Rak komórek hürthle
Etiologia i przyczyny

Rak komórek Hürthle (HCC) stanowi 3-5% złośliwych nowotworów tarczycy i charakteryzuje się obecnością onkocytarnych komórek bogatych w mitochondria, zajmujących do 75% objętości komórki. Etiologia HCC wiąże się z mutacjami w mitochondrialnym DNA (m.in. polimorfizmy genu ATPase 6, delecje mtDNA), mutacjami w genie RAS, nadekspresją p53, mutacjami GRIM-19 oraz utratą heterozygotyczności prowadzącą do niemal homozygotycznego genomu. Charakterystyczne są zmiany chromosomalne na chromosomach 5, 7, 12 i 17, które odróżniają HCC od raka pęcherzykowego. Komórki Hürthle wykazują oporność na apoptozę, zwiększoną produkcję reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS) oraz zaburzenia segregacji chromosomów, co sprzyja progresji nowotworu. Czynniki ryzyka obejmują ekspozycję na promieniowanie jonizujące, wywiad rodzinny, wiek powyżej 40-50 lat, płeć żeńską, niedobór jodu oraz współistniejące choroby tarczycy, takie jak Hashimoto czy choroba Gravesa-Basedowa.

Etiologia raka komórek Hürthle

Rak komórek Hürthle (HCC, Hürthle cell carcinoma) jest rzadkim, agresywnym typem raka tarczycy, stanowiącym około 3-5% wszystkich nowotworów złośliwych tarczycy. Jest to nowotwór charakteryzujący się obecnością szczególnych komórek onkocytarnych (komórek Hürthle) bogatych w mitochondria i wykazujących eozynofilową cytoplazmę.12 Przez lata był klasyfikowany jako wariant raka pęcherzykowego, jednak najnowsze badania sugerują, że jest to odrębna jednostka chorobowa o unikalnym profilu mutacji, charakterystyce patologicznej i przebiegu klinicznym.3

Podłoże genetyczne i molekularne

Dokładna przyczyna rozwoju raka komórek Hürthle pozostaje nieznana, jednak badania wskazują na złożone podłoże genetyczne i molekularne tej choroby:45

  • Mutacje w DNA mitochondrialnym – germlinalne polimorfizmy genu ATPase 6 są wskazywane jako ważne w patogenezie nowotworu; w komórkach Hürthle występuje zwiększona częstość występowania delecji w mitochondrialnym DNA67
  • Mutacje w kompleksie I łańcucha oddechowego mitochondriów89
  • Utrata heterozygotyczności (LOH) – szeroko rozpowszechniona utrata całych chromosomów, prowadząca do prawie homozygotycznego genomu, co stanowi charakterystyczną cechę tego nowotworu10
  • Specyficzne mutacje onkogenów, takich jak RAS1112
  • Nadekspresja genu p531113
  • Mutacje somatyczne w genie GRIM-19 (pierwsza opisana mutacja genu jądrowego związana z podgrupą HCC)1113
  • Mutacje w genach kodujących receptor tyreotropiny i podjednostkę alfa stymulującego białka G11
  • Zmiany w chromosomach 5, 7, 12 i 20, które są zwykle zachowane pomimo utraty innych chromosomów93

Badania wykazały, że komórki raka Hürthle mają unikalny profil chromosomalny, odróżniający je od raka pęcherzykowego. W HCC obserwuje się duże regiony przyrostu na chromosomach 5, 7, 12 i 17, których nie stwierdza się w raku pęcherzykowym.3 Te zmiany genetyczne prowadzą do zakłócenia normalnych szlaków sygnalizacyjnych kontrolujących wzrost i przeżycie komórek.1

Patogeneza nowotworu

Rak komórek Hürthle rozwija się, gdy komórki tarczycy podlegają zmianom w swoim DNA. Te zmiany, nazywane przez lekarzy mutacjami, powodują, że komórki tarczycy rosną i mnożą się szybko. Komórki nabywają zdolność do dalszego życia, gdy inne komórki naturalnie obumierałyby. Nagromadzone komórki tworzą masę nazywaną guzem, który może naciekać i niszczyć zdrowe tkanki w pobliżu oraz rozprzestrzeniać się (przerzutować) do innych części ciała.414

Komórki Hürthle charakteryzują się nadmierną liczbą mitochondriów, które zajmują do 75% objętości komórki. Ta akumulacja mitochondriów jest wynikiem zaburzeń w mitochondrialnym DNA kodującym enzymy mitochondrialne, prowadzących do proliferacji poprzez stymulację czynników transkrypcyjnych kodowanych przez jądro komórkowe.15 Komórki te wykazują również zdolność do oporności na apoptozę, co może być związane z nieprawidłowościami mitochondrialnymi.1617

Dysfunkcja mitochondriów prowadzi do zwiększonej produkcji reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS), co może przyczyniać się do niestabilności chromosomowej i dalszej progresji nowotworu.18 Mechanizm ten może być regulowany poprzez zwiększoną fosforylację CHK2, co z kolei może przyczyniać się do opóźnienia chromosomów i ich niewłaściwej segregacji podczas podziału komórki.18

Czynniki ryzyka raka komórek Hürthle

Mimo że dokładna przyczyna rozwoju raka komórek Hürthle pozostaje nieznana, zidentyfikowano kilka czynników ryzyka, które zwiększają prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju tego nowotworu:1920

