Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The reported incidence of GCA ranges from approximately 0.5 to 27 cases per 100,000 people aged 50 years or older. The annual incidence is higher in northern areas of the United States. […] A review from Olmsted County, Minnesota identified 125 cases over a period of 42 years, representing an average annual incidence rate of 17.8 cases per 100,000 population aged 50 years and older and a prevalence of persons with active or remitted GCA of 200 cases per 100,000 population aged 50 years or older. A regular cyclical pattern in incidence over 20 years was noted. […] The prevalence of GCA depends heavily on the number of individuals aged 50 years or older; the mean age of onset is 75 years. Countries with a lower life expectancy have a lower prevalence. Incidence figures reporting biopsy-proven GCA may be lower than those that include clinically diagnosed cases of GCA.

• #1 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space.

  https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/631816?show=full

  A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The pooled incidence of GCA was 10.00 [9.22, 10.78] cases per 100,000 people over 50 years old. This incidence was highest in Scandinavia 21.57 [18.90, 24.23], followed by North and South America 10.89 [8.78, 13.00], Europe 7.26 [6.05, 8.47], and Oceania 7.85 [- 1.48, 17.19]. Pooled prevalence was 51.74 [42.04, 61.43] cases per 100,000 people over age 50. Annual mortality was 20.44 [17.84, 23.03] deaths/1000. Mortality generally decreased over the years of publication (p = 0.0008). Latitude correlated significantly with incidence (p = 0.0011), but not with prevalence, or mortality. […] GCA incidence varies nearly 3-fold between regions and is highest in Scandinavia but not significantly. Mortality may be improving over time.

• #2 RINVOQ® (upadacitinib) Receives U.S. FDA Approval for Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA) – Apr 29, 2025

  https://news.abbvie.com/2025-04-29-RINVOQ-R-upadacitinib-Receives-U-S-FDA-Approval-for-Giant-Cell-Arteritis-GCA

  RINVOQ (upadacitinib) is now the first and only oral Janus Kinase (JAK) inhibitor approved for the treatment of GCA in adults. Also known as temporal arteritis, GCA is the most common vasculitis affecting adults in Western countries. Caucasian women over the age of 50 most commonly between the ages of 70 and 80 years have the highest risk of developing GCA. Although women are more likely than men to develop GCA, research suggests that men are more likely to have ocular manifestations with their disease. […] GCA is an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of the temporal and other cranial arteries, the aorta, and other large and medium arteries. If left untreated, the disease can lead to debilitating symptoms and potentially severe outcomes, such as blindness, aortic aneurysm, or stroke.

• #2 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space.

  https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/631816?show=full

  A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The pooled incidence of GCA was 10.00 [9.22, 10.78] cases per 100,000 people over 50 years old. This incidence was highest in Scandinavia 21.57 [18.90, 24.23], followed by North and South America 10.89 [8.78, 13.00], Europe 7.26 [6.05, 8.47], and Oceania 7.85 [- 1.48, 17.19]. Pooled prevalence was 51.74 [42.04, 61.43] cases per 100,000 people over age 50. Annual mortality was 20.44 [17.84, 23.03] deaths/1000. Mortality generally decreased over the years of publication (p = 0.0008). Latitude correlated significantly with incidence (p = 0.0011), but not with prevalence, or mortality. […] GCA incidence varies nearly 3-fold between regions and is highest in Scandinavia but not significantly. Mortality may be improving over time.

• #3 Giant Cell Arteritis – Rheumatology Advisor

  https://www.rheumatologyadvisor.com/ddi/giant-cell-arteritis/

  People of Scandinavian heritage have the highest frequency, specifically in Norway, where the mean annual incidence was 32.8 per 100,000 inhabitants older than age 50 and 29 per 100,000 for biopsy-proven GCA. Southern European countries and the Mediterranean region have recorded a substantially lower annual occurrence of giant cell arteritis.

• #4 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space.

  https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/631816?show=full

  A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The pooled incidence of GCA was 10.00 [9.22, 10.78] cases per 100,000 people over 50 years old. This incidence was highest in Scandinavia 21.57 [18.90, 24.23], followed by North and South America 10.89 [8.78, 13.00], Europe 7.26 [6.05, 8.47], and Oceania 7.85 [- 1.48, 17.19]. Pooled prevalence was 51.74 [42.04, 61.43] cases per 100,000 people over age 50. Annual mortality was 20.44 [17.84, 23.03] deaths/1000. Mortality generally decreased over the years of publication (p = 0.0008). Latitude correlated significantly with incidence (p = 0.0011), but not with prevalence, or mortality. […] GCA incidence varies nearly 3-fold between regions and is highest in Scandinavia but not significantly. Mortality may be improving over time.

• #5 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The reported incidence of GCA ranges from approximately 0.5 to 27 cases per 100,000 people aged 50 years or older. The annual incidence is higher in northern areas of the United States. […] A review from Olmsted County, Minnesota identified 125 cases over a period of 42 years, representing an average annual incidence rate of 17.8 cases per 100,000 population aged 50 years and older and a prevalence of persons with active or remitted GCA of 200 cases per 100,000 population aged 50 years or older. A regular cyclical pattern in incidence over 20 years was noted. […] The prevalence of GCA depends heavily on the number of individuals aged 50 years or older; the mean age of onset is 75 years. Countries with a lower life expectancy have a lower prevalence. Incidence figures reporting biopsy-proven GCA may be lower than those that include clinically diagnosed cases of GCA.

• #6 Prevalence and Incidence of Giant Cell Arteritis Among Medicare Fee-For-Service Beneficiaries: United States, 2014–2019 – ACR Meeting Abstracts

  https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/prevalence-and-incidence-of-giant-cell-arteritis-among-medicare-fee-for-service-beneficiaries-united-states-2014-2019/

  Prevalence and Incidence of Giant Cell Arteritis Among Medicare Fee-For-Service Beneficiaries: United States, 20142019 […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a vasculitis affecting individuals aged 50 years. Over 80% of patients with GCA are aged 70 years, reflecting a significant disease burden among people covered by the United States Medicare program. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence and incidence of GCA in the United States Medicare fee-for-service (FFS) population and evaluate variations in the epidemiology of GCA based on age, sex, and race/ethnicity. […] In the Medicare FFS population, which represents ~67% of all Medicare enrollees from 2014 to 2019, the rates of a diagnosis of GCA remained stable during the study period. The annual prevalence ranged from 103.5 to 108.5 cases/100,000 persons, while the incidence ranged from 23.8 to 26.3 cases/100,000 persons. The prevalence of GCA increased with age, with patients over 85+ years having a prevalence rate nearly 4-times higher than those aged 65 to 69 years (186.9 vs 47.6 cases/100,000 persons in 2019). Similarly, the incidence of GCA also increased with age, with the highest rate observed in the 80 to 84-year age group. Prevalence and incidence of GCA were approximately twice as high in females than males. Prevalence of GCA was highest in White persons compared to other race/ethnicity subgroups; among non-White persons, rates were highest among Black persons and lowest in Asian persons.

• #7 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Autopsy studies suggest that GCA is more frequent than reported in studies of clinically diagnosed cases. A study from Sweden found arteritis in 1.6 percent of 889 postmortem cases in which sections of the temporal artery and two transverse sections of the aorta were made. […] As with many systemic rheumatic diseases, females are affected more frequently than males, in a ratio of almost 3:1 in populations of Scandinavian descent. […] Most studies have found that life expectancy is not, or is only marginally, reduced in GCA, with the exception of the subset of patients who develop aortic aneurysm or aortic dissection or rupture.

• #8 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common idiopathic systemic vasculitis. In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA has been estimated at approximately 1 percent in women and 0.5 percent in men. […] The greatest risk factor for developing GCA is aging. The disease almost never occurs before age 50 years, and its incidence rises steadily thereafter, peaking between the ages of 70 to 79, with over 80 percent of patients older than 70 years of age. One study found the mean age at incidence of GCA to be 76.7 years. […] In addition to age, ethnicity is a major risk factor for GCA. The highest incidence figures are found in Scandinavian countries and among Americans of Scandinavian descent. In Olmsted County, Minnesota, the annual incidence of GCA was 15 per 100,000 persons over the age of 50, similar to that in Scandinavian countries.

