Materiały źródłowe

• #1 EAU Guidelines on Urolithiasis – Uroweb

  https://uroweb.org/guidelines/urolithiasis/chapter/bladder-stones

  Bladder stones constitute only approximately 5% of all urinary tract stones yet are responsible for 8% of urolithiasis-related mortalities in developed nations. The incidence is higher in developing countries. The prevalence of bladder stones is higher in males, with a reported male-to-female ratio between 10:1 and 4:1. The age distribution is bimodal: incidence peaks at three years in children in developing countries, and 60 years in adulthood. […] The aetiology of bladder stones is typically multi-factorial. Bladder stones can be classified as primary, secondary, or migratory. […] Secondary bladder stones occur in the presence of other urinary tract abnormalities, which include bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), neurogenic bladder dysfunction, chronic bacteriuria, foreign bodies (including catheters), bladder diverticula, and bladder augmentation or urinary diversion. In adults, BOO is the most common predisposing factor for bladder stone formation and accounts for 45-79% of vesical calculi.

• #2 Bladder Stones: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2120102-overview

  Bladder stones constitute only approximately 5% of all urinary tract calculi, but they are responsible for 8% of urolithiasis-related mortalities in developed nations. The incidence of bladder stones is higher in developing countries where children are subject to a diet deficient in animal protein, poor hydration, and recurrent diarrhea. Bladder stones are more common in males, with male:female ratios between 10:1 and 4:1 reported. The age distribution has two peaks: the first at 3 years, in children in developing countries, and the second at 60 years. […] Since the 19th century, the incidence of primary bladder calculi in the United States and Western Europe has been steadily and significantly declining as a consequence of improved diet, better nutrition, and infection control. In these countries, vesical calculi principally affect adults, with a steadily declining frequency in children. In the Western hemisphere, vesical calculi primarily affect men who are usually older than 50 years and have associated bladder outlet obstruction.

• #3 Bladder Stones: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2120102-overview

  However, the incidence of bladder calculi in less developed countries and areas such as Thailand, Burma, Indonesia, the Middle East, and North Africa remains relatively high. Although vesical lithiasis is becoming less common in these populations, it remains a disorder that affects children and it is far more common in boys than in girls. […] Unfortunately, the worldwide data are insufficient to provide a definitive and accurate picture of the frequency of bladder calculi, mostly because of poor hospital records in developing regions of the world. Although several studies have been done in countries with a high incidence of the disease, the reporting is not uniform.

• #4 Urolithiasis (Renal and Urinary Bladder Stone Disease) (VIII.154) – The Cambridge World History of Human Disease

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-human-disease/urolithiasis-renal-and-urinary-bladder-stone-disease/29D082A63D2A851F9176FB01BC8C2BC5

  The major forms of urolithiasis consist of either upper tract stones within the kidneys or ureters (renal stones) or lower tract stones formed within the bladder. These two forms of urolithiasis have distinct differences in etiology, chemical composition, and epidemiological features, and should therefore be considered two separate diseases. […] Historical evidence has shown a striking increase in incidence of renal stone disease in more developed countries over the past 100 years. There has been a simultaneous decrease in bladder stone incidence, demonstrating an inverse relationship between the two disorders. Changes in the environment have a profound effect on the epidemiology of human diseases. An unusual example of this interplay is the role of dietary change in the shifting epidemiological pattern from bladder stone to renal stone disease.

• #5 Bladder Stones – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441944/

  The overall incidence of bladder stones in adults appears to be decreasing in developed countries, likely due to the widespread use of BPH medications such as alpha-blockers and 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (5-ARIs). […] Bladder stones are more common in males than females, particularly in males aged 50 or older, with a male-to-female prevalence ratio ranging from 4:1 to 10:1. […] In children, the overall incidence of bladder stones is also decreasing, primarily due to improved prenatal and postnatal care, as well as a general improvement in neonatal nutritional support. […] The peak incidence of bladder stones occurs at age 3 in children and 60 in adults.

