Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Acute Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482468/

  Acute pancreatitis is the leading cause of gastrointestinal-related hospitalization in the United States, and its frequency continues to rise in the United States and worldwide. […] The most common causes of acute pancreatitis include gallstones, alcohol use, and hypertriglyceridemia. […] The occurrence rate of each acute pancreatitis etiology varies across geographic regions and socioeconomic strata. […] Common etiologies of acute pancreatitis are listed below: Gallstones, Alcohol use, Hypertriglyceridemia, Drug-induced pancreatitis, Idiopathic, Post-procedural, eg, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography or abdominal surgery, Ampullary stenosis, Autoimmune pancreatitis, Viral infections, Bacterial infections, Smoking, Trauma, Congenital anomalies, Genetic disorders, Hypercalcemia, Parasitic infections, Renal disease, Toxins, Vasculitis.

• #2 Acute pancreatitis: Etiology and common pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2665136/

  Acute pancreatitis is an inflammatory disease of the pancreas. The etiology and pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis have been intensively investigated for centuries worldwide. Many causes of acute pancreatitis have been discovered, but the pathogenetic theories are controversial. The most common cause of acute pancreatitis is gallstone impacting the distal common bile-pancreatic duct. The majority of investigators accept that the main factors for acute billiary pancreatitis are pancreatic hyperstimulation and bile-pancreatic duct obstruction which increase pancreatic duct pressure and active trypsin reflux. […] There are many causes of acute pancreatitis, which can be easily identified in 75%-85% of patients. In developed countries, obstruction of the common bile duct by stones (38%) and alcohol abuse (36%) are the most frequent causes of acute pancreatitis. Gallstone-induced pancreatitis is caused by duct obstruction by gallstone migration. Obstruction is localized in the bile duct and pancreatic duct, or both. Duct obstruction promotes pancreatitis by increasing duct pressure and subsequent unregulated activation of digestive enzymes. Alcohol abuse is the second most frequent cause of acute pancreatitis, but the correlation between alcohol and pancreatitis is not completely understood.

• #3 Acute pancreatitis: Etiology and common pathogenesis

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v15/i12/1427.htm

  Acute pancreatitis is an inflammatory disease of the pancreas. The etiology and pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis have been intensively investigated for centuries worldwide. Many causes of acute pancreatitis have been discovered, but the pathogenetic theories are controversial. The most common cause of acute pancreatitis is gallstone impacting the distal common bile-pancreatic duct. The majority of investigators accept that the main factors for acute billiary pancreatitis are pancreatic hyperstimulation and bile-pancreatic duct obstruction which increase pancreatic duct pressure and active trypsin reflux. Acute pancreatitis occurs when intracellular protective mechanisms to prevent trypsinogen activation or reduce trypsin activity are overwhelmed. […] There are many causes of acute pancreatitis, which can be easily identified in 75%-85% of patients. In developed countries, obstruction of the common bile duct by stones (38%) and alcohol abuse (36%) are the most frequent causes of acute pancreatitis. Gallstone-induced pancreatitis is caused by duct obstruction by gallstone migration. Obstruction is localized in the bile duct and pancreatic duct, or both. Duct obstruction promotes pancreatitis by increasing duct pressure and subsequent unregulated activation of digestive enzymes. Alcohol abuse is the second most frequent cause of acute pancreatitis, but the correlation between alcohol and pancreatitis is not completely understood.

• #4 Acute Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482468/

  The frequency of acute pancreatitis is rising in the United States and the rest of the world. […] It is thought that the difference in incidence is due to geographic region and socio-economic strata. […] It is most likely due to differences in the use of alcohol and the occurrence of biliary calculi, which are the 2 major causes of acute pancreatitis.

• #5 Etiology of acute pancreatitis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/etiology-of-acute-pancreatitis

  Etiology of acute pancreatitis […] Gallstones — Gallstones (including microlithiasis) are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis accounting for 40 to 70 percent of cases. However, only 3 to 7 percent of patients with gallstones develop pancreatitis. The mechanism by which the passage of gallstones induces pancreatitis is unknown. Two factors have been suggested as the possible initiating event in gallstone pancreatitis: reflux of bile into the pancreatic duct due to transient obstruction of the ampulla during passage of gallstones; or obstruction at the ampulla secondary to stone(s) or edema resulting from the passage of a stone. Cholecystectomy and clearing the common bile duct of stones prevents recurrence, confirming the cause-and-effect relationship. […] Several conditions are associated with acute pancreatitis. Of these, gallstones and chronic alcohol use disorder account for approximately two-thirds of cases.