• #9 Giant Cell Arteritis | Internet Book of Emergency Medicine

  https://internetbookofemergencymedicine.com/temporal-arteritis/

  Most common vasculitis affecting adults in western countries. […] Almost never seen below 50 yo (of 1,435 pooled GCA cases, there are only 2 documented cases of GCA in patients younger than 50 years.) […] Mean age of onset is 75 years. […] More common in females with a ratio of about 2 to 1. […] Incidence is highest in individuals of Scandinavian ancestry.

• #10 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common idiopathic systemic vasculitis. In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA has been estimated at approximately 1 percent in women and 0.5 percent in men. […] The greatest risk factor for developing GCA is aging. The disease almost never occurs before age 50 years, and its incidence rises steadily thereafter, peaking between the ages of 70 to 79, with over 80 percent of patients older than 70 years of age. One study found the mean age at incidence of GCA to be 76.7 years. […] In addition to age, ethnicity is a major risk factor for GCA. The highest incidence figures are found in Scandinavian countries and among Americans of Scandinavian descent. In Olmsted County, Minnesota, the annual incidence of GCA was 15 per 100,000 persons over the age of 50, similar to that in Scandinavian countries.

• #11 Giant Cell Arteritis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Giant_Cell_Arteritis

  Giant cell arteritis is the most common primary systemic vasculitis in adults. The incidence is negligible in patients less than 50 years old and rises relative to the patients age, with a median age of 75 years. Specifically, the average estimates range between 2.3 per 100,000 cases per year in the sixth decade of life to 44.7 per 100,000 cases per year in patients in their ninth decade. The average age of presentation is 72.5 years for women, and 70.3 years old for men. Furthermore, women are affected between 2 and 6 times more often than men. This increased incidence in women might be explained by the higher proportion of women in the elderly population. When examining the role of race and epidemiology in GCA, white patients of northern European descent have the highest rates (about 30100,000 in Norway) while African, Asian and Arab populations had the lowest rates (1.47100,000 in Japan). Other risk factors may include smoking, low body mass index, early menopause, and relative adrenal hypofunction.

• #12 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7948334/

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The epidemiology of GCA has been extensively studied. The average age of diagnosis has increased from 75 in the 1950s to 79 in the 2000s. GCA has also been more common in females at a ratio of 2.5:1. Incidence has consistently been found to be highest in Scandinavia and lowest in Asian countries. […] As the population continues to age, the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA are expected to increase. […] This study demonstrates epidemiological trends in GCA with a comprehensive description of updated global pooled incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. Incidence rates vary significantly between regions and are highest in Scandinavia. Temporally, GCA incidence and mortality decreased, while prevalence remained stable. Latitude does influence incidence but not prevalence or mortality in GCA although the results may be underpowered for comparing prevalence and latitude in GCA.

• #13 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The incidence of GCA in Saudi Arabia is probably less than in the United States and Western Europe. In 1998, Bosley and Riley reported only 4 positive biopsy results from 72 temporal artery biopsies performed over a 15-year period in Saudi patients. […] Although existing epidemiologic studies are limited because they have been performed on predominantly white populations, the results of these studies suggest that GCA primarily affects whites, specifically those of northern European descent. […] The female-to-male ratio in GCA is roughly 3.7:1. Smoking increases the risk 6-fold in women. […] Age is the most important risk factor for GCA. The disease is rare in patients younger than 50 years. In those 50 years and older, the incidence increases with age, peaking in the seventh to eighth decade. The age range in one series of 166 biopsy-proven cases was 55-92 years. The median age of onset is 75 years. GCA is the most common systemic vasculitis affecting elderly patients.

• #14 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7948334/

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The epidemiology of GCA has been extensively studied. The average age of diagnosis has increased from 75 in the 1950s to 79 in the 2000s. GCA has also been more common in females at a ratio of 2.5:1. Incidence has consistently been found to be highest in Scandinavia and lowest in Asian countries. […] As the population continues to age, the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA are expected to increase. […] This study demonstrates epidemiological trends in GCA with a comprehensive description of updated global pooled incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. Incidence rates vary significantly between regions and are highest in Scandinavia. Temporally, GCA incidence and mortality decreased, while prevalence remained stable. Latitude does influence incidence but not prevalence or mortality in GCA although the results may be underpowered for comparing prevalence and latitude in GCA.

• #15 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The incidence of GCA in Saudi Arabia is probably less than in the United States and Western Europe. In 1998, Bosley and Riley reported only 4 positive biopsy results from 72 temporal artery biopsies performed over a 15-year period in Saudi patients. […] Although existing epidemiologic studies are limited because they have been performed on predominantly white populations, the results of these studies suggest that GCA primarily affects whites, specifically those of northern European descent. […] The female-to-male ratio in GCA is roughly 3.7:1. Smoking increases the risk 6-fold in women. […] Age is the most important risk factor for GCA. The disease is rare in patients younger than 50 years. In those 50 years and older, the incidence increases with age, peaking in the seventh to eighth decade. The age range in one series of 166 biopsy-proven cases was 55-92 years. The median age of onset is 75 years. GCA is the most common systemic vasculitis affecting elderly patients.

• #16 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common idiopathic systemic vasculitis. In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA has been estimated at approximately 1 percent in women and 0.5 percent in men. […] The greatest risk factor for developing GCA is aging. The disease almost never occurs before age 50 years, and its incidence rises steadily thereafter, peaking between the ages of 70 to 79, with over 80 percent of patients older than 70 years of age. One study found the mean age at incidence of GCA to be 76.7 years. […] In addition to age, ethnicity is a major risk factor for GCA. The highest incidence figures are found in Scandinavian countries and among Americans of Scandinavian descent. In Olmsted County, Minnesota, the annual incidence of GCA was 15 per 100,000 persons over the age of 50, similar to that in Scandinavian countries.

• #17 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/giant-cell-arteritis-pro

  Giant cell arteritis occurs in people over the age of 50. Cases in under-50s have been reported, but are exceptionally rare. In some diagnostic criteria, an age above 50 years is considered an absolute requirement for diagnosis. The mean age at onset is approximately 70. […] Giant cell arteritis is 2.5 times more likely to occur in women than in men, with lifetime risk at 1% for women and 0.5% for men. […] It is also more likely to occur in Northern European countries and those of northern Europe ancestry with incidence rate of 20 per 100,000. The incidence of giant cell arteritis is much lower in southern Europe and Mediterranean and quite rare in patients of African and Asian descent. […] The HLA gene most commonly associated with giant cell arteritis in white people is HLA Br1*04. Those with this gene are at higher risk for developing temporal arteritis, higher risk for complications of giant cell arteritis such as visual loss, and higher risk of resistance to glucocorticoids.

• #18 Prevalence and Incidence of Giant Cell Arteritis Among Medicare Fee-For-Service Beneficiaries: United States, 2014–2019 – ACR Meeting Abstracts

  https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/prevalence-and-incidence-of-giant-cell-arteritis-among-medicare-fee-for-service-beneficiaries-united-states-2014-2019/

  Prevalence and Incidence of Giant Cell Arteritis Among Medicare Fee-For-Service Beneficiaries: United States, 20142019 […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a vasculitis affecting individuals aged 50 years. Over 80% of patients with GCA are aged 70 years, reflecting a significant disease burden among people covered by the United States Medicare program. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence and incidence of GCA in the United States Medicare fee-for-service (FFS) population and evaluate variations in the epidemiology of GCA based on age, sex, and race/ethnicity. […] In the Medicare FFS population, which represents ~67% of all Medicare enrollees from 2014 to 2019, the rates of a diagnosis of GCA remained stable during the study period. The annual prevalence ranged from 103.5 to 108.5 cases/100,000 persons, while the incidence ranged from 23.8 to 26.3 cases/100,000 persons. The prevalence of GCA increased with age, with patients over 85+ years having a prevalence rate nearly 4-times higher than those aged 65 to 69 years (186.9 vs 47.6 cases/100,000 persons in 2019). Similarly, the incidence of GCA also increased with age, with the highest rate observed in the 80 to 84-year age group. Prevalence and incidence of GCA were approximately twice as high in females than males. Prevalence of GCA was highest in White persons compared to other race/ethnicity subgroups; among non-White persons, rates were highest among Black persons and lowest in Asian persons.