• #6 Bladder calculus | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/bladder-calculus-1?lang=us

  Primary bladder stones are now uncommon in developed countries, and the incidence is continuously declining. However, the incidence is still quite high in developing countries, especially in North Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia endemic areas. This is due to poor hydration, recurrent diarrhea, and a diet deficient in animal protein. […] Family history is found in up to a third of idiopathic cases. […] Secondary bladder stones are due to urinary stasis, including from bladder outlet obstruction, neurogenic bladder, bladder diverticula, cystocele, foreign body, e.g.: indwelling Foley catheter, retained fragment from a removed Foley catheter, surgical sutures (nonabsorbable), bladder augmentation (not with gastric tissue), urinary diversion. […] Migratory stones are either a renal stone or a sloughed renal papilla that serves as a nidus for formation of a bladder stone. This type of stone is uncommon, as virtually any stone that can pass though the ureter, can also pass on through the urethra. A stone will stay stuck in the urinary bladder due to bladder outlet obstruction or bladder dysfunction (similarly to secondary stones), and may be laminated by material other than that of the original stone.

• #7 Bladder calculus | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/bladder-calculus-1?embed_domain=external.radpair.com%252527%25255B0%25255D%252527%25255B0%25255D&lang=gb

  Primary bladder stones are now uncommon in developed countries, and the incidence is continuously declining. However, the incidence is still quite high in developing countries, especially in North Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia endemic areas. This is due to poor hydration, recurrent diarrhoea, and a diet deficient in animal protein. […] Family history is found in up to a third of idiopathic cases. […] Secondary bladder stones are due to urinary stasis, including from bladder outlet obstruction, neurogenic bladder, bladder diverticula, cystocele, foreign body, e.g.: indwelling Foley catheter, retained fragment from a removed Foley catheter, surgical sutures (nonabsorbable), bladder augmentation (not with gastric tissue), urinary diversion. […] Migratory stones are either a renal stone or a sloughed renal papilla that serves as a nidus for formation of a bladder stone. This type of stone is uncommon, as virtually any stone that can pass though the ureter, can also pass on through the urethra. A stone will stay stuck in the urinary bladder due to bladder outlet obstruction or bladder dysfunction (similarly to secondary stones), and may be laminated by material other than that of the original stone.

• #8

  https://journals.lww.com/ursc/fulltext/2019/30020/bladder_calculi_in_taiwan.3.aspx

  In Taiwan, the reported admission rate for bladder calculi was 7.5% of all patients with urolithiasis. The admission rate for bladder calculi was 12.9/100,000 in 2010, with elderly males constituting 91.8% of these patients. Pediatric bladder calculi are rare in Taiwan with a reported prevalence of only 0.047%. […] Only a few studies have focused on the epidemiology of bladder stones because these account for only a small proportion of urolithiasis cases in Taiwan. […] The admission prevalence for bladder stones was 12.9/100,000. The average age of inpatients admitted for bladder stones was higher than the average age of all inpatients admitted for urolithiasis at other locations (66.2 14.1 years vs. 52.1 14.2 years). […] Given the insufficient data regarding bladder stones in the pediatric population, Ni et al. conducted a retrospective study on urolithiasis in children over a period of 11 years at the National Taiwan University Hospital.

• #9 WHO EMRO | Prevalence and etiology of urinary stones in hospitalized patients in Baghdad | Volume 12, issue 6 | EMHJ volume 12, 2006

  https://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-12-2006/volume-12-issue-6/prevalence-and-etiology-of-urinary-stones-in-hospitalized-patients-in-baghdad.html

  Epidemiology and pathogenesis in urinary stones diagnosed in 184 patients were studied. Mean age was 38.3 years. Male to female ratio was 2.5:1. Stones were predominantly of mixed type: calcium oxalate was the commonest compound. Anatomical distribution of urinary stones was 67.4% renal, 12.5% ureteric and 14.6% bladder. Recurrence rate following previous surgical removal was 15.0%. […] The lifelong prevalence of kidney stone has increased throughout the 20th century. It occurs in up to 15% of the population of the United States of America. The incidence of new cases and recurrences may continue to rise. […] Males (71.7%) were more prone to urinary stones than females (28.3%), a ratio of 2.5:1. […] In adults, there is a higher risk of bladder stones in males than in females. The ratio in our study was 7.2:1.