  • Ekspozycja na promieniowanie – narażenie na promieniowanie jonizujące, szczególnie w regionie głowy, szyi lub klatki piersiowej, jest uznanym czynnikiem ryzyka. Dotyczy to zarówno narażenia w dzieciństwie na promieniowanie medyczne, jak i środowiskowe.121 Pacjenci z wcześniejszą ekspozycją na promieniowanie mogą mieć zwiększoną obustronność i wieloogniskowość HCC w momencie rozpoznania.22
  • Wywiad rodzinny – obecność raka tarczycy u krewnych pierwszego stopnia zwiększa ryzyko zachorowania.195 Niektóre zespoły genetyczne, w tym zespół mnogiej gruczolakowatości wewnątrzwydzielniczej typu 1 (MEN 1) i rodzinny rak tarczycy bez komponenty rdzeniastej, są związane ze zwiększoną częstością występowania raka onkocytarnego.1 Należy jednak zauważyć, że rak komórek Hürthle rzadko występuje rodzinnie.23
  • Wiek – rak komórek Hürthle występuje częściej u osób powyżej 40-50 roku życia, ze szczytem zachorowań między 50 a 60 rokiem życia.2425 Jest to średnio o około 10 lat więcej niż w przypadku innych typów raka tarczycy.24
  • Płeć – nowotwór występuje około trzy razy częściej u kobiet niż u mężczyzn.2627 Dokładna przyczyna tej dysproporcji nie jest znana, prowadzone są badania nad związkiem między rakiem tarczycy a hormonami, ciążą i miesiączkowaniem.28
  • Niedobór jodu – długotrwały niedobór jodu w diecie może być czynnikiem przyczyniającym się do rozwoju raka tarczycy.11 Interesujące jest jednak, że w przeciwieństwie do raka pęcherzykowego tarczycy, rak komórek Hürthle jest częstszy w regionach bogatych w jod niż w obszarach, gdzie występuje niedobór jodu.22
  • Istniejące schorzenia tarczycy – osoby z wcześniej istniejącymi chorobami tarczycy, takimi jak zapalenie tarczycy Hashimoto, choroba Gravesa-Basedowa, wole guzkowe czy gruczolaki, mogą mieć zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka komórek Hürthle.129 Komórki Hürthle mogą być również obecne w różnych innych stanach tarczycy, takich jak napromienianie tarczycy, zapalenie limfocytarne i choroba Gravesa-Basedowa.24
  • Wielkość guza – większy rozmiar guzka Hürthle (>4 cm) jest związany z wyższym ryzykiem złośliwości.3024

Mechanizmy wzrostu i progresji nowotworu

Rak komórek Hürthle charakteryzuje się agresywnym przebiegiem i większą skłonnością do przerzutów w porównaniu z innymi zróżnicowanymi rakami tarczycy.3132 Cechy, które przyczyniają się do jego agresywnego charakteru, obejmują:

  • Większą tendencję do inwazji naczyniowej (angioinwazja) – rak komórek Hürthle wykazuje większe ryzyko wrastania do naczyń krwionośnych w obrębie tarczycy i wokół niej.32 Zakres inwazji naczyniowej jest szczególnie ważnym czynnikiem wpływającym na zachowanie nowotworu, gdyż przypadki z istotną inwazją naczyniową mają wysokie wskaźniki nawrotów i częstsze rozprzestrzenianie się poza obszar szyi.33
  • Większą skłonność do przerzutów do węzłów chłonnych oraz przerzutów odległych – około 10-20% pacjentów ma przerzuty w momencie diagnozy, a do 37% przypadków z naciekaniem pozatarczycowym daje przerzuty do szyjnych węzłów chłonnych.34
  • Mniejszą wrażliwość na terapię radiojodem – komórki raka Hürthle zazwyczaj nie wykazują zdolności do wychwytywania jodu radioaktywnego, co ogranicza skuteczność tej formy terapii.3536 Czułość diagnostycznego obrazowania radiojodem (RIS) przy użyciu 131I może być tak niska jak 18%.37
  • Zaburzenia metaboliczne – komórki nowotworu wykazują reprogramowanie metaboliczne związane z niestabilnością chromosomową, co może przyczyniać się do progresji choroby.18

Współczesne badania nad biologią molekularną raka komórek Hürthle sugerują, że każdy guz może powstawać w wyniku unikalnych zaburzeń w sygnalizacji komórkowej, prowadząc ostatecznie do zmiennie indolentnej lub agresywnej choroby.38 Model progresji krokowej od gruczolaka, przez minimalnie inwazyjnego raka, do szeroko inwazyjnego raka komórek Hürthle jest obecnie kwestionowany na rzecz teorii odrębnych jednostek chorobowych o różnych podłożach genetycznych.38

Czynniki prognostyczne

Rak komórek Hürthle jest związany z wyższym wskaźnikiem przerzutów i niższym wskaźnikiem przeżycia w porównaniu z innymi zróżnicowanymi rakami tarczycy. HCC z przerzutami odległymi ma 5-letni wskaźnik śmiertelności sięgający 80%.34 Zidentyfikowano kilka czynników prognostycznych, które wpływają na rokowanie pacjentów z rakiem komórek Hürthle:

  • Wiek – pacjenci powyżej 45-50 roku życia mają gorsze rokowanie.3435
  • Wielkość guza – większe guzy są związane z gorszym rokowaniem.3435
  • Płeć – w niektórych badaniach płeć męska była niezależnym czynnikiem ryzyka nawrotu lub zgonu wśród pacjentów z szeroko inwazyjnym HCC.39
  • Zaawansowanie choroby – stopień zaawansowania według SEER jest niezależnym czynnikiem prognostycznym dla HCC, a choroba odległa jest związana ze znacznie gorszym rokowaniem.34
  • Inwazja naczyniowa – zakres inwazji naczyniowej jest istotnym czynnikiem wpływającym na zachowanie nowotworu.33
  • Typ histologiczny – rokowanie różni się między minimalnie i szeroko inwazyjnymi typami HCC.40 Pacjenci z wariantem szeroko inwazyjnym mają znacznie gorsze przeżycie wolne od choroby.40
  • Naciekanie pozatarczycowe – szczególnie rozległe (makroskopowe) naciekanie pozatarczycowe jest niezależnym czynnikiem ryzyka związanym z gorszym przeżyciem wolnym od choroby.40
  • Przerzuty – obecność przerzutów do węzłów chłonnych i przerzutów odległych znacząco pogarsza rokowanie.35
  • Nawrót choroby – nawrót często wskazuje na gorsze rokowanie i zwiększoną śmiertelność.34