• #6 Etiology of acute pancreatitis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/etiology-of-acute-pancreatitis/print

  Etiology of acute pancreatitis […] Gallstones — Gallstones (including microlithiasis) are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis accounting for 40 to 70 percent of cases. However, only 3 to 7 percent of patients with gallstones develop pancreatitis. The mechanism by which the passage of gallstones induces pancreatitis is unknown. Two factors have been suggested as the possible initiating event in gallstone pancreatitis: reflux of bile into the pancreatic duct due to transient obstruction of the ampulla during passage of gallstones; or obstruction at the ampulla secondary to stone(s) or edema resulting from the passage of a stone. Cholecystectomy and clearing the common bile duct of stones prevents recurrence, confirming the cause-and-effect relationship.

• #7 Pancreatitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pancreatitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20360227

  Gallstones are a common cause of pancreatitis. Gallstones, produced in the gallbladder, can slip out of the gallbladder and block the bile duct, stopping pancreatic enzymes from traveling to the small intestine and forcing them back into the pancreas. The enzymes then begin to irritate the cells of the pancreas, causing the inflammation associated with pancreatitis. […] Several conditions can lead to acute pancreatitis, including: Blockage in the bile duct caused by gallstones. Heavy alcohol use. Certain medicines. High triglyceride levels in the blood. High calcium levels in the blood. Pancreas cancer. Injuries from trauma or surgery. […] Sometimes, a cause for pancreatitis is never found. This is known as idiopathic pancreatitis.

• #8 Acute Pancreatitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/181364-overview

  Long-standing alcohol consumption and biliary stone disease cause most cases of acute pancreatitis, but numerous other etiologies are known. In 10%-30% of cases, the cause is unknown, though studies have suggested that as many as 70% of cases of idiopathic pancreatitis are secondary to biliary microlithiasis. […] One of the most common causes of acute pancreatitis in most developed countries (accounting for approximately 40% of cases) is gallstones passing into the bile duct and temporarily lodging at the sphincter of Oddi. The risk of a stone causing pancreatitis is inversely proportional to its size. […] Alcohol use is a major cause of acute pancreatitis (accounting for at least 35% of cases). At the cellular level, ethanol leads to intracellular accumulation of digestive enzymes and their premature activation and release.

• #9 Acute Pancreatitis – Digestive Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/digestive-disorders/pancreatitis/acute-pancreatitis

  Acute pancreatitis is sudden inflammation of the pancreas that may be mild or life threatening but usually subsides. […] Gallstones and heavy alcohol use are the main causes of acute pancreatitis. […] The most common causes (more than 70% of cases) of acute pancreatitis are Gallstones and Alcohol use. […] Gallstones cause 40 to 70% of cases of acute pancreatitis. […] Alcohol use causes 25 to 35% of cases of acute pancreatitis. […] For some people, acute pancreatitis is hereditary. Gene mutations that predispose people to developing acute pancreatitis have been identified. […] Many medications can irritate the pancreas. […] Sometimes acute pancreatitis occurs after people have a procedure called endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). […] Viruses can cause pancreatitis, which is usually short-lived.

• #10 Acute Pancreatitis – Gastrointestinal Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/pancreatitis/acute-pancreatitis

  Most cases of acute pancreatitis cases are due to gallstones (40 to 70%) and alcohol consumption (25 to 35%). […] Gallstones are the most common etiology of acute pancreatitis. […] Alcohol intake is the second most common etiology of acute pancreatitis. […] A number of genetic mutations predisposing to pancreatitis have been identified. […] Acute pancreatitis is a complication that develops after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in about 5 to 8% of patients.

• #11 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  Gallstones (including microlithiasis) are the most common etiology of AP, accounting for at least 35-45% of cases. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] The prevalence of AP is approximately 4-fold higher among subjects who are alcohol consumers compared to nondrinkers. […] The risk of pancreatitis is 2 to 3-fold higher among the black population than the whites. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] There is an increased risk of developing pancreatitis in patients with celiac disease and between 10% and 20% of newly diagnosed patients may develop pancreatic insufficiency.