• #19 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The incidence of GCA in Saudi Arabia is probably less than in the United States and Western Europe. In 1998, Bosley and Riley reported only 4 positive biopsy results from 72 temporal artery biopsies performed over a 15-year period in Saudi patients. […] Although existing epidemiologic studies are limited because they have been performed on predominantly white populations, the results of these studies suggest that GCA primarily affects whites, specifically those of northern European descent. […] The female-to-male ratio in GCA is roughly 3.7:1. Smoking increases the risk 6-fold in women. […] Age is the most important risk factor for GCA. The disease is rare in patients younger than 50 years. In those 50 years and older, the incidence increases with age, peaking in the seventh to eighth decade. The age range in one series of 166 biopsy-proven cases was 55-92 years. The median age of onset is 75 years. GCA is the most common systemic vasculitis affecting elderly patients.

• #20 RINVOQ® (upadacitinib) Receives U.S. FDA Approval for Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA)

  https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/rinvoq-upadacitinib-receives-us-fda-approval-for-giant-cell-arteritis-gca-302441150.html

  RINVOQ (upadacitinib) is now the first and only oral Janus Kinase (JAK) inhibitor approved for the treatment of GCA in adults. Also known as temporal arteritis, GCA is the most common vasculitis affecting adults in Western countries. […] GCA is an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of the temporal and other cranial arteries, the aorta, and other large and medium arteries. […] Caucasian women over the age of 50 most commonly between the ages of 70 and 80 years have the highest risk of developing GCA. Although women are more likely than men to develop GCA, research suggests that men are more likely to have ocular manifestations with their disease. […] GCA can cause headache, jaw pain, and changes in or loss of vision, including sudden and permanent loss of vision. It is the most common vasculitis affecting adults in Western countries.

• #21 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common idiopathic systemic vasculitis. In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA has been estimated at approximately 1 percent in women and 0.5 percent in men. […] The greatest risk factor for developing GCA is aging. The disease almost never occurs before age 50 years, and its incidence rises steadily thereafter, peaking between the ages of 70 to 79, with over 80 percent of patients older than 70 years of age. One study found the mean age at incidence of GCA to be 76.7 years. […] In addition to age, ethnicity is a major risk factor for GCA. The highest incidence figures are found in Scandinavian countries and among Americans of Scandinavian descent. In Olmsted County, Minnesota, the annual incidence of GCA was 15 per 100,000 persons over the age of 50, similar to that in Scandinavian countries.

• #22 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common idiopathic systemic vasculitis. In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA has been estimated at approximately 1 percent in women and 0.5 percent in men. […] The greatest risk factor for developing GCA is aging. The disease almost never occurs before age 50 years, and its incidence rises steadily thereafter, peaking between the ages of 70 to 79, with over 80 percent of patients older than 70 years of age. One study found the mean age at incidence of GCA to be 76.7 years. […] In addition to age, ethnicity is a major risk factor for GCA. The highest incidence figures are found in Scandinavian countries and among Americans of Scandinavian descent. In Olmsted County, Minnesota, the annual incidence of GCA was 15 per 100,000 persons over the age of 50, similar to that in Scandinavian countries.

• #23 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The annual incidence in northern European countries has been reported to be more than 20 cases per 100,000 people over the age of 50 years. A United Kingdom study reported an incidence of 22 per 100,000 in that age group. Scandinavian countries report the highest incidence of GCAup to 32.4 per 100,000 individuals over the age of 50 years. […] The annual incidence in southern European countries has been reported to be less than 12 cases per 100,000 people. In Lugo, Spain, the average annual incidence for the population aged 50 years and older was 10 cases per 100,000 people. […] In Canada, the estimated incidence of biopsy-proven GCA for the population aged older than 50 years is 4.9 to 9.4 cases per 100,000 people. […] A series comprising all adult subjects undergoing autopsy at two hospitals in southern Sweden revealed arteritis in 1.6% of 889 cases, suggesting that GCA may be more common than is clinically apparent.

• #24 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The annual incidence in northern European countries has been reported to be more than 20 cases per 100,000 people over the age of 50 years. A United Kingdom study reported an incidence of 22 per 100,000 in that age group. Scandinavian countries report the highest incidence of GCAup to 32.4 per 100,000 individuals over the age of 50 years. […] The annual incidence in southern European countries has been reported to be less than 12 cases per 100,000 people. In Lugo, Spain, the average annual incidence for the population aged 50 years and older was 10 cases per 100,000 people. […] In Canada, the estimated incidence of biopsy-proven GCA for the population aged older than 50 years is 4.9 to 9.4 cases per 100,000 people. […] A series comprising all adult subjects undergoing autopsy at two hospitals in southern Sweden revealed arteritis in 1.6% of 889 cases, suggesting that GCA may be more common than is clinically apparent.

• #25 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459376/

  Among the various predisposing risk factors, advancing age and Northern European ancestry are the most widely known. Epidemiological studies also demonstrate a predominance in females, although the role of gender in the pathogenesis of the disease remains unclear. […] In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA is estimated to be approximately 1% for women and 0.5% for men. GCA predominantly affects patients older than 50, with the highest incidence observed in those between 70 and 79. The mean age of onset is 75. Scandinavian countries and individuals of Scandinavian descent exhibit the highest incidence rates, while lower rates are noted in African American, Asian, Arabic, or Japanese populations. Approximately 40% to 60% of patients with GCA may also have polymyalgia rheumatica. Conversely, around 16% to 21% of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica have GCA.

• #26 Epidemiological Aspects of Giant Cell Arteritis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/82750

  The demographic data of these patients differed from that in the previously discussed epidemiological studies in Europe. […] The average age of Chinese GCA patients was 65.2 years. […] An incidence rate of the population was calculated to be 1.47 per 100,000 people older than 50 years of age. […] The true incidence of GCA in the Arab population is difficult to assess due to the absence of a more nationwide perspective as well as a lack of population-based study in Arab countries. […] The incidence of GCA increases with age. […] The findings fortified the assumption that GCA is less prevalent in an African descent population. […] The estimated incidence of GCA for Saskatoon was 9.4 per 100,000 for people over the age of 50 years. […] The incidence rate increases substantially with age and a greater ratio of patients are women in most regions, except for Asian countries.

• #27 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The incidence of GCA in Saudi Arabia is probably less than in the United States and Western Europe. In 1998, Bosley and Riley reported only 4 positive biopsy results from 72 temporal artery biopsies performed over a 15-year period in Saudi patients. […] Although existing epidemiologic studies are limited because they have been performed on predominantly white populations, the results of these studies suggest that GCA primarily affects whites, specifically those of northern European descent. […] The female-to-male ratio in GCA is roughly 3.7:1. Smoking increases the risk 6-fold in women. […] Age is the most important risk factor for GCA. The disease is rare in patients younger than 50 years. In those 50 years and older, the incidence increases with age, peaking in the seventh to eighth decade. The age range in one series of 166 biopsy-proven cases was 55-92 years. The median age of onset is 75 years. GCA is the most common systemic vasculitis affecting elderly patients.

• #28 AB0694 Giant cell arteritis epidemiology in la reunion: a retrospective cases series | Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases

  https://ard.bmj.com/content/77/Suppl_2/1489.1

  Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA) is the most common vasculitis in people over 50 years, with incidence varying according to geographic location. In Europe, the average incidence is 1030 per 100000 inhabitants over 50 years, whereas in Africa and Asia it is approximately 1.5 per 100000. […] This is the first study to describe GCA in La Runion, and more generally in Indian Ocean. It shows an incidence 412 times lower than in most European countries with white ancestry background. This discrepancy could be explained by the contribution of the various ethnic groups of La Reunion, especially those coming from parts of the world characterised by a lower GCA incidence (Africa, India, South East Asia).