Podsumowanie

Rak komórek Hürthle jest rzadkim, ale agresywnym typem nowotworu tarczycy o złożonej etiologii. Chociaż dokładna przyczyna jego rozwoju pozostaje nieznana, badania wskazują na istotną rolę mutacji w DNA mitochondrialnym, niestabilności chromosomowej i aktywacji onkogenów. Czynniki ryzyka obejmują ekspozycję na promieniowanie, wywiad rodzinny raka tarczycy, starszy wiek, płeć żeńską oraz istniejące schorzenia tarczycy.1195

Nowotwór ten charakteryzuje się unikalnym profilem molekularnym i agresywnym przebiegiem klinicznym z wyższym ryzykiem inwazji naczyniowej i przerzutów w porównaniu z innymi zróżnicowanymi rakami tarczycy. Zrozumienie genetycznych i molekularnych podstaw raka komórek Hürthle jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii diagnostycznych i terapeutycznych dla pacjentów z tym rzadkim, ale niebezpiecznym nowotworem.4142

Najnowsze badania koncentrują się na identyfikacji specyficznych szlaków sygnałowych, takich jak mTOR, które mogą stanowić potencjalne cele terapeutyczne dla raka komórek Hürthle, szczególnie w przypadkach opornych na standardowe leczenie radiojodem.41 Lepsze zrozumienie unikalnej biologii tego nowotworu może prowadzić do rozwoju ukierunkowanych terapii, które poprawią rokowanie pacjentów z tym agresywnym typem raka tarczycy.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Oncocytic (Hürthle Cell) Thyroid Carcinoma | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/131177
    Various genetic, environmental, and biological factors influence the development of oncocytic thyroid cancer. This type of cancer originates from specialized follicular thyroid cells called oncocytes, characterized by their abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm and high mitochondrial content. The pathogenesis of oncocytic cancer is associated with specific genetic mutations, particularly in mitochondrial DNA, and changes in nuclear genes. Mutations in oncogenes like BRAF and HRAS and inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (eg, PTEN) have been identified, indicating a disruption of normal cellular signaling pathways that control cell growth and survival. […] Environmental factors also play a significant role in the development of oncocytic thyroid carcinoma. Exposure to ionizing radiation, especially during childhood, has been established as a risk factor for various thyroid malignancies, including oncocytic carcinoma. Individuals with preexisting thyroid conditions, such as adenomas or goiter, may have an elevated risk of developing oncocytic cancer. Additionally, genetic syndromes, including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN 1) and familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer, have been associated with an increased incidence of oncocytic carcinoma.
  • #2 What is Hurthle cell carcinoma? | MD Anderson Cancer Center
    https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/4-facts-about-hurthle-cell-carcinoma.h00-159617067.html
    There are four main types of thyroid cells: follicular, papillary, medullary and Hurthle. […] Although Hurthle cell carcinoma is rare, it can be aggressive. […] But Hurthle cells alone arent always a cause for concern. […] The presence of Hurthle cells or any other potentially cancerous cells within a thyroid just means we need to do more investigating to see whats going on inside that nodule that has a majority of those cells. […] There are far fewer Hurthle cells in our bodies than other cells, so the odds of Hurthle cell carcinoma are low. And, there are many more benign Hurthle cells than malignant ones. […] The risk of Hurthle cell nodules being cancerous is about 15%, compared to papillary types of cells, which make up about 80% of thyroid cancer diagnoses.
  • #3 Hurthle cell carcinoma: current perspectives | OTT
    https://www.dovepress.com/huumlrthle-cell-carcinoma-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-OTT
    HCC is currently classified as a variant of follicular carcinoma according to the World Health Organization (WHO). However, recent data have called into question whether HCC is indeed a variant of follicular carcinoma or a distinct entity with a different mutational profile, unique pathologic signature, and clinical behavior. […] A recent study of 27 Hrthle cell tumor samples (8 Hrthle cell adenomas, 9 minimally invasive HCCs, and 10 widely invasive HCCs) used mass spectrometry-based genotyping to interrogate hot spot point mutations in the most common thyroid oncogenes, and real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to assess for common oncogenic fusions. […] This study also showed that the chromosomal copy number profiles of HCCs were distinct from follicular carcinomas, as large regions of gain on chromosomes 5, 7, 12, and 17 are observed in HCC, but they are not seen in follicular carcinoma.
  • #4 Mayo Clinic Health Library – Hurthle cell cancer | Swiss Medical Network
    https://www.swissmedical.net/en/healtcare-library/con-20373556
    It’s not clear what causes Hurthle cell cancer. […] This cancer begins when cells in the thyroid develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA contains the instructions that tell a cell what to do. The DNA changes, which doctors call mutations, tell the thyroid cells to grow and multiply quickly. The cells develop the ability to continue living when other cells would naturally die. The accumulating cells form a mass called a tumor that can invade and destroy healthy tissue nearby and spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body.
  • #5 Hurthle cell cancer – Hancock Health
    https://www.hancockhealth.org/mayo-health-library/hurthle-cell-cancer/
    Hurthle cell cancer is a rare cancer that affects the thyroid gland. […] It’s not clear what causes Hurthle cell cancer. […] This cancer begins when cells in the thyroid develop changes in their DNA. A cells DNA contains the instructions that tell a cell what to do. The DNA changes, which doctors call mutations, tell the thyroid cells to grow and multiply quickly. The cells develop the ability to continue living when other cells would naturally die. The accumulating cells form a mass called a tumor that can invade and destroy healthy tissue nearby and spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. […] Factors that increase the risk of developing thyroid cancer include: Being female, Being older, Having a history of radiation treatments to the head and neck, Having a family history of thyroid cancer.
  • #6 Hürthle cell thyroid carcinoma | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/hurthle-cell-thyroid-carcinoma-3?lang=us