• #10 WHO EMRO | Prevalence and etiology of urinary stones in hospitalized patients in Baghdad | Volume 12, issue 6 | EMHJ volume 12, 2006

  https://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-12-2006/volume-12-issue-6/prevalence-and-etiology-of-urinary-stones-in-hospitalized-patients-in-baghdad.html

  The prevalence of upper urinary tract stones (renal and ureteric) was high in both children (33/39, 84.6%) and adults (117/145, 80.7%). In adults, there was higher prevalence of bladder stones in males (15.2%) than in females (2.1%), a ratio of 7.2:1. […] The highest frequency of patients with urinary stone was in September.

• #11 Urolithiasis (Renal and Urinary Bladder Stone Disease) (VIII.154) – The Cambridge World History of Human Disease

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-human-disease/urolithiasis-renal-and-urinary-bladder-stone-disease/29D082A63D2A851F9176FB01BC8C2BC5

  The large majority of bladder stones occur in young boys from rural or impoverished areas. In these regions, the disorder is known as endemic bladder stone disease. Information from both historical and experimental sources points to a nutritional deficiency during infancy or possibly in utero as the major factor in endemic bladder stone formation. Other less common causes of bladder stone are schistosomiasis (producing bladder wall thickening, stricture, and outlet obstruction) as well as obstruction in elderly males from benign prostatic hypertrophy. […] Although deficiencies of vitamin A, vitamin B6, or magnesium have been suggested in endemic bladder stone disease, low intake of animal protein in combination with high intake of grain carbohydrate is more important. Indeed, it seems that whereas low animal protein intake in infancy may cause bladder stone, a high animal protein diet provokes renal stones (Robertson 1978).

• #12 The association between bacteria and urinary stones

  https://atm.amegroups.org/article/view/12906/html

  Urinary stone disease (USD) is an increasing clinical problem in both children and adults. One in ten individuals will experience a urinary stone, yet the mechanisms responsible for urinary stones remain largely unknown. […] The bacterial contribution to USD formation has long been recognized. Magnesium-ammonium-phosphate (struvite) stones (a conglomeration of bacteria, crystals and protein matrix) form due to urinary tract infection (UTI) with urease-producing bacteria. […] In a whole population survey of Taiwan, a UTI history was the most common associated condition in children with newly diagnosed USD. Overall, 34% of children (44% of females and 24% of males) diagnosed with USD had a history of UTIs. In contrast, the reported childhood UTI prevalence is only 8%. The association between UTI and USD extends into adulthood. For example, in a retrospective review of 1,325 adults admitted for USD to a Swedish hospital over a 7-year period, 28% had a positive standard urine culture.

• #13 EAU Guidelines on Urolithiasis – Uroweb

  https://uroweb.org/guidelines/urolithiasis/chapter/bladder-stones

  Bladder stones will form in 3-4.7% of men undergoing surgery for benign prostatic obstruction (BPO), 19-39% and 36-67% of motor-incomplete and motor-complete spinal cord injury patients, respectively, and 2.2% of patients with long-term catheters. […] The metabolic abnormalities which predispose patients to form secondary bladder stones are poorly understood. […] Low urine volume (poor hydration) is the most consistently demonstrable abnormality. […] The incidence of vesical calculus formation after bladder augmentation is 2-44% in adults, and 4-53% in children. Following cystoplasty, stones form after 24-31 months in adults, and after 25-68 months in children. […] The incidence of bladder stone formation in spinal cord injury patients is 19-67% over time. The absolute annual risk of stone formation in spinal cord injury patients is significantly higher with an indwelling catheter compared to those voiding with CISC or spontaneously. […] Regular bladder irrigation reduces the chances of bladder stone recurrence in adults and children with bladder augmentation or continent cutaneous urinary diversion and adults with spinal cord injury who perform CISC.