• #12 Acute pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/acute-pancreatitis/

  Acute pancreatitis is most often linked to: […] gallstones which accounts for around half of all cases […] alcohol consumption which accounts for about a quarter of all cases. […] Most cases of acute pancreatitis are closely linked to gallstones or to alcohol consumption, although the exact cause isnt always clear. […] Gallstones are hard pieces of stone-like material that form in your gallbladder. They can trigger acute pancreatitis if they move out of the gallbladder and block the opening of the pancreas. […] Its not fully understood how alcohol causes the pancreas to become inflamed. One theory is that it interferes with the normal workings of the pancreas, causing the enzymes to start digesting it. […] Whatever the cause, there is a clear link between alcohol use and acute pancreatitis.

• #13

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/acute-pancreatitis/causes/

  Acute pancreatitis is usually caused by gallstones or drinking too much alcohol, but sometimes no cause can be identified. […] Whatever the cause, there is a clear link between alcohol use and acute pancreatitis. […] Less common causes of acute pancreatitis include: high blood fat levels (hypertriglyceridaemia), accidental damage or injury to the pancreas for example, during a procedure to remove gallstones or examine the pancreas, a side effect of medicine, viruses like mumps or measles, high blood calcium levels (hypercalcaemia), the immune system attacking the pancreas (autoimmune pancreatitis).

• #14 Acute Pancreatitis | MUSC Health | Charleston SC

  https://muschealth.org/medical-services/ddc/patients/digestive-diseases/pancreas/acute-pancreatitis

  Acute pancreatitis is usually a sudden and severe illness caused when the pancreas rapidly becomes inflamed. […] The two most common causes of acute pancreatitis are: gallstones and excessive consumption of alcohol. […] Gallstones commonly form in the gallbladder. However, if a stone moves into the bile duct (through the cystic duct), it can become impacted (stuck) at the exit into the duodenum (papilla of Vater). This exit hole is normally shared with the pancreatic duct, so that an impacted stone can block the pancreas and cause pancreatitis. […] Alcohol causes acute pancreatitis by direct poisoning of the gland. […] Other known causes of acute pancreatitis include: poor drainage of the pancreatic duct resulting from partial obstruction causes of obstruction include small tumors, as well as scarring and spasm of the muscular sphincter (sphincter of Oddi).

• #15

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02781731

  The aim of the study was to define the prognostic role of etiology in the course of acute pancreatitis. […] Etiology was biliary in 81 (39%) patients and alcohol abuse in 69 (33%); other etiologies were present in 16 (8%), and etiology remained unknown in 42 (20%). […] Alcoholic etiology correlated significantly more frequently than other subgroups with necrotizing pancreatitis, need for artificial ventilation, and development of pancreatic pseudocysts. […] Patients with alcohol-induced acute pancreatitis should be given special attention because of the higher incidence of necrotizing pancreatitis and necessity for artificial ventilation. Whether the pronounced frequency of pseudocysts in alcoholics suggests progression to chronic pancreatitis has to be clarified in follow-up studies.

• #16 Assessment of the course of acute pancreatitis in the light of aetiology: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74943-8

  Gallstones represent the main aetiological background of AP globally (42%), which are diagnosed by imaging techniques and liver function tests. […] AAP is caused by regular, excessive alcohol consumption usually with a clinical history of 5 years and 50100 g/day. […] Hypertriglyceridaemia (HTG) with serum triglyceride concentrations 11.3 mM is the third most common (9%) known aetiological factor of the disease. […] Less frequent causes of AP include endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), hypercalcaemia, pancreas divisum, tumours, genetic polymorphisms and drugs. […] HTG proved to induce non-mild AP in a significantly higher number of cases than the other aetiological factors. […] Alcoholic aetiology significantly increased AP severity compared to biliary-related events. […] HTG carried the greatest risk for non-mild (moderately severe and severe) AP, which was followed by AAP; the least severe disease forms were observed in BAP and PAP.