• #29

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40674-016-0046-7

  GCA appears to be rare among non-Caucasian populations in North America. […] The estimated incidence of GCA in Israel is 11.3 per 100,000 people 50 years. […] Given the demographic of patients who are most commonly affected by GCA, genetic factors likely play an important role in susceptibility. […] Few studies have found cyclic pattern or seasonal variations suggesting environmental triggers for GCA, but these remain poorly understood.

• #30 Giant cell arteritis: is the clinical spectrum of the disease changing? | BMC Geriatrics | Full Text

  https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12877-019-1225-9

  GCA is the most common type of vasculitis in Europe and North America. It is a disease of the elderly, with a peak of prevalence in the seventh and eighth decades of life. […] With the progressive expansion of life expectancy over the last decades and the consequent aging of general population, along with shortened periods from disease onset to final diagnosis, the prevalence of GCA tends to increase gradually despite steady incidence rates described in some studies. GCA is usually more frequent in women, with an average ratio around 2:1, and more common in patients of Scandinavian origin. […] Incidence of GCA was found to increase in some regions, in other studies there was a trend towards lower rates, and others described stability. Higher awareness of the disease by attending physicians and underestimation of more atypical extra-cranial forms in the past may have played a role in these variations.

• #31 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7948334/

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The epidemiology of GCA has been extensively studied. The average age of diagnosis has increased from 75 in the 1950s to 79 in the 2000s. GCA has also been more common in females at a ratio of 2.5:1. Incidence has consistently been found to be highest in Scandinavia and lowest in Asian countries. […] As the population continues to age, the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA are expected to increase. […] This study demonstrates epidemiological trends in GCA with a comprehensive description of updated global pooled incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. Incidence rates vary significantly between regions and are highest in Scandinavia. Temporally, GCA incidence and mortality decreased, while prevalence remained stable. Latitude does influence incidence but not prevalence or mortality in GCA although the results may be underpowered for comparing prevalence and latitude in GCA.

• #32 Prevalence and Incidence of Giant Cell Arteritis Among Medicare Fee-For-Service Beneficiaries: United States, 2014–2019 – ACR Meeting Abstracts

  https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/prevalence-and-incidence-of-giant-cell-arteritis-among-medicare-fee-for-service-beneficiaries-united-states-2014-2019/

  Prevalence and Incidence of Giant Cell Arteritis Among Medicare Fee-For-Service Beneficiaries: United States, 20142019 […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a vasculitis affecting individuals aged 50 years. Over 80% of patients with GCA are aged 70 years, reflecting a significant disease burden among people covered by the United States Medicare program. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence and incidence of GCA in the United States Medicare fee-for-service (FFS) population and evaluate variations in the epidemiology of GCA based on age, sex, and race/ethnicity. […] In the Medicare FFS population, which represents ~67% of all Medicare enrollees from 2014 to 2019, the rates of a diagnosis of GCA remained stable during the study period. The annual prevalence ranged from 103.5 to 108.5 cases/100,000 persons, while the incidence ranged from 23.8 to 26.3 cases/100,000 persons. The prevalence of GCA increased with age, with patients over 85+ years having a prevalence rate nearly 4-times higher than those aged 65 to 69 years (186.9 vs 47.6 cases/100,000 persons in 2019). Similarly, the incidence of GCA also increased with age, with the highest rate observed in the 80 to 84-year age group. Prevalence and incidence of GCA were approximately twice as high in females than males. Prevalence of GCA was highest in White persons compared to other race/ethnicity subgroups; among non-White persons, rates were highest among Black persons and lowest in Asian persons.

• #33 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The reported incidence of GCA ranges from approximately 0.5 to 27 cases per 100,000 people aged 50 years or older. The annual incidence is higher in northern areas of the United States. […] A review from Olmsted County, Minnesota identified 125 cases over a period of 42 years, representing an average annual incidence rate of 17.8 cases per 100,000 population aged 50 years and older and a prevalence of persons with active or remitted GCA of 200 cases per 100,000 population aged 50 years or older. A regular cyclical pattern in incidence over 20 years was noted. […] The prevalence of GCA depends heavily on the number of individuals aged 50 years or older; the mean age of onset is 75 years. Countries with a lower life expectancy have a lower prevalence. Incidence figures reporting biopsy-proven GCA may be lower than those that include clinically diagnosed cases of GCA.

• #34

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-010-0135-9

  Data from Olmsted County, MN, indicated an increase in age at GCA diagnosis that seemed to be related to a significant increase in the incidence of GCA in individuals 70 years of age and older. […] In Tunisia, the clinical spectrum of GCA manifestations is similar to that reported in areas in which GCA is more prevalent. […] In Turkey, the annual incidence rate of GCA is very low. […] Incidence of biopsy-proven GCA among Alaska natives is also very low. […] In this study and those by Lopez-Diaz et al., Narvez et al., and Salvarani et al., a reduction in the risk of severe ischemic complications following antiaggregation therapy was not confirmed.

• #35 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space.

  https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/631816?show=full

  A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The pooled incidence of GCA was 10.00 [9.22, 10.78] cases per 100,000 people over 50 years old. This incidence was highest in Scandinavia 21.57 [18.90, 24.23], followed by North and South America 10.89 [8.78, 13.00], Europe 7.26 [6.05, 8.47], and Oceania 7.85 [- 1.48, 17.19]. Pooled prevalence was 51.74 [42.04, 61.43] cases per 100,000 people over age 50. Annual mortality was 20.44 [17.84, 23.03] deaths/1000. Mortality generally decreased over the years of publication (p = 0.0008). Latitude correlated significantly with incidence (p = 0.0011), but not with prevalence, or mortality. […] GCA incidence varies nearly 3-fold between regions and is highest in Scandinavia but not significantly. Mortality may be improving over time.

• #36 Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Polymyalgia Rheumatica | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0401/p2061.html

  Giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica are rare in persons less than 50 years of age. The incidence of each disorder increases with age, and both conditions are approximately two times more common in women than in men.1 […] Prevalences vary considerably in different ethnic and racial groups. Both disorders occur more often in whites than in blacks, Hispanics or Asians.1 Geographically, prevalences increase as residence moves from southern to northern latitudes.1 […] In the United States, the reported annual incidence of giant cell arteritis ranges from 0.49 to 27.3 cases per 100,000 population more than 50 years of age.1 The annual incidence of polymyalgia rheumatica is approximately three times higher.2 […] Clinically, considerable overlap exists between the two conditions. Approximately one half of patients with giant cell arteritis meet diagnostic criteria for polymyalgia rheumatica, and 15 to 25 percent of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica have concurrent giant cell arteritis or will develop manifestations of the disorder in the future.3 […] Little is known about causative factors for giant cell arteritis or polymyalgia rheumatica. The most prevalent speculation is that these disorders result from immunologic responses to infectious triggers in genetically susceptible persons.4

• #37 Giant Cell Arteritis versus Takayasu Arteritis: An Update | MJR – Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology

  http://www.mjrheum.org/june-2020/newsid792/240/showfulltext792/1

  Giant cell arteritis is the most common vasculitis affecting individuals aged 50 years. The disease is very rare in individuals younger than 50 years of age. The mean age of disease onset is around the age of 75 years, in particular in patients with predominantly cranial symptoms. However, patients with large vessel involvement are generally younger at the time of GCA diagnosis. The disease is more common in Scandinavian populations and in populations with Scandinavian ancestry. The incidence of the disease increases with increasing latitude, with higher incidence rates in North European countries and lower incidence rates in Mediterranean and Asiatic countries. The incidence rate of biopsy-proven GCA (per 100.000 individuals 50 years) is 14.1 in Southern Sweden, 5.8 in Northern Italy and 1.1 in Turkey. The ratio between females and males is almost 3:1 in Northern Europe, but significantly lower in Southern Europe and Asia. A recent meta-analysis has shown that patients with GCA do not have increased long-term mortality in comparison with the background population. However, a study from Southern Sweden has demonstrated increased mortality the first 2 years after the GCA diagnosis, and the aforementioned meta-analysis has also demonstrated an increased mortality in hospitalized patients. Additionally, GCA patients have an increased risk of death due to cardiovascular disease.