• #14

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00240-015-0835-8

  Urological surgery evolved from the ancient practice of removing primary bladder stones from young boys. Bladder stones, once ubiquitous, long ago disappeared from the developed world while pockets of disease still exist in developing countries. […] Two epidemiological studies identified as precipitating events of bladder stone formation the practice of substitutive carbohydrate feedings to newborns. […] In an epidemiological study, during mid-nineteenth century in England the prevalence of dairy cattle was inversely related to the prevalence of bladder stones. […] These epidemiological data relate stone formation to nutrition during the first few days or weeks of life. […] The role of early introduction of carbohydrate foods and reduced milk intake of neonates has not been incorporated into recommendations for feeding newborns in endemic countries nor comprehensively modeled in animals.

• #15 History, epidemiology and regional diversities of urolithiasis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2778769/

  Archeological findings give profound evidence that humans have suffered from kidney and bladder stones for centuries. […] The incidence of urolithiasis in a given population was dependent on the geographic area, racial distribution, socio-economic status and dietary habits. […] Changes in socio-economic conditions over time, and the subsequent changes in dietary habits, have affected not only the incidence but also the site and chemical composition of calculi. […] The overall probability that an individual will form stones varies in different parts of the world. The risk of developing urolithiasis in adults appears to be higher in the western hemisphere (59% in Europe, 12% in Canada, 13-15% in the USA) than in the eastern hemisphere (15%), although the highest risks have been reported in some Asian countries such as Saudi Arabia (20.1%).

• #16

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00467-008-0960-5

  Archeological findings give profound evidence that humans have suffered from kidney and bladder stones for centuries. […] The incidence of urolithiasis in a given population was dependent on the geographic area, racial distribution, socio-economic status and dietary habits. […] Changes in socio-economic conditions over time, and the subsequent changes in dietary habits, have affected not only the incidence but also the site and chemical composition of calculi. […] The overall probability that an individual will form stones varies in different parts of the world. […] The risk of developing urolithiasis in adults appears to be higher in the western hemisphere (59% in Europe, 12% in Canada, 13-15% in the USA) than in the eastern hemisphere (15%). […] The incidence of bladder stones has been gradually decreasing during the past 100 years in Europe, with a steeper slope in some Asian countries where this tendency has changed quite significantly since the 1980s.

• #17 History, epidemiology and regional diversities of urolithiasis. – Document – Gale Academic OneFile

  https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA608216785&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=0931041X&p=AONE&sw=w

  Archeological findings give profound evidence that humans have suffered from kidney and bladder stones for centuries. […] The incidence of urolithiasis in a given population was dependent on the geographic area, racial distribution, socio-economic status and dietary habits. […] Extensive epidemiological observations have emphasized the importance of nutritional factors in the pathogenesis of urolithiasis, and specific dietary advice is, nowadays, often the most appropriate for prevention and treatment of urolithiasis.

• #18 History, epidemiology and regional diversities of urolithiasis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2778769/

  The incidence of bladder stones has been gradually decreasing during the past 100 years in Europe, with a steeper slope in some Asian countries where this tendency has changed quite significantly since the 1980s. […] The higher incidence of urolithiasis in many of these countries is possibly determined by the high consanguinity that prevails among ethnic groups that live in these geographical areas. […] The prevalence of calculi ranges from 4% to 20%. […] The higher prevalence of urolithiasis in many of those countries is possibly determined by the high consanguinity that prevails among ethnic groups that live in those geographical areas and which may reach 72% according to recent studies. […] The incidence varies by region, but urolithiasis is most common in the southeastern region of the country, where the states of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Kentucky are described collectively as the North American stone belt.