    Hrthle cell tumors originate from follicular cells within thyroid follicles and they may manifest as benign Hrthle cell adenomas or malignant Hrthle cell carcinomas, with characteristics such as capsular/vascular invasion, infiltration of the thyroid gland, locoregional lymph node involvement, or metastatic spread. […] Germline polymorphisms of the ATPase 6 gene are implicated in the pathogenesis, with an increased prevalence of mitochondrial DNA common deletions in Hrthle cell tumors.
  • #7 Hurthle cell thyroid cancer: Symptoms, causes, and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hurthle-cell-thyroid-cancer
    The exact cause of HCT cancer remains unknown. Mutations in the ATPase 6 gene may play a role in its development. The ATPase 6 gene helps maintain the integrity of mitochondrial DNA, and HCT tumors feature an increased prevalence of mitochondrial DNA errors. […] Radiation exposure to the neck, head, or chest is a risk factor for thyroid cancers in general. Having a family history of thyroid cancer is another risk factor.
  • #8 Diagnosed with A Rare Thyroid Cancer, Lee Ann Goya is Cancer Free – Saint John’s Cancer Institute Blog
    https://www.saintjohnscancer.org/blog/diagnosed-with-a-rare-thyroid-cancer-lee-ann-goya-is-cancer-free/
    Lee Ann Goya was diagnosed in September 2022 with a stage 1 Hurthle cell thyroid carcinoma, a rare and more aggressive form of thyroid cancer. […] Because Lee Ann has an aggressive thyroid cancer that is more likely to metastasize to other body parts, she was prescribed a higher dose of hormone medication to suppress Hurthle cell growth. […] One week later, Dr. Goldfarb removed the left side of Lee Ann’s thyroid after pathology identified she had a more aggressive thyroid cancer which could recur if left in Lee Ann’s body. In addition, a thyroidectomy is the mainstay of treatment of Hurthle cell tumors. […] Hurthle cells have somatic mutations in their mitochondria DNA. […] Hurthle cell is a cell in the thyroid gland that can be associated with Hashimoto’s disease.
  • #9 Genetic Drivers in Hürthle Cell Carcinoma – Mass General Advances in Motion
    https://advances.massgeneral.org/oncology/article.aspx?id=1267
    Widespread chromosomal losses are an early event, says Dr. Gopal, and are maintained even throughout metastasis. […] Despite many genes being lost, both copies of four chromosomes namely 5, 7, 12 and 20 were typically retained, suggesting some kind of selection in their favor. […] The group also identified unique mutational drivers in the nuclear DNA of HCC tumors. […] The theory that these mutations are drivers is made stronger by the finding that similar mutations occurred across cancer sites. […] Combined with the lost copies of genes through LOH, these nuclear mutations could completely inactivate genes whose normal function is to suppress cancer. […] HCC cells are also characterized by an abundance of mitochondria, which are in turn affected by characteristic mutations of their own. […] Based on the data they collected, the authors believe that complex I mitochondrial DNA mutations may be driving the growth of HCC cancer cells.
  • #10 Genetic Drivers in Hürthle Cell Carcinoma – Mass General Advances in Motion
    https://advances.massgeneral.org/oncology/article.aspx?id=1267
    A Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center team has identified important genetic drivers in Hrthle cell carcinoma (HCC): widespread chromosomal losses in the cells and mutations in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. […] While previous work has identified genetic factors in HCC, there has been little consensus as to whether these mutations drive cancer progression or are incidental. […] The first factor widespread chromosomal loss, leading to loss of heterozygosity (LOH) was especially surprising, and has been observed in the majority of HCC tumors. […] HCC cells are also unusual in that they have many more mitochondria than is normal in cancer cells. In addition to nuclear DNA mutations acting as drivers of the disease, mitochondrial DNA mutations in complex I also appear to drive HCC.
  • #11 Hurthle Cell Carcinoma (Oncocytic Carcinoma): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279462-overview
    Etiologic factors in Hrthle cell carcinomas include the following: […] Radiation to the neck […] Iodide deficiency […] Overexpression of the p53 noncogene […] Activating mutations of genes encoding the thyrotropin receptor and the alpha subunit of the stimulatory of G protein are reported in some follicular carcinomas […] Somatic mutations of genes important in growth control […] Oncogene activation, particularly by mutation or translocation of the RAS oncogene […] Mitochondrion-related alterations (eg, mutations in mitochondrial DNA) also are described. […] A study by Maximo et al linked somatic and germline mutation in GRIM-19 (a dual-function gene involved in mitochondrial metabolism and cell death) to Hrthle cell tumors of the thyroid. This is the first nuclear gene mutation described for a subgroup of Hrthle cell carcinomas.
  • #12 Hurthle Cell Tumors of the Thyroid | Ento Key
    https://entokey.com/hurthle-cell-tumors-of-the-thyroid/
    As yet, there is no clear association between HCCs and environmental or infective carcinogens. […] It is widely believed that progressive transformation of normal cells toward increasingly more malignant cell types through a stepwise accumulation of somatic mutations of genes underlies the pathogenesis of Hurthle cell tumors. […] Oncogenic activation by gene mutations and chromosomal translocations has been shown to be common in thyroid cancers. […] The Ras oncogene has been shown to be one of the most prevalent oncogenes to be activated in well-differentiated follicular thyroid cancers including Hurthle cell carcinomas. […] Taken together, these studies suggest a papillary lineage in many HCCs and the potentially critical role of ret/PTC mutation (and other genetic abnormalities) in the development of this subset Hurthle cell tumors.
  • #13 Hurthle cell in thyroid diseases
    https://www.oatext.com/hurthle-cell-in-thyroid-diseases.php
    Maximo et al. have recently identified somatic missense mutations in GRIM19 in approximately 11% of sporadic Hurthle cell carcinomas. […] Ras oncogene is frequently involved in the pathogenesis of Hrthle cell tumors. […] An association also was found between overexpression of the p53 gene product and a subset of Hrthle cell carcinomas.
  • #14 What Is Hurthle Cell Cancer?
    https://www.icliniq.com/articles/cancer/hurthle-cell-cancer
    Hurthle cell cancer is a rare cancer that affects the thyroid gland. It accounts for three to five percent of all thyroid cancers and is the more aggressive type that spreads to other parts of the body (metastasis). […] The exact etiology of Hurthle cell cancer is unknown. However, researchers believe that changes (mutations) in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) can lead to Hurthle cell cancer. Changes in DNA can direct the thyroid cells to grow and divide quickly, which leads to the formation of a lump referred to as a tumor. […] The exact cause of Hurthle cell cancer is unknown. However, researchers believe that changes (mutations) in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) can lead to Hurthle cell cancer. Changes in DNA can direct the thyroid cells to grow and divide fast, which leads to the formation of a lump called tumor.