• #17 Acute Pancreatitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/181364-overview

  Hypercalcemia from any cause can lead to acute pancreatitis. […] The pancreas develops from two buds stemming from the alimentary tract of the developing embryo. There are two developmental abnormalities commonly associated with pancreatitis: pancreas divisum and annular pancreas. […] Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction can lead to acute pancreatitis by causing increased pancreatic ductal pressures. […] Clinically significant pancreatitis usually does not occur until a person’s serum triglyceride level reaches 1000 mg/dL. […] Obstruction of the pancreatic ductal system by a pancreatic ductal carcinoma, ampullary carcinoma, islet cell tumor, solid pseudotumor of the pancreas, sarcoma, lymphoma, cholangiocarcinoma, or metastatic tumor can cause acute pancreatitis. […] Exposure to organophosphate insecticide can cause acute pancreatitis.

• #18 Acute Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/digestive-health/gallstones-and-bile/acute-pancreatitis

  Acute pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas that develops quickly. The most common causes of acute pancreatitis are gallstones and drinking alcohol above recommended limits. […] Gallstones or alcohol cause more than 8 in 10 cases of acute pancreatitis. Other causes of acute pancreatitis are relatively rare. […] About a third of cases of acute pancreatitis are associated with alcohol, although the relationship is not clear. […] This is known as hypertriglyceridaemia. It is reported to cause 1-4% of all cases of acute pancreatitis and up to 56% of pancreatitis cases during pregnancy. […] These include viral infections (for example, the mumps virus, HIV), a rare side-effect to some medicines, injury or surgery around the pancreas, infections with parasites, high levels of blood calcium, and abnormal structure of the pancreas.

• #19 Acute pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pancreatitis

  Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a sudden inflammation of the pancreas. Causes include a gallstone impacted in the common bile duct or the pancreatic duct, heavy alcohol use, systemic disease, trauma, elevated calcium levels, hypertriglyceridemia (with triglycerides usually being very elevated, over 1000 mg/dL), certain medications, hereditary causes and, in children, mumps. […] Most common causes include biliary pancreatitis due to gallstones or constriction of ampulla of Vater in 40% of cases, alcohol in 30% of cases, idiopathic in 15-25% of cases, and metabolic disorders: hereditary pancreatitis, hypercalcemia, elevated triglycerides, malnutrition. […] Severe hypertriglyceridemia is also a potential cause of pancreatitis.

• #20 Acute Pancreatitis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/acute-pancreatitis

  There are many possible causes of acute pancreatitis, but 60-75 % of the patients develop the condition due to gallstones or excessive alcohol consumption. […] The two most common causes of acute pancreatitis are gallstone and alcohol abuse. […] Gallstone pancreatitis occurs when gallstones or bile sludge from the gallbladder block a common drainage duct of bile and pancreatic secretion, obstructing the flow of pancreatic enzymes. The blockage can trigger acute pancreatitis. […] Alcoholic pancreatitis is the most common cause in people who are alcohol abusers. […] Hypertriglyceridemia, especially for patients whose triglycerides level is higher than 500 mg/dL. […] Drug-induced pancreatitis, g., certain antibiotics or chemotherapy. […] Post-ERCP pancreatitis can develop in 3-5% of patients who underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for bile duct or pancreatic disease treatment, but the symptoms are usually not severe. […] Hereditary pancreatitis can occur in children and young adults. […] Idiopathic pancreatitis, around 20% of the people with acute pancreatitis have no identifiable cause.

• #21 Acute Pancreatitis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/1101/p632.html

  Acute pancreatitis is most commonly caused by gallstones or chronic alcohol use, and accounts for more than 200,000 hospital admissions annually. […] The most common causes of pancreatitis include gallstones and chronic alcohol use or abuse. […] Other causes and risk factors are listed in Table 1. Choledocholithiasis (40% of cases) Chronic alcohol use or abuse (35% of cases) Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (4% of cases) Medication use (2% of cases; e.g., azathioprine [Imuran], didanosine [Videx], estrogens, furosemide [Lasix], pentamidine [Pentam 300], sulfonamides, tetracycline, valproic acid [Depakene]) Abdominal trauma (1.5% of cases) Other Abnormalities of the pancreas (annular pancreas, pancreas divisum, sphincter of Oddi dysfunction) Autoimmune disorders Hereditary factors Hypercalcemia (excessive vitamin D therapy, hyperparathyroidism, total parenteral nutrition) Hypertriglyceridemia Infections (viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic) Surgical procedures Toxins (scorpion or snake bites) Tumors Vascular abnormalities (ischemia, vasculitis).