• #19

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00467-008-0960-5

  The higher prevalence of urolithiasis in many of those countries is possibly determined by the high consanguinity that prevails among ethnic groups that live in those geographical areas and which may reach 72% according to recent studies. […] The prevalence of calculi ranges from 4% to 20%. […] The incidence of urinary stones is higher in countries with warm or hot climates, probably due to low urinary output and scant fluid intake. […] Epidemiologic observations leave no doubt that diet plays a major, if not the most important, role in the pathogenesis of urolithiasis. […] The higher prevalence of urolithiasis in Saudi Arabia than in the USA and Europe has been ascribed to a high intake of animal protein, which was 10% and 50% higher than in the USA and Europe, respectively. […] A nutritionally poor diet that is low in animal protein, calcium and phosphate but high in cereal and therefore acidogenic is the main factor that leads to the development of bladder stones in children in underdeveloped countries.

• #20 Urinary Bladder Stones – Bladder Calculi: Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.urology-textbook.com/bladder-stones.html

  Bladder stones are a common form of urolithiasis of the lower urinary tract. […] Malnutrition in developing countries causes bladder stones in children without bladder emptying disorders. […] The cause of urinary bladder stone formation in children is a diet mainly with cereals and too little proteins. […] Urinary bladder stones in developed countries usually form secondary due to urinary stasis, recurrent urinary tract infections, foreign bodies, or intestinal mucosa in the urinary tract (urinary diversion or augmentation). […] Postvoid residual urine (urinary stasis) is the most common cause of bladder stones (75%) and mainly affects men over 50. […] Recurrent or chronic urinary tract infections with urease-producing bacteria lead to magnesium ammonium phosphate stones. […] The risk of urinary stone formation (448%) depends on the type of urinary diversion.

• #21 The association between bacteria and urinary stones

  https://atm.amegroups.org/article/view/12906/html

  In addition to the aforementioned association between culture-positive urine and USD, bacteria can be cultured from the stones themselves. Studies from 1973 to the present in both Asia and North America have demonstrated that bacteria can be isolated from approximately 15-70% of stones following clinical culture. […] To further evaluate the association between USD and bacteria, we compared the renal bacterial burden and CaOx deposit number per cross section in mice with CaOx nephropathy and pyelonephritis by transurethral inoculation of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) induced alone and in combination. […] Bacteria and USD are clinically associated because they often occur in the same patients and USD patients often have positive urine and/or stone cultures. Whether they are mechanistically associated is an emerging research topic.

• #22 Pathophysiology associated with forming urinary stones | Urología Colombiana

  https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-urologia-colombiana-398-articulo-pathophysiology-associated-with-forming-urinary-S0120789X16300405

  It is the third most common urological disease after urinary tract infection and prostate disease. Its prevalence varies between 2 and 20% worldwide and it appears to relate to the geographical and socioeconomic characteristics of different populations. […] Its incidence has considerably increased in recent decades in all industrialized countries, due to profound modifications in dietary habits and lifestyle, characterized by a high calorie intake, combined with reduced physical activity, among other risk factors. […] Urolithiasis has a high recurrence rate after the first episode (50%); 14% have recurrence within a year, 35% at 5 years, and 52% in 10 years. […] This risk appears to be greater in the western hemisphere, with reported prevalences of 9.5% in Europe, 12% in Canada, 13-15% in the USA, and 5.1% in the eastern hemisphere. However, the highest risk has occurred in some countries like Saudi Arabia (20.1%). […] The most prevalent stones are calcium (60-65%), including calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, and others, followed by struvite (5-15%) and uric acid (5-10%); cystine stones are uncommon and they account for 1-3% of all calculi types.