  • #15 Hurthle cell in thyroid diseases
    https://www.oatext.com/hurthle-cell-in-thyroid-diseases.php
    The accumulation of mitochondria has been reported to be a result of alterations in the mitochondrial DNA encoding for mitochondrial enzymes, leading to proliferation through stimulation of transcription factors encoded by the nucleus. […] The mechanism behind mitochondrial abundance in these conditions is not completely understood; however, it is likely a reflection of excessive mitochondrial proliferation and/or mitophagy. […] It was believed that the Hurthle cell is a result of senescent change because they are more commonly seen in older individuals. […] Sheu et al. observed that carriers of the C allele of the common C825T polymorphism in guanine nucleotide binding protein 3 gene appear to have an increased risk of developing oncocytic thyroid tumors. […] They propose that this polymorphism may be a factor favoring the development of oncocytic thyroid tumors.
  • #16 The biology and the genetics of Hürthle cell tumors of the thyroid in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 19 Issue 4 (2012)
    https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/19/4/R131.xml
    The mitochondrial abnormalities are also thought to play a major role in the predisposition for necrosis instead of apoptosis which seems to be blocked in most Hrthle cell tumors. […] Finally, the results obtained in experimental models using cybrid cell lines and the data obtained from histopathologic and molecular studies of familial Hrthle cell tumors are used, together with the aforementioned genetic and epigenetic alterations, to progress in the understanding of the mechanisms through which mitochondrial abnormalities may be involved in the different steps of thyroid carcinogenesis, from tumor initiation to metastization. […] Hrthle cell transformation is thought to be caused by disequilibrium between mitochondrial proliferation, on one side, and mitochondrial destruction and/or cell division, on the other, leading to the accumulation of mitochondria.
  • #17 The biology and the genetics of Hürthle cell tumors of the thyroid in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 19 Issue 4 (2012)
    https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/19/4/R131.xml
    The existence of many lesions in which the cells have an increased number of mitochondria without displaying the full-blown characteristics of Hrthle cells, the so-called mitochondrion-rich cells, reinforces the importance of time and demonstrates that Hrthle cell transformation is a continuous process rather than a black-and-white phenomenon. […] The high prevalence of Hrthle cell transformation in thyroid lesions may reflect the high oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in thyroid cells, during normal iodine and thyroid hormone metabolism. […] The frequent occurrence, either spontaneously or after fine needle aspiration biopsy, of large areas of necrosis in benign and malignant Hrthle cell tumors contrasts with the rare images of apoptotic cell death. These findings support the assumption that apoptosis is blocked in Hrthle cell tumors probably as a consequence of mitochondrial abnormalities.
  • #18 Metabolic reprogramming related to whole-chromosome instability in models for Hürthle cell carcinoma | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-66599-1
    Hrthle cell carcinoma (HCC) is a recurrent subtype of non-medullary thyroid cancer. HCC is characterized by profound whole-chromosome instability (w-CIN), resulting in a near-homozygous genome (NHG), a phenomenon recently attributed to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during mitosis by malfunctioning mitochondria. […] w-CIN may be driven by factors such as increased intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a by-product of metabolic changes following the loss of CI functionality. […] The loss of entire chromosomes has been attributed to aberrant interactions with reactive oxygen species (ROS). […] This mechanism may be regulated via enhanced CHK2 phosphorylation, as seen in mitotic cells after AMA treatment, which could in turn contribute to lagging chromosomes and missegregation. […] Our data suggests that metabolic reprogramming and a subtle balance between ROS generation and scavenging/conversion of intermediates may be involved in ROS-induced w-CIN in HCC and possibly also in rare cases of follicular thyroid cancer showing a NHG.
  • #19 Hürthle Cell Carcinoma: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21055-hurthle-cell-carcinoma
    Hrthle cell carcinoma is a rare, aggressive form of thyroid cancer. […] Medical researchers havent identified a specific cause, but theyve found some risk factors that increase the chance youll develop this condition, including: […] Having a family history of thyroid cancer: This means your biological parents or siblings have thyroid cancer. […] Long-term iodine deficiency: Iodine is a mineral your body needs to make thyroid hormones. You get iodine from the food you eat. […] Exposure to radiation: Many healthcare providers believe exposure to X-rays or radiation therapy increases your risk of developing Hrthle cell carcinoma.
  • #20 Follicular and Hurthle Cell Thyroid Cancer | Columbia Surgery
    https://columbiasurgery.org/conditions-and-treatments/follicular-and-hurthle-cell-thyroid-cancer
    Follicular and Hurthle cell thyroid cancer makes up about 15 to 20% of all cases of thyroid cancer. […] Although risk factors for follicular and Hurthle cell thyroid cancer include radiation exposure and a family history of thyroid cancer, it is important to note that the majority of patients have no risk factors at all. […] With an indeterminate biopsy, the risk of having a follicular or Hurthle cell cancer is 15 to 20%. […] Ultimately, if a patient has a follicular or Hurthle cell cancer, they will need to have their entire thyroid removed. […] Fortunately, patients with follicular and Hurthle cell thyroid cancer rarely need chemotherapy or traditional external beam radiation therapy. […] It is important to note that Hurthle cell cancers tend not to absorb RAI very well and therefore these cancers are less responsive to RAI ablation.
  • #21 Thyroid cancer | Causes and symptoms | Echelon Health
    https://www.echelon.health/causes-and-symptoms-of-thyroid-cancer/