• #22 Acute Pancreatitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/181364-overview

  Pancreatitis occurring after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is probably the third most common type (accounting for approximately 4% of cases). […] Abdominal trauma (approximately 1.5%) causes an elevation of amylase and lipase levels in 17% of cases and clinical pancreatitis in 5% of cases. […] Considering the small number of patients who develop pancreatitis compared to the relatively large number who receive potentially toxic drugs, drug-induced pancreatitis is a relatively rare occurrence (accounting for approximately 2% of cases) that is probably related to an unknown predisposition. […] Several infectious diseases may cause pancreatitis, especially in children. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant gain-of-function disorder related to mutations of the cationic trypsinogen gene (PRSS1), which has an 80% penetrance.

• #23 Acute pancreatitis causes – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Acute_pancreatitis_causes

  Common iatrogenic causes of pancreatitis include ERCP procedures as well as use of medication. Hundreds of medications have been implicated in causing pancreatitis; however, the most common drugs include: Steroid use, Azathioprine, 6-Mercaptopurine, Didanosine, Valproic acid, Angiotensin Converting Enzyme inhibitors (ACEi), Mesalamine. […] Several genes have been proposed to play a role in the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis. While the exact role of every implicated genetic mutation is not fully understood, the following genes have been associated with the development of acute pancreatitis: CFTR, PRSS-1, SPINK-1, Chymotrypsin C, Claudin-2, Calcium sensing receptors.

• #24 Table: Some Causes of Acute Pancreatitis-MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/some-causes-of-acute-pancreatitis

  Some Causes of Acute Pancreatitis […] Medications: ACE inhibitors, asparaginase, azathioprine, 2,3-dideoxyinosine, furosemide, GLP-1 receptor agonists, 6-mercaptopurine, pentamidine, sulfa medications, valproate […] Infectious: Coxsackievirus B, cytomegalovirus, mumps, hepatitis A, hepatitis E […] Inherited: Multiple known gene mutations, including a small percentage of patients with cystic fibrosis […] Mechanical/structural: Gallstones, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), trauma, pancreatic cancer or periampullary cancer, choledochal cyst, sphincter of Oddi stenosis, pancreas divisum […] Metabolic: Hypertriglyceridemia, hypercalcemia (including hyperparathyroidism), estrogen use associated with high lipid levels […] Toxins: Alcohol, methanol […] Other: Cigarette smoking, pregnancy, postrenal transplant, ischemia caused by hypotension or atheroembolism, tropical pancreatitis.

• #25 Pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreatitis

  The two most common causes of acute pancreatitis are a gallstone blocking the common bile duct after the pancreatic duct has joined; and heavy alcohol use. […] Other causes include direct trauma, certain medications, infections such as mumps, and tumors. […] About 80 percent of pancreatitis cases are caused by gallstones or alcohol. […] Choledocholithiasis (gallstones in the bile duct) are the single most common cause of acute pancreatitis, and alcoholism is the single most common cause of chronic pancreatitis. […] Serum triglyceride levels greater than 1000 mg/dL (11.29 mmol/L, i.e. hyperlipidemia) is another cause. […] The mnemonic „GET SMASHED” is often used to help clinicians and medical students remember the common causes of pancreatitis: Gallstones, Ethanol, Trauma, Steroids, Mumps, Autoimmune, Scorpion sting, Hyperlipidemia, hypothermia or hyperparathyroidism, ERCP, Drugs (commonly azathioprine, valproic acid, liraglutide).

• #26 Acute Pancreatitis | MUSC Health | Charleston SC

  https://muschealth.org/medical-services/ddc/patients/digestive-diseases/pancreas/acute-pancreatitis

  a severe blow or direct injury to the upper abdomen, often incurred during a vehicular accident, but occasionally the result of a complication from a medical test or treatment (such as ERCP or surgery) […] a complication of some medicines and/or when the blood contains too much calcium or fat (especially triglycerides). […] When the cause of pancreatitis cannot be determined, it is referred to as „idiopathic”.

• #27 Acute Pancreatitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/181364-overview

  Acute pancreatitis may occur in the postoperative period of various surgical procedures (eg, abdominal or cardiopulmonary bypass surgery, which may damage the gland by causing ischemia). […] Vascular factors, such as ischemia or vasculitis, can play a role in causing acute pancreatitis. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis, a relatively newly described entity, is an extremely rare cause of acute pancreatitis (prevalence, 0.82 per 100,000 individuals).