• #23 Kidney Stones: Treatment and Prevention | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0415/p490.html

  The prevalence of nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) is increasing in the United States, from one in 20 adults in 1994 to one in 11 adults in 2010. Worldwide, it is also increasing in Europe and is even higher in the hot-climate stone belt extending from the southeastern United States to northern Australia. Increasing exposure to these risk factors may explain the rising incidence of kidney stones and their prevalence in men, non-Hispanic whites, and persons with low socioeconomic status. The annual incidence of kidney stones is about eight cases per 1,000 adults and peaks around midlife in developed countries. […] Patients at risk of stone recurrence should be referred for additional metabolic testing (e.g., 24-hour urine collection for total volume, pH, and calcium oxalate, uric acid, citrate, sodium, potassium, and creatinine levels) and individualized preventive measures.

• #24 Pathophysiology associated with forming urinary stones | Urología Colombiana

  https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-urologia-colombiana-398-articulo-pathophysiology-associated-with-forming-urinary-S0120789X16300405

  Urolithiasis has become a chronic disease that has had a major impact on both the quality of life and working situation of the patient. It has a significant impact on the health system due to its high recurrence. […] At present, calculi in the urinary tract can be considered as a chronic disease with a major impact on the quality of life. In the United States, prevalence of urolithiasis is 8.8% for general population, being higher in men than in women (10.6 and 7.1%, respectively). […] Its prevalence is increasing and it depends on diverse factors, resulting in an economic burden on the health system. Costs increase due to frequent consultations, diagnostic tests, prolonged hospital stays, surgical procedures, broad-spectrum antibiotics or extended regimens, and secondary hospitalizations due to complications triggered by this disease.

• #25 Overview of the Incidence, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Urinary Stones

  https://www.urologytimes.com/view/overview-of-the-incidence-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-urinary-stones

  The prevalence of kidney stones has increased over 80% over the last 30 years, and the epidemiology has changed such that it’s beginning at a younger age now, says Gregory Tasian, MD, MSc, MSCE. […] The prevalence of kidney stones has increased over 80% over the last 30 years, and the epidemiology has changed such that it’s beginning at a younger age now, says Gregory Tasian, MD, MSc, MSCE.

• #26 Medical Management of Common Urinary Calculi | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2006/0701/p86.html

  The prevalence of urinary calculi is estimated to be 5 percent in the general population, with an annual incidence of as much as 1 percent. Men are twice as likely as women to develop calculi, with the first episode occurring at an average age of 30 years. Women have a bimodal age of onset, with episodes peaking at 35 and 55 years. Without preventive treatment, the recurrence rate of calcium oxalate calculi increases with time and reaches 50 percent at 10 years. […] Urinary stone disease is a significant health problem in the United States, with an estimated cost of $2 billion (based on 2003 dollars) per year.

• #27

  https://journals.lww.com/cmre/fulltext/2023/13020/evolving_epidemiology_and_chemical_analysis_of.2.aspx

  The incidence of kidney stones in our study showed a variable pattern when compared with age. […] The recurrent stone formation has also been linked to a genetic aetiology with a complex and polygenic mode of inheritance. […] The incidence of renal stone disease is increasing slowly but steadily and has become a hidden economic burden.

• #28 Bladder Cancer Risk Higher in Urinary Stone Formers – Renal and Urology News

  https://www.renalandurologynews.com/news/bladder-cancer-risk-higher-in-urinary-stone-formers/

  Having a history of urinary calculi may increase a persons risks for developing bladder cancer, a new meta-analysis suggests. […] Based on pooled data from 13 studies, stone formers had nearly 2-fold greater odds of bladder cancer compared with non-stone-formers, Guo Wenbin, MD, of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University in Guangzhou, China, and collaborators reported in Urolithiasis. The odds of bladder cancer were 2-fold higher among patients with a history of bladder stones and 1.4-fold higher among those with a history of kidney stones. […] A history of urinary stones was associated with 3-fold greater odds of bladder cancer among women compared with 2-fold greater odds among men. […] The odds of bladder cancer among individuals with a history of urinary stones were 1.6-, 1.4-, and 3-fold higher in America, Europe, and Asia, respectively.