    Radiation exposure can be one of the factors affecting your risk of thyroid cancer. For instance, thyroid cancer cases dramatically increased following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident, particularly among the regions young children. After the Hiroshima atomic bomb detonation, similar things happened. Regular radiation exposure from X-rays or radiation therapy, particularly in young children, is seen as a risk factor. […] Risk factors associated with thyroid cancer can include: […] being overexposed to radiation in childhood, such as through X-rays or radiation therapy. […] In iodine-deficient populations, eating more fish and shellfish may somewhat lower your risk of thyroid cancer, according to a 2015 study. Thyroid cancer risk may also be associated with excess iodine intake. To fully comprehend the part iodine plays in the onset of thyroid cancer, more investigation is necessary.
  • #22 Hürthle Cell Carcinoma | Oncohema Key
    https://oncohemakey.com/hurthle-cell-carcinoma/
    Hrthle cell carcinoma is a rare subtype of well-differentiated thyroid cancer representing 3% to 4% of all thyroid malignancies. […] The risk factors for Hrthle cell carcinoma are consistent with those of other well-differentiated thyroid cancers and include childhood head and neck radiation and/or a family history of thyroid cancer. […] Interestingly, in contrast to follicular thyroid carcinoma, Hrthle cell carcinoma is more common in iodine-rich areas as opposed to regions where iodine deficiency is seen. […] Previous radiation exposure correlates not only with increased bilaterality and multicentricity of Hrthle cell carcinoma at presentation but also with an increased incidence of contralateral, non-Hrthle cell carcinoma. […] To date, no genetic syndromes have been reported to be associated with Hrthle cell cancer.
  • #23 Hurthle Cell Cancer Genetics and Special Cases
    https://www.thyroidcancer.com/thyroid-cancer/hurthle/genetics
    Hurthle cell cancers are rarely hereditary. In fact, I do not believe I have ever seen any hurthle cell cancer patient with a history of a direct relative with a hurthle cell cancer. So you should generally not be concerned about the risk to your children. If you have a concern, then please discuss this with your doctor. […] Aggressive hurthle cell cancer variants are potentially suggested by mutations of the p53 or PI3kinase genes. To date, identifying these mutations does not translate to any specific treatment approaches and should not direct therapy above what is seen under the microscope (pathology) and Xray findings.
  • #24 Hurthle Cell Tumours – Endocrinesurgery.net.au
    http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/hurthle-cell-tumours/
    Hrthle cell tumours or neoplasms (HCN) are a distinct subtype of thyroid tumours and are considered a variant of follicular tumours. […] Hrthle cells can also be found in a variety of other thyroid conditions such as thyroid irradiation, lymphocytic thyroiditis and Graves’ disease. […] Of all the Hrthle cell neoplasms, approximately one third will be cancers (HCC). This is more likely in older patients (55 years), and in those with larger tumours (4cm). […] Because of the increased risk of malignancy in HCN, once the diagnosis is made thyroid surgery is mandatory. […] Hrthle cell carcinoma has a mean age of presentation between 50 and 60 years, approximately 10 years older than other thyroid cancers. […] HCC accounts for one third of all HCN, but overall HCC is only found in 3-10% of all thyroid cancers.
  • #25 What Is Hurthle Cell Carcinoma – Klarity Health Library
    https://my.klarity.health/what-is-hurthle-cell-carcinoma/
    Hurthle Cell Carcinoma (HCC) is a rare but aggressive form of thyroid cancer that occurs mostly in older age and more commonly in women. […] Like some other cancers, it is not clear what the exact cause of Hurthle cell carcinoma is and the pathological and biological behaviour of HCC remains unclear. The cancer begins when cells in the thyroid gland start to develop changes in their DNA. These mutations cause cells in the thyroid to grow and multiply quicker than normal. […] If someone in your family has a history of thyroid cancer, then you are more at risk of being diagnosed with HCC. This doesnt mean you will get cancer but compared to others, there may be a higher chance. This can be due to errors in specific genes that can cause the cells to grow and multiply at a faster rate, to be inherited.
  • #26 Follicular thyroid cancer (including oncocytic carcinoma of the thyroid) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/follicular-thyroid-cancer-including-oncocytic-carcinoma-of-the-thyroid
    Follicular thyroid cancer tends to occur in an older population when compared with other differentiated thyroid cancers. Its peak incidence is between ages 40 and 60 years, as compared with papillary thyroid cancer incidence peaking earlier, between the ages of 30 to 50 years. In addition, follicular thyroid cancer is approximately three times more common in women than in men. […] Iodine may also play a role in the epidemiology of follicular thyroid cancer. In iodine-deficient regions of the world, there is a higher prevalence of follicular cancer compared with iodine-sufficient regions. With the introduction of iodine, some studies showed that the incidence of follicular thyroid cancer decreased, while papillary thyroid cancer increased. […] Risk factors for follicular thyroid cancer are similar to those for papillary thyroid cancer and include a history of radiation exposure during childhood, a history of thyroid cancer in a first-degree relative, or a family history of a thyroid cancer syndrome. Radiation exposure of the thyroid during childhood is the most clearly defined environmental factor associated with benign and malignant thyroid tumors. […] Most follicular thyroid cancers are probably of monoclonal origin. In addition, oncogene activation is common.
  • #27 Types of thyroid cancer | Cancer Research UK
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/thyroid-cancer/stages-types/types
    Oncocytic (Hurthle cell) thyroid cancer is a rare type of thyroid cancer, also called Hurthle cell thyroid cancer. It used to be grouped with follicular thyroid cancers as it shares some similarities. […] Oncocytic thyroid cancer can sometimes spread to lymph nodes or to other parts of the body. […] Oncocytic thyroid cancer is most often diagnosed in people older than 40, and is more common in women. […] About a quarter (about 25%) of medullary thyroid cancers are caused by an inherited faulty gene which runs in the family.
  • #28 What Is Hurthle Cell Carcinoma – Klarity Health Library
    https://my.klarity.health/what-is-hurthle-cell-carcinoma/