• #28 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Acute-Pancreatitis-Causes.aspx

  The causes of acute pancreatitis are not well understood. There are several risk factors that are associated with acute pancreatitis. The actual cause that sets in the inflammation inside the pancreas are not clear. […] This is one of the commonest risk factors associated with acute pancreatitis. Gall bladder stones are hard stones that can form if the bile within the gall bladder has too much cholesterol and other minerals. Presence of gall bladder stones is called cholelithiasis. […] Alcohol is a direct risk factor for acute pancreatitis. Binge drinking or drinking large amounts of alcohol at one sitting also raises the risk of acute pancreatitis significantly. […] Some medications may cause acute pancreatitis as their side effect. […] Some poisons may also cause pancreatitis. […] Some infections like measles virus, coxsackie B virus, ascariasis, mycoplasma, viral hepatitis (Hepatitis A, B and C), HIV, varicella virus, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, adenovirus, echo virus, leptospirosis, legionella, campylobacter jejuni, tuberculosis, mycobacterium avium and mumps virus may lead to pancreatic inflammation.

• #29 Acute Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/digestive-health/gallstones-and-bile/acute-pancreatitis

  This is where the body’s own immune system attacks the pancreas. […] This is where no cause is found and occurs in about 1 in 10 cases. However, a number of these cases are probably due to tiny gallstones or 'gallstone sludge’ which passes through the bile duct but is too small to be seen on scans or other tests.

• #30 Causes of Pancreatitis | Columbia Surgery

  https://columbiasurgery.org/pancreas/causes-pancreatitis

  Acute pancreatitis is most commonly caused by gallstones or heavy alcohol consumption. Other causes may include use of certain medications (such as immunosuppressants, estrogens, thiazide diuretics, and azathioprine), lipid (triglyceride) disorders, infections, surgery, or trauma to the abdomen from an accident or injury. Acute pancreatitis is considered idiopathic (cause is unknown) in 10 to 15% of patients. […] Pancreatitis has a range of possible causes, including: Gallstones, Alcohol use, Structural problems of the pancreatic and bile ducts, Some medications like estrogen supplements and some diuretics, Severe viral or bacterial infection, Injury to the abdomen, Elevated triglyceride levels, called hyperlipidemia, Elevated calcium blood levels, called hypercalcemia, Genetic causes such as gastric fibrosis.

• #31 Acute pancreatitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/acute-pancreatitis/

  Acute pancreatitis occurs when the pancreas is damaged resulting in the release of the digestive enzymes into the pancreas. It occurs in 34 per 100,000 people every year. […] 8 in 10 cases of pancreatitis in adults are caused by either gallstones or excessive alcohol consumption. Gallstones are the most frequent cause of acute pancreatitis. The second most frequent is drinking alcohol above recommended limits. […] 1 in 10 people who experience acute pancreatitis, no known cause can be found, this is called idiopathic pancreatitis. […] Pancreatitis in pregnancy is rare, happening in fewer than 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 12,000 pregnancies. When it does occur, it is usually caused by gallstones or elevations in blood triglyceride (fat) levels. […] Pancreatitis in children is rare, occurring in less than 1 in 10,000 children. Gallstones and medicines are the main causes. In some children a cause cannot be found and the pancreatitis is classified as idiopathic pancreatitis.

• #32 Acute pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/acute-pancreatitis/

  Less common causes of acute pancreatitis include: […] accidental damage or injury to the pancreas for example, during a procedure to remove gallstones or examine the pancreas […] certain types of medication, such as some antibiotics or chemotherapy medication acute pancreatitis can be an unexpected side effect of these in a small number of people […] a viral infection such as mumps or measles […] a complication of cystic fibrosis […] certain rare conditions including hyperparathyroidism, Reyes syndrome and Kawasaki disease. […] Factors thought to increase your risk include: […] being 70 years of age or over […] being obese (a person is considered obese if they have a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or above) […] having 2 or more alcoholic drinks a day […] smoking. […] Researchers have also discovered that people with a specific genetic mutation, known as the MCP-1 mutation, are 8 times more likely to develop severe acute pancreatitis than the general population.