• #29 Renal Stones – Clinical Features – Management – TeachMeSurgery

  https://teachmesurgery.com/urology/kidney/renal-stones/

  Bladder stones typically form from urine stasis within the bladder, hence are commonly seen in cases of chronic urinary retention. They may also occur secondary to infections (classically schistosomiasis) or as passed ureteric stones, however if they are identified in a male patient, then bladder outflow surgery should be considered. […] They will most often present with lower urinary tract symptoms and require investigation the same as for renal and ureteric stones. Definitive management is through cystoscopy, allowing the stones to drain or fragmenting them through lithotripsy if required. […] The chronic irritation of the bladder epithelium from a bladder stone can also predispose to the development of SCC bladder cancer.

• #30 Urolithiasis (Urinary Tract Stones and Bladder Stones)

  https://patient.info/doctor/urinary-tract-stones-urolithiasis

  Bladder stones (calculi) account for around 5% of urinary tract stones and usually occur because of foreign bodies, obstruction or infection. The most common cause of bladder stones is urinary stasis due to failure of emptying the bladder completely on urination, with the majority of cases occurring in men with bladder outflow obstruction. Approximately 5% of bladder stones occur in women and are usually associated with foreign bodies such as sutures, synthetic tapes or meshes, and urinary stasis, so bladder stones should always be considered in women investigated for irritable bladder symptoms or recurrent urinary tract infections. […] Patients with indwelling Foley catheters are also at high risk for developing bladder stones and there appears to be a significant association between bladder stones and the formation of malignant bladder tumours in these patients.

• #31

  https://journals.lww.com/ursc/fulltext/2019/30020/bladder_calculi_in_taiwan.3.aspx

  The occurrence of bladder stones is more frequent in patients with SCI and following long-term Foley indwelling when compared to that in the general population. […] The occurrence of bladder calculi in renal transplant patients is very rare. Only a few case reports have been published, and in most reports, stone formation was induced by nonabsorbable suture material or surgical clips. […] Various studies have investigated the relationship between bladder stones and bladder cancer. […] This study emphasized that patients with bladder cancer had a relatively high incidence of bladder stones. […] The authors concluded that urolithiasis increases the risk of subsequent UTC, especially upper UTC.

• #32 History, epidemiology and regional diversities of urolithiasis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2778769/

  In summary, the epidemiology of renal stones with regard to stone composition is continuing to change all over the world towards a predominance of calcium oxalate stones. Major differences in the frequency of the other constituents, particularly uric acid and struvite, reflect particular eating habits and infection risk factors specific to certain population.

• #33 Analysis of components and related risk factors of urinary stones: a retrospective study of 1055 patients in southern China | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80147-1

  We conducted a retrospective study of 1055 patients with urinary stones who attended our single center from September 2017 to June 2024. […] The incidence of urolithiasis is relatively high in southern China. […] In Asia, Europe, and North America, the prevalence is 15%, 59%, and 13%, respectively. […] A survey conducted by Zeng et al. showed that about one in 17 adults suffered from kidney stones in China. […] Furthermore, epidemiological data showed that the recurrence rate of urolithiasis was 50% within 5-10 years and 75% within 20 years. […] Factors that increase the predisposition to urinary stones include gender, age, body mass index (BMI), and geographical environment, leading to various stone components with different clinical characteristics. […] The multivariate analysis showed that higher serum albumin level was a risk factor for CaOx stone formation (OR=2.959; 95% CI 1.470-5.953, P=0.002).

• #34 Analysis of components and related risk factors of urinary stones: a retrospective study of 1055 patients in southern China | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80147-1

  Women were more likely to develop infection stones than men (OR=1.796; 95% CI 1.150-2.803, P=0.010). […] As the urine pH increased, the risk of infection stones formation increased (OR=2.521; 95% CI 1.809-3.513, P=0.001). […] Moreover, a history of hypertension (OR=2.339; 95% CI 1.409-3.881, P=0.001), low urine pH (OR=0.242; 95% CI 0.147-0.399, P=0.001), and low serum albumin level (OR=0.351; 95% CI 0.125-0.988, P=0.047) were risk factors for the formation of UA stones. […] The multivariate analysis showed that higher serum albumin level was a risk factor for CaOx stone formation. […] The formation of UA stones was closely related to low urine pH. […] The multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that a history of hypertension, low urine pH, and low serum albumin level were high-risk factors for the formation of UA stones.