• #38 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space.

  https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/631816?show=full

  A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The pooled incidence of GCA was 10.00 [9.22, 10.78] cases per 100,000 people over 50 years old. This incidence was highest in Scandinavia 21.57 [18.90, 24.23], followed by North and South America 10.89 [8.78, 13.00], Europe 7.26 [6.05, 8.47], and Oceania 7.85 [- 1.48, 17.19]. Pooled prevalence was 51.74 [42.04, 61.43] cases per 100,000 people over age 50. Annual mortality was 20.44 [17.84, 23.03] deaths/1000. Mortality generally decreased over the years of publication (p = 0.0008). Latitude correlated significantly with incidence (p = 0.0011), but not with prevalence, or mortality. […] GCA incidence varies nearly 3-fold between regions and is highest in Scandinavia but not significantly. Mortality may be improving over time.

• #39 Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-of-giant-cell-arteritis/print

  Autopsy studies suggest that GCA is more frequent than reported in studies of clinically diagnosed cases. A study from Sweden found arteritis in 1.6 percent of 889 postmortem cases in which sections of the temporal artery and two transverse sections of the aorta were made. […] As with many systemic rheumatic diseases, females are affected more frequently than males, in a ratio of almost 3:1 in populations of Scandinavian descent. […] Most studies have found that life expectancy is not, or is only marginally, reduced in GCA, with the exception of the subset of patients who develop aortic aneurysm or aortic dissection or rupture.

• #40 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space.

  https://www.lenus.ie/handle/10147/631816?show=full

  A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. […] Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The pooled incidence of GCA was 10.00 [9.22, 10.78] cases per 100,000 people over 50 years old. This incidence was highest in Scandinavia 21.57 [18.90, 24.23], followed by North and South America 10.89 [8.78, 13.00], Europe 7.26 [6.05, 8.47], and Oceania 7.85 [- 1.48, 17.19]. Pooled prevalence was 51.74 [42.04, 61.43] cases per 100,000 people over age 50. Annual mortality was 20.44 [17.84, 23.03] deaths/1000. Mortality generally decreased over the years of publication (p = 0.0008). Latitude correlated significantly with incidence (p = 0.0011), but not with prevalence, or mortality. […] GCA incidence varies nearly 3-fold between regions and is highest in Scandinavia but not significantly. Mortality may be improving over time.

• #41 Giant Cell Arteritis versus Takayasu Arteritis: An Update | MJR – Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology

  http://www.mjrheum.org/june-2020/newsid792/240/showfulltext792/1

  Giant cell arteritis is the most common vasculitis affecting individuals aged 50 years. The disease is very rare in individuals younger than 50 years of age. The mean age of disease onset is around the age of 75 years, in particular in patients with predominantly cranial symptoms. However, patients with large vessel involvement are generally younger at the time of GCA diagnosis. The disease is more common in Scandinavian populations and in populations with Scandinavian ancestry. The incidence of the disease increases with increasing latitude, with higher incidence rates in North European countries and lower incidence rates in Mediterranean and Asiatic countries. The incidence rate of biopsy-proven GCA (per 100.000 individuals 50 years) is 14.1 in Southern Sweden, 5.8 in Northern Italy and 1.1 in Turkey. The ratio between females and males is almost 3:1 in Northern Europe, but significantly lower in Southern Europe and Asia. A recent meta-analysis has shown that patients with GCA do not have increased long-term mortality in comparison with the background population. However, a study from Southern Sweden has demonstrated increased mortality the first 2 years after the GCA diagnosis, and the aforementioned meta-analysis has also demonstrated an increased mortality in hospitalized patients. Additionally, GCA patients have an increased risk of death due to cardiovascular disease.

• #42 Giant Cell Arteritis versus Takayasu Arteritis: An Update | MJR – Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology

  http://www.mjrheum.org/june-2020/newsid792/240/showfulltext792/1

  Giant cell arteritis is the most common vasculitis affecting individuals aged 50 years. The disease is very rare in individuals younger than 50 years of age. The mean age of disease onset is around the age of 75 years, in particular in patients with predominantly cranial symptoms. However, patients with large vessel involvement are generally younger at the time of GCA diagnosis. The disease is more common in Scandinavian populations and in populations with Scandinavian ancestry. The incidence of the disease increases with increasing latitude, with higher incidence rates in North European countries and lower incidence rates in Mediterranean and Asiatic countries. The incidence rate of biopsy-proven GCA (per 100.000 individuals 50 years) is 14.1 in Southern Sweden, 5.8 in Northern Italy and 1.1 in Turkey. The ratio between females and males is almost 3:1 in Northern Europe, but significantly lower in Southern Europe and Asia. A recent meta-analysis has shown that patients with GCA do not have increased long-term mortality in comparison with the background population. However, a study from Southern Sweden has demonstrated increased mortality the first 2 years after the GCA diagnosis, and the aforementioned meta-analysis has also demonstrated an increased mortality in hospitalized patients. Additionally, GCA patients have an increased risk of death due to cardiovascular disease.

• #43

  https://bpac.org.nz/bpj/2013/june/arteritis.aspx

  A follow-up consultation should be scheduled to ensure there are no signs or symptoms of relapse of giant cell arteritis, and to monitor the adverse effects of corticosteroid treatment. The first follow-up appointment should be scheduled within a few days of the initial consultation. Further follow-ups should be scheduled one, three and six weeks later. Follow-up appointments should then occur once every three months, for the duration of corticosteroid treatment. […] The mortality rate of people with giant cell arteritis is not significantly different from the general population. However, the risk of aortic aneurysm is reported to be 17 times greater in people who have had giant cell arteritis, when compared to the general population of the same age and sex, even after timely and successful treatment.

• #44

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40674-016-0046-7

  Giant cell arteritis is the most common form of primary systemic vasculitis in people over the age of 50 years. […] Nearly all of the studies evaluating the incidence of GCA are from Europe and USA which may reflect the demographic that is most frequently affected by GCA. […] Age, ethnicity, and sex are consistent risk factors for GCA based on currently available epidemiology studies. […] In nearly all published studies of patients with GCA, women are affected two to four times more often than men. […] GCA almost never occurs in individuals below the age of 50 years. […] The highest incidence rates for GCA are from the Scandinavian countries. […] The estimated incidence of GCA in population-based studies from Olmsted County, Minnesota is similar to that observed in Scandinavian countries.

• #45

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-010-0135-9

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA), also called temporal arteritis, is a vasculitis that affects large and middle-sized blood vessels with predisposition to the involvement of cranial arteries derived from the carotid artery in individuals older than 50 years of age. Familial aggregation of GCA has been observed. Incidence of GCA is higher in white individuals than those of other ethnicities, particularly those of Scandinavian background. […] This review article assessed current information on the epidemiology of GCA and PMR. Different issues, including etiology, incidence, influence of environmental factors and infectious agents, implication of genetic factors, influence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors, the role of biopsy in the incidence of GCA, and the prognosis of GCA and PMR, were discussed.

• #46 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/giant-cell-arteritis-pro

  Giant cell arteritis occurs in people over the age of 50. Cases in under-50s have been reported, but are exceptionally rare. In some diagnostic criteria, an age above 50 years is considered an absolute requirement for diagnosis. The mean age at onset is approximately 70. […] Giant cell arteritis is 2.5 times more likely to occur in women than in men, with lifetime risk at 1% for women and 0.5% for men. […] It is also more likely to occur in Northern European countries and those of northern Europe ancestry with incidence rate of 20 per 100,000. The incidence of giant cell arteritis is much lower in southern Europe and Mediterranean and quite rare in patients of African and Asian descent. […] The HLA gene most commonly associated with giant cell arteritis in white people is HLA Br1*04. Those with this gene are at higher risk for developing temporal arteritis, higher risk for complications of giant cell arteritis such as visual loss, and higher risk of resistance to glucocorticoids.