    Exposure to X-rays or radiation therapy can increase the risk of developing HCC. This is more of a risk factor if the radiation exposure is to the head, neck, and chest, even if this was done during childhood. […] Older age is a risk factor for HCC, as it is mostly diagnosed in those over the age of 40. […] Thyroid problems and cancers are most commonly identified in those assigned female at birth, this is also found in the case of HCC. The reason for this is not clear, therefore research is being done to see the relationship between thyroid cancers and hormones, pregnancy, and periods.
  • #29 Hurthle Cell Carcinoma NYC | Hurthle Cell Cancer Surgery
    https://www.ent-newyork.com/hurthle-cell-carcinoma-nyc.htm
    Hurthle cell cancer affects the thyroids Hurthle cells. If these cells begin to divide and multiply uncontrollably, they can form a cancerous tumor in the thyroid gland. The exact causes of Hurthle cell carcinoma are not clear, but there are numerous risk factors that may make it more likely to develop Hurthle cell cancer. […] Hurthle cell carcinoma is more common in patients: […] 50+ years of age, family history of thyroid cancer, history of thyroid dysfunction, Graves disease, Hashimotos thyroiditis, more common in females.
  • #30 Hürthle Cell Carcinoma | Oncohema Key
    https://oncohemakey.com/hurthle-cell-carcinoma/
    Size is an important risk factor for malignancy in Hrthle cell tumors. […] Advanced age is also a risk factor, with patients over 50 years of age noted to be at higher risk for malignant disease. […] While Hrthle cell cancer has long been considered a subtype of follicular thyroid cancer, more recently a papillary variant of Hrthle cell carcinoma has also been described. […] The clinical course of papillary variant Hrthle cell carcinoma is similar to that of PTC with reduced distant metastatic disease and a higher incidence of regional nodal metastasis characteristic of lymphatic rather than hematogenous spread. […] We now recognize that the natural history of papillary variant Hrthle cell carcinoma resembles that of PTC. […] We know that the prognosis of minimally invasive and widely invasive Hrthle cell carcinoma falls along a spectrum of severity similar to that of follicular thyroid carcinoma.
  • #31 Mayo Clinic Q and A: Treatment for Hurthle cell thyroid cancer – Mayo Clinic News Network
    https://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/mayo-clinic-q-and-a-treatment-for-hurthle-cell-thyroid-cancer/
    Hurthle cell thyroid cancer is an uncommon cancer that’s also called oxyphilic cell carcinoma. The cause of Hurthle cell cancer isn’t clear, but generally it affects women and older adults more often than others. […] This type of cancer tends to be more aggressive than the most common type of thyroid cancer, papillary thyroid cancer.
  • #32 Hurthle Cell Cancer Overview
    https://www.thyroidcancer.com/thyroid-cancer/hurthle
    Thyroid hurthle cell cancer is the fourth most common of all thyroid cancers. […] Hurthle cell cancer typically starts within the thyroid as growth, or bump (nodule) in the thyroid that grows out of the otherwise normal thyroid tissue. […] Hurthle cell cancer has a greater risk of growing into blood vessels in and around the thyroid. This is called angioinvasion. […] Hurthle cell cancer which has spread to lymph nodes of the neck may be associated with a higher chance that the cancer may come back months or years later (a higher recurrence rate). […] Distant metastasis (spread to other organs of the body) is more common in hurthle cell cancer in patients above 50 years of age and with larger cancers. […] Hurthle cell cancers are not all alike. Some are big and some are small. […] The staging system for hurthle cell cancer also includes whether or not the cancer has spread into the fat and muscles around the thyroid (called local extension).
  • #33 Hürthle-Cell cancer with extensive vascular invasion has a higher risk of recurrence than follicular-cell cancer
    https://www.thyroid.org/patient-thyroid-information/ct-for-patients/september-2022/vol-15-issue-9-p-11-12/
    Hurthle-cell carcinoma appears to be a more severe cancer subtype than follicular thyroid cancer. […] The degree of vascular invasion is a particularly important factor that affects the behaviour of Hrthle-cell cancer, as Hrthle-cell cancers with significant vascular invasion have high recurrence rates and more frequent spread outside of the neck. […] Therefore, Hrthle-cell carcinoma may require more aggressive treatment strategies such as total thyroidectomy and radioactive iodine therapy.
  • #34 Clinical characteristics and prognostic factors of Hurthle cell carcinoma: a population based study | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-020-06915-0
    Thyroid Hurthle cell carcinoma (HCC) is a rare disease with high risk of invasion and metastasis and poor prognosis. […] HCC is characterized by capsule invasion and/or vascular invasion. Hurthle cell adenocarcinoma is a rare invasive thyroid malignancy, accounting for 3 to 4% of all thyroid malignancies. […] Compared to differentiated thyroid carcinoma, HCC has high risk of lymph node metastasis and distant metastasis and is less sensitive to radioiodine therapy. […] HCC is also characterized by multifocality with high risk of lymph node metastases and distant metastases. Approximately 10-20% of patients have metastases when diagnosed with HCC. Up to 37% of extrathyroidal extension HCC metastasizes to the cervical lymph nodes. […] HCC is associated with a higher metastasis rate and a lower survival rate compared to other differentiated thyroid cancers. HCC with distant metastases has a 5-year mortality rate of up to 80%. Age, tumor size, and sex are prognostic factors of HCC, and tumor extension and recurrence often indicate poor prognosis and increased mortality. […] The SEER stage is an independent prognostic factor for HCC, and distant disease is associated with significantly poor prognosis. Age over 45 years, distant SEER stage, and late T-stage are independent risk factors for mortality in HCC.
  • #35 Hurthle Cell Tumours – Endocrinesurgery.net.au
    http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/hurthle-cell-tumours/
    Adverse prognostic factors include older age (55 years), greater size (4cm), lymph node and distant metastases, recurrence, and extent of tumour invasion. […] Diagnosis of a malignant HCN relies on the demonstration of capsular and/or vascular invasion at histology, the same criteria used to diagnose malignancy in non-HCN follicular lesions. […] Unlike other follicular lesions, HCC tends not to take up radioactive iodine.
  • #36 Diagnostic Accuracy and Prognostic Value of 18F-FDG PET in Hürthle Cell Thyroid Cancer Patients | Journal of Nuclear Medicine
    https://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/47/8/1260