• #33 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Acute-Pancreatitis-Causes.aspx

  Obesity with a body mass index (BMI) of over 30 is a risk factor for pancreatitis. […] Smokers and those over the age of 70 are at a greater risk of pancreatic inflammation. […] Studies have shown that those with a specific genetic mutation, known as the MCP-1 mutation, are eight times more likely to develop severe acute pancreatitis than others with no such mutation. […] Those with high blood levels of a special type of cholesterol called triglycerides especially while pregnant are at a greater risk of pancreatitis. […] Conditions leading to deprivation of blood to the pancreas may also lead to pancreatitis. […] There may be no reason or cause or presence of a risk factor in some patients presenting with acute pancreatitis. These cases are termed idiopathic.

• #34 Acute Pancreatitis – Symptoms, Causes , Treatment & Prevention PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Nu

  https://www.pacehospital.com/acute-pancreatitis-symptoms-causes-types-treatment-prevention

  Genetic mutations: Specific mutations and polymorphisms in several genes are linked with acute (and chronic) pancreatitis. […] Type 2 diabetes: As per some studies, it was found that this condition also increases the risk of acute pancreatitis by a factor of 2 or 3. However, both obesity and diabetes are also risk factors for chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer.

• #35 Acute pancreatitis: Etiology and common pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2665136/

  In summary, many causes of acute pancreatitis have been discovered. The main causes are gallstone migration and alcohol abuse. Other causes are uncommon, situational, or controversial. Although there are many theories about the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis, they are still controversial. These causes have not yet been completely elucidated. […] The etiology and pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis have been intensively investigated, but the pathogenetic theories are controversial. The predominant theories of acute biliary pancreatitis are common pathway theory and gallstone migration theory, which consent that the key factor for acute biliary pancreatitis is bile-pancreatic duct obstruction, which increases pancreatic duct pressure, bile reflux, trypsin activation and pancreatic auto-digestion. Acute pancreatitis occurs when intracellular protective mechanisms to prevent trypsinogen activation or reduce trypsin activity are overwhelmed.

• #36 Acute pancreatitis: Etiology and common pathogenesis

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v15/i12/1427.htm

  In summary, many causes of acute pancreatitis have been discovered. The main causes are gallstone migration and alcohol abuse. Other causes are uncommon, situational, or controversial. Although there are many theories about the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis, they are still controversial. These causes have not yet been completely elucidated. […] The etiology and pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis have been intensively investigated, but the pathogenetic theories are controversial. The predominant theories of acute biliary pancreatitis are common pathway theory and gallstone migration theory, which consent that the key factor for acute biliary pancreatitis is bile-pancreatic duct obstruction, which increases pancreatic duct pressure, bile reflux, trypsin activation and pancreatic auto-digestion. Acute pancreatitis occurs when intracellular protective mechanisms to prevent trypsinogen activation or reduce trypsin activity are overwhelmed. However, these theories are controversial.

• #37 Acute pancreatitis: Etiology and common pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2665136/

  We speculate that the main preconditions that trigger acute biliary pancreatitis are pancreatic hyperstimulation and bile-pancreatic duct obstruction, which increase pancreatic duct pressure, active trypsin reflux, and unregulated activation of trypsin within pancreatic acinar cells. Enzyme activation within the pancreas leads to auto-digestion of the gland and local inflammation. However, little is known about the other causes of acute pancreatitis. […] The true nature of acute pancreatitis still remains to be elucidated. The causes of acute pancreatitis are various, and its mechanism is common.

• #38 Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8103-pancreatitis

  Pancreatitis is inflammation in your pancreas. The most common causes are alcohol use and gallstones. Gallstones blocking the pancreatic duct can cause pancreatitis. Gallstones that block the pancreatic duct are one of the most common causes of pancreatitis. Inflammation is your immune systems response to injury. When your pancreas is injured, its most often from gallstones blocking the pancreatic duct, or from alcohol. The top two causes of pancreatitis are: Gallstones. Heavy drinking. These causes together represent about 80% of pancreatitis cases. Heavy alcohol use is another clear cause of pancreatitis, though scientists arent sure why. Scientists estimate that heavy alcohol use accounts for around half of both acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis cases. Less common causes of pancreatitis include: Infections, such as viruses. Autoimmune disease (autoimmune pancreatitis). Inherited gene mutations (hereditary pancreatitis). Complications of cystic fibrosis. High blood triglyceride levels (hypertriglyceridemia). High blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia). Ischemia (reduced blood supply). Cancer. Traumatic injury to your pancreas. Certain medications that irritate the pancreas. These causes together represent about 20% of pancreatitis cases. Most of the time, pancreatitis is acute and temporary. But causes that are chronic and dont go away, such as inherited disorders, can cause chronic pancreatitis. Repeat episodes of acute pancreatitis can also lead to chronic pancreatitis. You can die from complications of acute pancreatitis if its very severe. A severe case can lead to serious complications, including death. Complications of severe acute pancreatitis include: Necrosis and infection. One in 3 cases of severe acute pancreatitis causes so much swelling in your pancreas that it cuts off some of the blood supply. Repeat episodes of acute pancreatitis can lead to chronic pancreatitis. Chronic pancreatitis will also cause your pancreas to produce less of the hormones that regulate your blood sugar (glucose). Chronic inflammation is a risk factor for cancer wherever it occurs. In people with chronic pancreatitis, the risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma is between 1% and 2%.