• #47 Giant Cell Arteritis

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/headache-pain/giant-cell-arteritis/31658/

  Women are affected by GCA 2 to 6 times more often than men with a total lifetime risk of 1%. Some reports suggest that almost 65% to 70% of cases occur in women. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) gene polymorphisms associated with GCA have been identified and when present, appear to increase the frequency of complications. The most commonly HLA polymorphism associated with GCA in whites is HLA Br1*04, which has also been shown to confer a higher risk of steroid resistance. Polymorphisms in nonHLA genes protein tyrosine phosphatase, nonreceptor type 22 (PTPN22), leucine-rich repeat-containing 32 (LRRC32), interleukin 17A (IL17A), and interleukin 33 (IL33) are associated with GCA.

• #48 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332483-overview

  The incidence of GCA in Saudi Arabia is probably less than in the United States and Western Europe. In 1998, Bosley and Riley reported only 4 positive biopsy results from 72 temporal artery biopsies performed over a 15-year period in Saudi patients. […] Although existing epidemiologic studies are limited because they have been performed on predominantly white populations, the results of these studies suggest that GCA primarily affects whites, specifically those of northern European descent. […] The female-to-male ratio in GCA is roughly 3.7:1. Smoking increases the risk 6-fold in women. […] Age is the most important risk factor for GCA. The disease is rare in patients younger than 50 years. In those 50 years and older, the incidence increases with age, peaking in the seventh to eighth decade. The age range in one series of 166 biopsy-proven cases was 55-92 years. The median age of onset is 75 years. GCA is the most common systemic vasculitis affecting elderly patients.

• #49 Giant Cell Arteritis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Giant_Cell_Arteritis

  Giant cell arteritis is the most common primary systemic vasculitis in adults. The incidence is negligible in patients less than 50 years old and rises relative to the patients age, with a median age of 75 years. Specifically, the average estimates range between 2.3 per 100,000 cases per year in the sixth decade of life to 44.7 per 100,000 cases per year in patients in their ninth decade. The average age of presentation is 72.5 years for women, and 70.3 years old for men. Furthermore, women are affected between 2 and 6 times more often than men. This increased incidence in women might be explained by the higher proportion of women in the elderly population. When examining the role of race and epidemiology in GCA, white patients of northern European descent have the highest rates (about 30100,000 in Norway) while African, Asian and Arab populations had the lowest rates (1.47100,000 in Japan). Other risk factors may include smoking, low body mass index, early menopause, and relative adrenal hypofunction.

• #50 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459376/

  Among the various predisposing risk factors, advancing age and Northern European ancestry are the most widely known. Epidemiological studies also demonstrate a predominance in females, although the role of gender in the pathogenesis of the disease remains unclear. […] In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA is estimated to be approximately 1% for women and 0.5% for men. GCA predominantly affects patients older than 50, with the highest incidence observed in those between 70 and 79. The mean age of onset is 75. Scandinavian countries and individuals of Scandinavian descent exhibit the highest incidence rates, while lower rates are noted in African American, Asian, Arabic, or Japanese populations. Approximately 40% to 60% of patients with GCA may also have polymyalgia rheumatica. Conversely, around 16% to 21% of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica have GCA.

• #51 Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459376/

  Among the various predisposing risk factors, advancing age and Northern European ancestry are the most widely known. Epidemiological studies also demonstrate a predominance in females, although the role of gender in the pathogenesis of the disease remains unclear. […] In the United States, the lifetime risk of developing GCA is estimated to be approximately 1% for women and 0.5% for men. GCA predominantly affects patients older than 50, with the highest incidence observed in those between 70 and 79. The mean age of onset is 75. Scandinavian countries and individuals of Scandinavian descent exhibit the highest incidence rates, while lower rates are noted in African American, Asian, Arabic, or Japanese populations. Approximately 40% to 60% of patients with GCA may also have polymyalgia rheumatica. Conversely, around 16% to 21% of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica have GCA.

• #52 Polymyalgia Rheumatica and Giant Cell Arteritis: Rapid Evidence Review | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2022/1000/polymyalgia-rheumatica-giant-cell-arteritis.html

  Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis are inflammatory conditions that occur predominantly in people 50 years and older, with peak incidence at 70 to 75 years of age. […] Incidences of PMR and GCA vary among people 50 years and older depending on geographic location. The incidence per 100,000 people 50 years and older ranges from 2 (Korea) to 113 (Norway) for PMR and 1 (Turkey) to 44 (Iceland) for GCA. […] Approximately 20% of patients with PMR have GCA, and about 50% of patients with GCA have PMR. […] Risk factors for PMR and GCA include female sex, Northern European ancestry, and age. […] The age of onset for both conditions is typically 50 years and older, with peak incidence at 70 to 75 years of age. […] GCA, also known as temporal arteritis, most commonly affects branches of the external carotid arteries (i.e., temporal and occipital arteries), although it may affect any medium or large artery. GCA can result in blindness if untreated.

• #53 The spectrum of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: a longitudinal prospective study to assess for subclinical giant cell arteritis in new onset polymyalgia rheumatica | Egyptian Rheumatology and Rehabilitation | Full Text

  https://erar.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43166-025-00307-7

  Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) and giant cell arteritis (GCA) frequently overlap, with each disease potentially presenting as a manifestation of the other. […] The objectives of the current study were to assess the applicability of using ultrasound (US) and clinical data as a monitoring tool to identify PMR patients with subclinical GCA and determine possible predictors of GCA among PMR patients. […] The study found that 20.4% of the PMR cohort had subclinical GCA, which later progressed to classical GCA, while 31.5% experienced a PMR relapse. […] Routine screening for subclinical GCA in PMR patients should be considered as part of standard care for PMR patients. […] The strong relationship between PMR and GCA raises the question of whether it is a co-occurrence of different diseases or a common spectrum of inflammatory diseases.

• #54 The spectrum of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: a longitudinal prospective study to assess for subclinical giant cell arteritis in new onset polymyalgia rheumatica | Egyptian Rheumatology and Rehabilitation | Full Text

  https://erar.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43166-025-00307-7

  Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) and giant cell arteritis (GCA) frequently overlap, with each disease potentially presenting as a manifestation of the other. […] The objectives of the current study were to assess the applicability of using ultrasound (US) and clinical data as a monitoring tool to identify PMR patients with subclinical GCA and determine possible predictors of GCA among PMR patients. […] The study found that 20.4% of the PMR cohort had subclinical GCA, which later progressed to classical GCA, while 31.5% experienced a PMR relapse. […] Routine screening for subclinical GCA in PMR patients should be considered as part of standard care for PMR patients. […] The strong relationship between PMR and GCA raises the question of whether it is a co-occurrence of different diseases or a common spectrum of inflammatory diseases.

• #55 Giant Cell Arteritis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Giant_Cell_Arteritis

  The diagnosis of GCA should be considered in any patient over the age of 50 with new headaches, acute visual changes, symptoms of polymyalgia rheumatica, unexplained constitutional symptoms, or jaw claudication. Since individual patients with GCA can present with a wide range of symptoms and examination findings, and many of the symptoms may be transient, patients must be questioned directly about symptoms of GCA. In any patient in whom GCA is suspected based on history, examination findings, or an elevated ESR, C-reactive protein or thrombocytosis, a temporal artery biopsy and initiation of corticosteroid treatment should be considered. […] The Southend giant cell arteritis (GCA) probability score (GCAPS) is a pre-test tool that helps assess the likelihood of a patient having GCA. The GCAPS is based on a patient’s: symptoms, signs, laboratory findings, demographics, and competing differentials. The GCAPS score is used to categorize patients into risk groups: Low risk: GCAPS score of less than 9; Medium risk: GCAPS score of 912; High risk: GCAPS score of more than 12. A GCAPS score of less than 10 may be enough to rule out GCA without further review. Patients with a GCAPS score of 13 or higher are considered high risk and may benefit from empirical glucocorticoids. The GCAPS has been shown to be an effective diagnostic tool and risk assessment tool. It has a high negative predictive value (NPV) and an excellent area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC AUC). A score of 9 or 10 or more steroid medications are considered.

