cancer is developing.

• #2 How to Detect Colon Cancer Early | Mass General Brigham

  https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en/about/newsroom/articles/how-to-detect-colon-cancer-early

  Screening can identify precancerous polyps that may be removed before they become colon cancer. Early detection of cancer leads to a better prognosis. […] We have invasive and noninvasive techniques for early detection of precancerous polyps and colon cancer. […] Colonoscopy is unsurpassed for screening of colorectal cancer, Dr. Parikh says. It is a very sensitive tool for the detection of small polyps and colon cancers and is the gold standard for screening. […] New technologies are being developed that can detect tumor byproducts that may be present in stool or circulating in your blood. Tests to detect tumor DNA in stool are approved as alternatives to colonoscopy for colorectal cancer screening.

• #2

  https://www.today.com/health/womens-health/nurse-rectal-cancer-symptoms-doctors-dismissed-rcna196046

  Rectal bleeding is the „red flag symptom to be concerned about, Dr. Daniel Chung, a gastroenterologist at Massachusetts General Hospital, previously told TODAY.com. […] If the blood is darker in color, it’s had time to get oxidized so its usually coming from higher up in the colon, Rashidi says. If its bright red, that means the bleeding is happening low in the rectum, which could be hemorrhoids or cancer, she adds. […] Changes in bowel habits, unexplained weight loss, anemia, abdominal pain, narrow stools and an unproductive urge to have a bowel movement are also colorectal cancer symptoms. […] When Duttons polyp was biopsied, it came back as precancerous. But doctors were suspicious and kept testing because of an enlarged lymph node near her rectal area. […] Dutton officially found out she had Stage 3B rectal cancer on Black Friday in November 2023. […] Dutton urges others to be aware of the symptoms and advocate for themselves. […] Rule out cancer first. The stakes are too high.

• #3 Testing for Colorectal Cancer | How Is Colorectal Cancer Diagnosed? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  A diagnostic colonoscopy is just like a screening colonoscopy, but its done because a person is having symptoms, or because something abnormal was found on another type of screening test. […] This test may be done if rectal cancer is suspected. […] If a suspected colorectal tumor is found during a screening or diagnostic test, it usually is biopsied. […] Biopsy samples (from colonoscopy or surgery) are sent to the lab where they are looked at closely. […] Colorectal cancer cells are also typically tested to see if they have high numbers of gene changes called microsatellite instability (MSI). […] For a PET scan, a slightly radioactive form of sugar (known as FDG) is injected into the blood and collects mainly in cancer cells.

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