    Hrthle cell carcinoma is an uncommon and occasionally aggressive differentiated thyroid cancer associated with increased mortality compared with other differentiated thyroid malignancies. […] When clearly defined histopathologically as an invasive tumor, Hrthle cell thyroid cancer has a higher incidence of distant metastasis (33%) than other differentiated thyroid cancers (range, 10%22% in papillary or follicular thyroid cancers). […] Invasive Hrthle cell thyroid cancer also has a worse prognosis: Shaha et al. reported a 20-y survival of 65%, which is significantly lower than the 87% seen in papillary thyroid cancer and 81% in follicular thyroid cancer. […] However, some studies with shorter follow-up have not shown such a striking difference in survival between Hrthle cell and follicular thyroid cancers.
  • #37 Diagnostic Accuracy and Prognostic Value of 18F-FDG PET in Hürthle Cell Thyroid Cancer Patients | Journal of Nuclear Medicine
    https://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/47/8/1260
    Hrthle cell thyroid cancer presents a unique clinical dilemma because of its generally low iodine avidity. […] Indeed, the sensitivity of diagnostic RIS using 131I has been reported to be as low as 18%. […] Furthermore, medical redifferentiation therapies to increase iodine avidity have had generally disappointing results. […] Although 18F-FDG is known to be a nonspecific tracer (particularly in the face of infection or inflammation), this is mitigated by the very intense 18F-FDG uptake by most Hrthle cell thyroid cancers. […] Indeed, the median SUVmax per patient was 17.6 in our study and a higher SUVmax correlated strongly with an increased risk of mortality. […] Our results also demonstrate that 18F-FDG PET has better sensitivity and specificity than CT on a per patient basis.
  • #38 Hürthle Cell Carcinoma | Oncohema Key
    https://oncohemakey.com/hurthle-cell-carcinoma/
    Where we once presumed that the development of Hrthle cell carcinoma occurred through a stepwise progression from adenoma, to minimally invasive, to widely invasive carcinoma, we must now consider that each tumor may result from a unique aberration in cell signaling ultimately resulting in variably indolent or aggressive disease.
  • #39 Hurthle cell carcinoma: current perspectives | OTT
    https://www.dovepress.com/huumlrthle-cell-carcinoma-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-OTT
    Factors other than vascular invasion have been reported to be associated with overall survival in patients with HCC. […] HCC was more common in older men, and it appeared to be more aggressive compared to other differentiated thyroid cancers. […] In another study, Chindris et al identified 173 patients with HCC between 2001 and 2012; male gender and American Joint Committee on Cancer TNM (AJCC-TNM) Stages IIIIV were independent risk factors for recurrence or death among patients with widely invasive HCC. […] The cumulative risk of recurrence or death within 5 years of diagnosis was 91% in men with Stages IIIIV disease compared to 74% in women with the same stages of disease.
  • #40 Clinicopathological Characteristics and Disease-Free Survival in Patients with Hürthle Cell Carcinoma: A Multicenter Cohort Study in South Korea
    https://www.e-enm.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3803/EnM.2021.1151
    Hrthle cell carcinoma (HCC) is a rare thyroid carcinoma that accounts for 3% to 4% of all malignant thyroid tumors. […] HCC has demonstrated more aggressive clinical behavior than other differentiated thyroid cancers (DTCs), in terms of more extrathyroidal extension (ETE), distant metastasis, less iodine-avid, and higher rates of mortality. […] Distant metastasis was significantly associated with older age, gross ETE, and widely invasive cancer. […] We found that the clinicopathological factors associated with disease-free survival (DFS), gross ETE, and widely invasive cancer were independent risk factors associated with poor DFS. […] The prognosis of HCC differs between minimally and widely invasive types. […] We found that distant metastasis was more frequent in patients with higher age, gross ETE, and widely invasive cancer, which is consistent with previous reports. […] In this study, we found that higher age, gross ETE, and widely invasive cancer were associated with poor DFS, although only gross ETE and widely invasive cancer were independent risk factors in multivariate analysis.
  • #41 Researchers Uncover Clues to Treating Rare Thyroid Cancer
    https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/researchers-uncover-clues-to-treating-rare-thyroid-cancer
    Hurthle cell carcinoma (HCC) is a rare type of thyroid cancer that is not responsive to standard therapies like radioactive iodine. […] Until recently, little was known about the molecular makeup of HCC. […] Several years ago, the pair were part of a research team that published the first genomic analysis of HCC, demonstrating its unique mutations. […] Earlier studies indicated that mTOR signaling is altered in HCC, suggesting this pathway as potential therapeutic targets. […] The researchers goal is to move into larger clinical trials to validate mTOR inhibitors are as a viable treatment for HCC. […] If we can show that HCC with mTOR mutations respond well to mTOR inhibitors, it could support a future FDA indication. […] The data revealed that the microenvironment in HCC is often low in immune cells. Tumors that had a global loss of heterozygosity (LOH) had very low levels of immune infiltration, which may indicate a low probability of responding to immunotherapy. […] HCC behaves differently on a molecular level in comparison other thyroid cancers and must be treated differently, says Dr. Chan.
  • #42 Surgical management of metastatic Hürthle cell carcinoma to the skull base, cortex, and spine: illustrative case in: Journal of Neurosurgery: Case Lessons Volume 6 Issue 15 (2023) Journals
    https://thejns.org/caselessons/view/journals/j-neurosurg-case-lessons/6/15/article-CASE23263.xml
    Hrthle cell carcinoma (HCC) is an unusual and aggressive variant of the follicular type of differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC), accounting for less than 3% of DTCs but posing the highest risk of metastasis. […] The low rate of brain metastases from HCC coupled with ambiguous treatment protocols for the extracranial disease complicate successful disease management and definitive treatment strategy. […] Hrthle cell carcinoma accounts for less than 3% of all DTCs but has the highest incidence of metastasis and the worst prognosis among all DTCs. […] Hrthle cell carcinomas are oxyphilic and characterized by an abundance of dysfunctional mitochondria (75% of cell volume), unique chromosomal landscapes (responsible for their aggression), and DNA copy number alterations. […] The unique molecular pathogenesis and unpredictable biological behavior of HCC are distinct challenges in outlining and applying a definitive treatment strategy.