• #35 Composition of Uroliths seen in patients in Abuja, Nigeria: a single centre retrospective analysis of 155 stones | African Journal of Urology | Full Text

  https://afju.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12301-021-00195-1

  The present study shows that more males were seen with urolithiasis than females. This finding is in agreement with other studies done in Enugu, Nigeria; Kelantan, Malaysia and South India where a male to female ratio of 3.3:1, 1.35:1 and 1.8:1 was found. The higher prevalence in males may be due to their higher level of androgens which have been reported to promote stone formation, while estrogens in females suppress stone formation. […] Majority of patients with stones in this study were middle-aged. This is consistent with reports from other studies which show that urinary stone disease peaks in the 4th and 5th decades of life. […] As in this study, authors from Kenya, India and China reported that the majority of stones seen were in the upper tract. […] Calcium oxalate existing either in monohydrate or dihydrate form or mixed with other stone constituents, was the most common urolith seen. This was similar to what was found in the United States of America and South Eastern Europe.

• #36 Composition of Uroliths seen in patients in Abuja, Nigeria: a single centre retrospective analysis of 155 stones | African Journal of Urology | Full Text

  https://afju.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12301-021-00195-1

  Across all ages, Calcium oxalate stones were the most common stones seen in our patients with a peak between ages 4150 years. […] Struvite stones are thought to be more common in women and persons over 50 years presumably because they are more prone to urinary tract infections. […] Stones in our experience were of mixed composition. The most common constituent of stones amongst Nigerians across all ages was calcium oxalate. The least common stone constituent represented was struvite. All stones, including calcium oxalate stones were more common in males than in females. Calcium oxalate stones were more common in the upper tract than in the lower tract, while 2 of the 3 struvite stones were found in the bladder.

• #37 Epidemiology of urolithiasis in dogs from Guadalajara City, Mexico

  http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2448-67602019000100009

  In cases of struvite and CaOx urolithiasis, differences have been published concerning the frequency of these uroliths, as studies in Brazil, United Kingdom, and Hungary report struvite urolithiasis as the most frequent. In other geographical areas such as Spain and Portugal, France, and Switzerland, CaOx is reported to be the most common mineral of uroliths. […] Silicate uroliths were found in 9.23% of the cases studied. This type of urolithiasis has not been reported in epidemiological studies conducted in geographical areas such as France, Hungary, or Ireland; or they have been reported with a frequency of less than 1%, as in Brazil, United Kingdom, Spain and Portugal, and Canada. […] The higher frequency in males can be associated with the urinary tract anatomy, since males have a narrower and longer urethra, while the females urethra is shorter and lax, allowing a urolith to be more easily expelled.

• #38 Urinary stone analysis and clinical characteristics of 496 patients in Taiwan | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-64869-w

  The incidence of bladder calculi has dramatically declined in recent years along with economic growth. Bladder calculi make up between 3% and 15% of all urinary stones in Asia. Similar findings were found in our study, where bladder calculi accounted for about 10.4% of cases. […] In this study, a noticeable sex disparity was observed, with a male-to-female composition ratio of 1.99:1. This finding is consistent with previous research conducted in Taiwan, China, and other Asian countries. The higher occurrence of CaOx and UA stones in males may be attributed to the higher levels of androgens and lower urine pH, which have been shown to promote their formation. […] Based on this study, urolithiasis is exceptionally rare in individuals below the age of 18 and beyond the age of 80. After reaching 18 years of age, the prevalence of urolithiasis steadily rises, peaking at 5160-year-old middle-aged individuals, and then steadily declines, which is consistent with trends observed in most countries.

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