• #56 Giant Cell Arteritis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Giant_Cell_Arteritis

  The diagnosis of GCA should be considered in any patient over the age of 50 with new headaches, acute visual changes, symptoms of polymyalgia rheumatica, unexplained constitutional symptoms, or jaw claudication. Since individual patients with GCA can present with a wide range of symptoms and examination findings, and many of the symptoms may be transient, patients must be questioned directly about symptoms of GCA. In any patient in whom GCA is suspected based on history, examination findings, or an elevated ESR, C-reactive protein or thrombocytosis, a temporal artery biopsy and initiation of corticosteroid treatment should be considered. […] The Southend giant cell arteritis (GCA) probability score (GCAPS) is a pre-test tool that helps assess the likelihood of a patient having GCA. The GCAPS is based on a patient’s: symptoms, signs, laboratory findings, demographics, and competing differentials. The GCAPS score is used to categorize patients into risk groups: Low risk: GCAPS score of less than 9; Medium risk: GCAPS score of 912; High risk: GCAPS score of more than 12. A GCAPS score of less than 10 may be enough to rule out GCA without further review. Patients with a GCAPS score of 13 or higher are considered high risk and may benefit from empirical glucocorticoids. The GCAPS has been shown to be an effective diagnostic tool and risk assessment tool. It has a high negative predictive value (NPV) and an excellent area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC AUC). A score of 9 or 10 or more steroid medications are considered.

• #57 Temporal Arteritis Pathology: Definition, Epidemiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1612591-overview

  Imaging Guidelines: In 2023, the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology (EULAR) recommended ultrasonography (grey-scale and color Doppler) of the temporal and axillary arteries as the primary imaging modality for suspected GCA, with [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG PET) or MRI as alternatives for cranial and extracranial artery evaluation. […] Various immunosuppressive agents are now being considered for their potential steroid-sparing effects. However, conflicting results have been obtained with these agents, and high-dose systemic corticosteroids are still the mainstay of treatment.

• #58 A new era for giant cell arteritis | Eye

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41433-019-0608-7

  The mean diagnostic delay for those with cranial symptoms is 9 weeks and 17.6 weeks for patients presenting without cranial symptoms, due to a combination of multiple factors including delayed presentation, delayed clinical suspicion and delayed referral for specialist assessment and confirmatory diagnostic tests. Public awareness of GCA is low and primary care doctors are faced with the often non-specific nature of many early symptoms of GCA and a high prevalence of similar symptoms in the general consulting population. If GCs are started, but specialist referral is delayed, then the potential for a secure diagnosis is reduced, the clinical signs may have resolved and the diagnostic tests are less likely to be positive with increasing time. […] To address these challenges, in certain centres fast track pathways have been established, providing widely advertised, rapid access to specialist clinical assessment, diagnostic evaluation including vascular US or other diagnostic tests and immediate therapy. Such pathways have been shown to reduce sight loss and have led to significant cost savings due to reduction of inpatient care and reduction in TAB rate. In one fast track centre, sight loss was reduced from 37 to 9%, in another from 27 to 8%. In a third centre, although visual disturbance was equal in the historical and fast track groups, risk of permanent blindness reduced by 88% in the fast track group.

• #59 A new era for giant cell arteritis | Eye

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41433-019-0608-7

  The mean diagnostic delay for those with cranial symptoms is 9 weeks and 17.6 weeks for patients presenting without cranial symptoms, due to a combination of multiple factors including delayed presentation, delayed clinical suspicion and delayed referral for specialist assessment and confirmatory diagnostic tests. Public awareness of GCA is low and primary care doctors are faced with the often non-specific nature of many early symptoms of GCA and a high prevalence of similar symptoms in the general consulting population. If GCs are started, but specialist referral is delayed, then the potential for a secure diagnosis is reduced, the clinical signs may have resolved and the diagnostic tests are less likely to be positive with increasing time. […] To address these challenges, in certain centres fast track pathways have been established, providing widely advertised, rapid access to specialist clinical assessment, diagnostic evaluation including vascular US or other diagnostic tests and immediate therapy. Such pathways have been shown to reduce sight loss and have led to significant cost savings due to reduction of inpatient care and reduction in TAB rate. In one fast track centre, sight loss was reduced from 37 to 9%, in another from 27 to 8%. In a third centre, although visual disturbance was equal in the historical and fast track groups, risk of permanent blindness reduced by 88% in the fast track group.

• #60 Orphanet: Giant cell arteritis

  https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/397

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common vasculitis in adulthood with an annual incidence of 1/5,000-1/17,000 adults over 50 years old. It is more frequent in populations of northern European background. GCA affects people of more than 50 years of age (median age at diagnosis between 70-75 years old) and occurs twice as frequently in women as in men. […] The diagnosis of GCA is made in individuals over 50 years of age by a combination of characteristic symptoms as outlined above, increased acute phase reactants (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein or both) and characteristic imaging findings (ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, computerized tomography or 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography) of temporal and/or other large arteries depicting inflammatory wall swelling. […] Regular monitoring for late vascular complications (e.g. aortic aneurysms) is needed.

• #61

  https://bpac.org.nz/bpj/2013/june/arteritis.aspx

  A follow-up consultation should be scheduled to ensure there are no signs or symptoms of relapse of giant cell arteritis, and to monitor the adverse effects of corticosteroid treatment. The first follow-up appointment should be scheduled within a few days of the initial consultation. Further follow-ups should be scheduled one, three and six weeks later. Follow-up appointments should then occur once every three months, for the duration of corticosteroid treatment. […] The mortality rate of people with giant cell arteritis is not significantly different from the general population. However, the risk of aortic aneurysm is reported to be 17 times greater in people who have had giant cell arteritis, when compared to the general population of the same age and sex, even after timely and successful treatment.

• #62 Giant cell arteritis: Current treatment and management

  https://www.wjgnet.com/2307-8960/full/v3/i6/484.htm

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA), also called temporal arteritis, is the most common form of primary systemic vasculitis, with an overall incidence of 15-25 per 100000 per year. […] It typically affects individuals aged above 50 years and is two to four times more common in women than men. […] GCA is considered a medical emergency. […] The key issues in managing GCA after its diagnosis are prompt institution of correct therapy; recognition and amelioration of the adverse events related to immunosuppressant medications; and rapid identification of disease activity and flares. […] Not all patients with GCA respond to therapy in the same way, but there are no valid biomarkers to assess treatment response. […] Several potential molecular and imaging biomarkers have been investigated. […] Imaging techniques, especially for patients with extracranial involvement, have an important role in monitoring patients with GCA. […] Despite the severe consequences of untreated GCA, such as blindness, there is no consensus on the optimal therapeutic strategies for this disease.

• #63 Treatment of giant cell arteritis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-of-giant-cell-arteritis

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA, also known as Horton disease, cranial arteritis, and temporal arteritis) is the most common systemic vasculitis in North America and Europe. GCA affects only older adults, with a peak incidence between ages 70 and 79. […] The treatment and prognosis of GCA are reviewed here. […] Imaging surveillance for patients with large vessel involvement.