• #39 Assessment of the course of acute pancreatitis in the light of aetiology: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74943-8

  The main causes of acute pancreatitis (AP) are biliary disease, alcohol consumption, hypertriglyceridaemia (HTG) and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). […] The risk for non-mild (moderately severe and severe) condition was the highest in HTG-induced AP (HTG-AP) followed by alcoholic AP (AAP), biliary AP (BAP) and PAP. […] Mortality rate was significantly greater in HTG-AP vs. AAP or BAP (OR=1.72 and 1.50, 95% CI 1.042.84 and 0.962.35, respectively), pancreatic necrosis occurred more frequently in AAP than BAP patients (OR=1.58, 95% CI 1.082.30). […] Overall, there is a potential association between aetiology and the development and course of AP. […] HTG-AP is associated with the highest number of complications. […] Greater emphasis should be placed on determining aetiology on admission.

• #40 Etiology, clinical characteristics, and outcomes of acute pancreatitis in patients at Assiut University Hospital | The Egyptian Journal of Internal Medicine | Full Text

  https://ejim.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43162-020-00025-w

  Gallstone was the most frequent etiology (56%) followed by idiopathic pancreatitis (26%). […] Generally, gallstones and alcohol abuse account for 70% of cases of acute pancreatitis. […] Hypertriglyceridemia causes about 25% of cases of acute pancreatitis. […] The most frequent etiology in the current study was gallstones 28 (56%) patients. The etiology was idiopathic in 13 (26%) patients. It was noticed that acute pancreatitis occurred secondary to ERCP in 6 (12%) patients and hypertriglyceridemia in 3 (6%) patients. […] The predictors for severe pancreatitis were old age, presence of comorbidities and leucocytosis while predictors for mortality among patients with acute pancreatitis were old age, presence of comorbidities, severe pancreatitis and presence of complications.

• #41 Acute Pancreatitis – National Pancreas Foundation

  https://pancreasfoundation.org/pancreas-disease/acute-pancreatitis/

  High triglyceride levels in the blood (possibly Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome) […] Ingested medicines […] High triglyceride levels in the blood […] High calcium levels in the blood […] Heavy alcohol consumption. Each year, there are more than 300,000 admissions to the hospital for treatment of acute pancreatitis, and the estimated cost of these admissions is greater than $2 billion. Between 16.5% and 25% of patients who develop acute pancreatitis experience a recurrent episode within the first several years. Preventing a recurrence is a major goal of treatment, with efforts focused on identifying the underlying cause and triggers to prevent future episodes.

• #42 Swiss Pancreas Institute – Acute pancreatitis

  https://www.pancreas.ch/en/information/diseases-of-the-pancreas/causes-treatment-and-the-consequences-of-acute-inflammation

  One out of three patients with acute pancreatitis requires surgery. Surgical intervention is indicated if the patient’s condition deteriorates and an infection or hemorrhage is found in dead pancreatic tissue. […] When dealing with acute pancreatitis, doctors will routinely ask about the patient’s alcohol consumption. Where alcohol is the cause, excessive consumption may not always be to blame. Some people with increased sensitivity may develop acute pancreatitis after consuming moderate amounts of alcohol. Conversely, some excessive drinkers never develop acute pancreatitis. Whatever the case, it is imperative that acute pancreatitis sufferers at least temporarily discontinue their alcohol intake in the aftermath of the disease.

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