• #64 Epidemiology and Predictors of Relapse in Giant Cell Arteritis: Results of the ARTESER Register – ACR Meeting Abstracts

  https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/epidemiology-and-predictors-of-relapse-in-giant-cell-arteritis-results-of-the-arteser-register/

  Epidemiology and Predictors of Relapse in Giant Cell Arteritis: Results of the ARTESER Register […] The relapse rate of treated patients with giant cell arteritis (GCA) varied widely in observational series and randomized controlled trials. This study aimed to estimate the frequency and timing of relapse, the prevalence of multiple relapses, the characteristics of flares, and the predictors of relapse in a large cohort of Spanish patients with GCA. […] In total, 1675 patients were included. They were predominantly female (70.3%), with a mean (SD) age at diagnosis of 76.98.1 years. Of them, 1284 patients were followed up for one or more years. During follow-up, 574 relapses were observed in 334 (26%) patients. One-year, 2-year, 3-year, and 4-year cumulative relapse rates were 18%, 27.9%, 37.6%, and 44.8%, respectively.

• #65 Epidemiology and Predictors of Relapse in Giant Cell Arteritis: Results of the ARTESER Register – ACR Meeting Abstracts

  https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/epidemiology-and-predictors-of-relapse-in-giant-cell-arteritis-results-of-the-arteser-register/

  Relapses among patients with GCA are common, mainly during the first two years after diagnosis. Between 8 and 18% of patients had multiple relapses. Despite the relevance of this problem, we do not yet have any predictive factors to identify patients with a higher risk of flare. Induction treatment with high-dose IV MP boluses appears to decrease the risk of relapses.

• #66 Epidemiology and Predictors of Relapse in Giant Cell Arteritis: Results of the ARTESER Register – ACR Meeting Abstracts

  https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/epidemiology-and-predictors-of-relapse-in-giant-cell-arteritis-results-of-the-arteser-register/

  Relapses among patients with GCA are common, mainly during the first two years after diagnosis. Between 8 and 18% of patients had multiple relapses. Despite the relevance of this problem, we do not yet have any predictive factors to identify patients with a higher risk of flare. Induction treatment with high-dose IV MP boluses appears to decrease the risk of relapses.

• #67 The spectrum of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: a longitudinal prospective study to assess for subclinical giant cell arteritis in new onset polymyalgia rheumatica | Egyptian Rheumatology and Rehabilitation | Full Text

  https://erar.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43166-025-00307-7

  This has important implications for the patients management, as the standard glucocorticoid dose for the management of PMR may not be effective in preventing serious GCA complications, particularly in those PMR patients with undetected subclinical GCA. […] The presence of intimal media thickening of the temporal artery or its branches/axillary artery at baseline, as well as the occurrence of cranial signs (temporal headaches, temporal artery abnormalities, scalp tenderness, jaw claudication, and/or visual disturbances) or constitutional symptoms at 2 months or later of the PMR onset, are predictors of GCA, which can then be confirmed by performing temporal artery biopsy and/or US. […] Results of this study demonstrated that baseline US assessment of temporal/axillary arteries with OGUS score above 1 portends a higher frequency of developing GCA; hence it can act as a very early predictor. […] Routine screening for subclinical GCA in PMR patients and vice versa should be considered as part of care in the standard clinical setting.

• #68 A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7948334/

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a common large vessel vasculitis in those over age 50 years. This meta-analysis examined the geographical and temporal distribution of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. […] The epidemiology of GCA has been extensively studied. The average age of diagnosis has increased from 75 in the 1950s to 79 in the 2000s. GCA has also been more common in females at a ratio of 2.5:1. Incidence has consistently been found to be highest in Scandinavia and lowest in Asian countries. […] As the population continues to age, the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA are expected to increase. […] This study demonstrates epidemiological trends in GCA with a comprehensive description of updated global pooled incidence, prevalence, and mortality of GCA. Incidence rates vary significantly between regions and are highest in Scandinavia. Temporally, GCA incidence and mortality decreased, while prevalence remained stable. Latitude does influence incidence but not prevalence or mortality in GCA although the results may be underpowered for comparing prevalence and latitude in GCA.

• #69 Giant cell arteritis: reviewing the advancing diagnostics and management | Eye

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41433-023-02433-y

  Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is the most common form of vasculitis with a pooled incidence rate of 10 per 100,000 people over the age of 50 years old. The prevalence in England has been shown to be rising, with increased numbers of people being investigated for suspected GCA and increased recognition of sight loss. World-wide by 2050 over 3 million people will be expected to be diagnosed with GCA and half a million are predicted to have permanent vision loss. […] The incidence of GCA is higher in the northern hemisphere, with the highest incidence being recorded in Scandinavia of 21.6 per 100,000 people, as compared to the European incidence being 7.3 per 100,000. Epidemiology publications on the incidence in Olmsted County, USA which have been extrapolated to reflect the incidence in the USA, may have been an overestimate as the County have a higher portion of people with Scandinavian ancestry. Therefore, the geographical distribution is as expected strongly linked with genetic susceptibility. GCA predominantly affects people 50 years of age, with rising prevalence in the context of an aging population and peak in the 7th decade. Women are two and half times more likely to acquire the condition than men.

• #70 Revisiting the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis

  https://www.clinexprheumatol.org/abstract.asp?a=22198

  In this article, we review the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis (GCA), the most common form of vasculitis in older adults, which primarily affects large and medium-sized arteries. […] As populations age, the incidence of GCA is expected to rise, necessitating greater physician awareness for early diagnosis. […] Advances in diagnostics and genetics may improve understanding and treatment, while research on environmental triggers could aid in prevention. Identifying biomarkers and developing safer therapies remain priorities, with fast-track GCA clinics playing a key role in reducing visual complications.

• #71 Giant cell arteritis: is the clinical spectrum of the disease changing? | BMC Geriatrics | Full Text

  https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12877-019-1225-9

  In recent years there have been a growing interest and knowledge on cases with involvement of extra-cranial territories, in contrast to the classic cranial manifestations. Incidence of extra-cranial disease seems to have been underestimated in the past. […] The widespread use of whole-body imaging techniques (i.e. FDG-PET/CT and CT or MRI angiography) and a greater awareness of the disease in patients with atypical manifestations will probably raise this incidence even more in the future. […] GCA is not always a readily suspected condition. Initial diagnosis often relies on primary care physicians and specialists in Geriatrics, so they should be aware of the importance of a prompt detection to avoid serious and irreversible complications due to the delay in treatment.

• #72 Giant cell arteritis: is the clinical spectrum of the disease changing? | BMC Geriatrics | Full Text

  https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12877-019-1225-9

  In recent years there have been a growing interest and knowledge on cases with involvement of extra-cranial territories, in contrast to the classic cranial manifestations. Incidence of extra-cranial disease seems to have been underestimated in the past. […] The widespread use of whole-body imaging techniques (i.e. FDG-PET/CT and CT or MRI angiography) and a greater awareness of the disease in patients with atypical manifestations will probably raise this incidence even more in the future. […] GCA is not always a readily suspected condition. Initial diagnosis often relies on primary care physicians and specialists in Geriatrics, so they should be aware of the importance of a prompt detection to avoid serious and irreversible complications due to the delay in treatment.

• #73 RINVOQ® (upadacitinib) Receives U.S. FDA Approval for Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA)

  https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/rinvoq-upadacitinib-receives-us-fda-approval-for-giant-cell-arteritis-gca-302441150.html

  RINVOQ (upadacitinib) is now the first and only oral Janus Kinase (JAK) inhibitor approved for the treatment of GCA in adults. Also known as temporal arteritis, GCA is the most common vasculitis affecting adults in Western countries. […] GCA is an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of the temporal and other cranial arteries, the aorta, and other large and medium arteries. […] Caucasian women over the age of 50 most commonly between the ages of 70 and 80 years have the highest risk of developing GCA. Although women are more likely than men to develop GCA, research suggests that men are more likely to have ocular manifestations with their disease. […] GCA can cause headache, jaw pain, and changes in or loss of vision, including sudden and permanent loss of vision. It is the most common vasculitis affecting adults in Western countries.

• #74 RINVOQ® (upadacitinib) for RA, PsA, AD, AS, nr-axSpA, UC, CD, pJIA & JPsA

  https://www.rinvoq.com/

  Adults with giant cell arteritis (GCA). […] RINVOQ is a prescription medicine used to treat: […] Adults with giant cell arteritis (GCA).

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