Uzależnienie od nikotyny
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Nikotyna, główny alkaloid tytoniu, wywołuje silne uzależnienie poprzez aktywację nikotynowych receptorów acetylocholinowych (nAChR), zwłaszcza podtypu α4β2*, dominującego w ludzkim mózgu. Mechanizm uzależnienia opiera się na stymulacji mezolimbicznego układu dopaminergicznego, prowadzącej do zwiększenia stężenia dopaminy w jądrze półleżącym (nucleus accumbens), co odpowiada za efekty nagradzające i rozwój tolerancji. Przewlekłe narażenie powoduje desensytyzację i up-regulację receptorów nAChR, co wiąże się z rozwojem głodu nikotynowego i zespołu odstawienia, objawiającego się m.in. drażliwością, lękiem, zaburzeniami snu i trudnościami z koncentracją. Zespół odstawienia pojawia się już po 8 godzinach od ostatniego użycia, osiągając szczyt w 3. dobie, a jego mechanizmy obejmują hipoaktywność układu dopaminergicznego oraz aktywację pozapodwzgórzowego układu czynnika uwalniającego kortykotropinę (CRF). Ponadto, uzależnienie jest modulowane przez inne układy neuroprzekaźnikowe, takie jak GABAergiczny, serotoninergiczny i noradrenergiczny, a także przez genetyczne warianty podjednostek receptorów nikotynowych (CHRNA3, CHRNA5) i genów związanych z neuroplastycznością.

Mechanizm uzależnienia od nikotyny

Nikotyna, główny składnik tytoniu, wywołuje silne uzależnienie zarówno u ludzi, jak i u zwierząt. Pod względem molekularnym, neuroanatomicznym i farmakologicznym wykazuje duże podobieństwo do innych substancji uzależniających, zwłaszcza tych, które zwiększają funkcje poznawcze.12 Zrozumienie neurobiologicznych mechanizmów uzależnienia od nikotyny ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych metod leczenia i zmniejszenia globalnego obciążenia zdrowotnego związanego z używaniem tytoniu.3

Receptory nikotynowe i ich rola

Nikotyna działa głównie poprzez specyficzne nikotynowe receptory acetylocholinowe (nAChR) zlokalizowane w mózgu. Receptory te są kanałami jonowymi bramkowanymi ligandem i składają się z pięciu podjednostek. Najliczniejsze podtypy receptorów w ludzkim mózgu to α4β2, α3β4 i α7 (homomeryczne).4 Podtyp receptora α4β2* jest dominujący w ludzkim mózgu i uważa się, że jest głównym receptorem pośredniczącym w uzależnieniu od nikotyny.56

Podjednostka α4 wydaje się być ważnym determinantem wrażliwości na nikotynę, natomiast podjednostka β2 odgrywa kluczową rolę w wywoływaniu właściwości nagradzających nikotyny.78 Receptory nAChR α3β4 są natomiast odpowiedzialne za sercowo-naczyniowe efekty nikotyny.9

Badania genetyczne wykazały związek między wariantami genów kodujących podjednostki receptorów nikotynowych a zwiększonym ryzykiem rozwoju uzależnienia od nikotyny. Szczególnie istotne są geny CHRNA5 (podjednostka α5) i CHRNA3 (podjednostka α3).1011

Układ dopaminergiczny i mechanizm nagrody

Nikotyna stymuluje układ dopaminergiczny, zwiększając stężenie dopaminy w jądrze półleżącym (nucleus accumbens, NAc), co jest kluczowym mechanizmem dla jej właściwości nagradzających i uzależniających.1213 Mezolimbiczny układ dopaminergiczny odgrywa główną rolę w mechanizmach uzależnienia od nikotyny, takich jak głód nikotynowy, pamięć, emocje związane z użyciem, tolerancja i dysforia z powodu abstynencji.14

Pole brzuszne nakrywki (VTA) oraz połączone z nim projekcje neuronalne do jądra półleżącego są zaangażowane w mechanizm nagrody i właściwości wywołujące głód substancji uzależniających.1516 Kiedy osoba pali tytoń, nikotyna dociera do mózgu w ciągu 10-15 sekund, aktywując neurony dopaminergiczne w brzusznym polu nakrywki śródmózgowia, co zwiększa stężenie dopaminy w jądrze półleżącym.17

Uwolnienie dopaminy sygnalizuje przyjemne doświadczenie i ma kluczowe znaczenie dla wzmacniających efektów nikotyny i innych substancji uzależniających.1819 Ta aktywacja układu nagrody powoduje, że nikotyna działa podobnie do innych substancji uzależniających, takich jak kokaina, amfetamina, alkohol i opioidy.20

Neuroadaptacje i tolerancja

Wraz z powtarzającym się narażeniem na nikotynę rozwija się tolerancja (neuroadaptacja) na niektóre, ale nie wszystkie, efekty nikotyny.21 Przewlekłe używanie nikotyny prowadzi do zwiększenia liczby receptorów nikotynowych w mózgu, co jest uważane za rezultat desensytyzacji receptorów i następowej up-regulacji receptorów.2223

Sugerowano, że głód nikotynowy i objawy odstawienia u przewlekłych palaczy zaczynają się, gdy wcześniej zdesensytyzowane receptory nAChR α4β2* stają się niezajęte i powracają do stanu reaktywnego podczas okresów abstynencji, takich jak sen nocny.24 Koncepcja, że desensytyzacja receptorów nAChR występuje u typowego palacza, jest poparta badaniami obrazowymi mózgu, które wykazały, że palenie papierosów w ilościach używanych przez typowych codziennych palaczy utrzymuje niemal całkowitą saturację, a tym samym desensytyzację receptorów nAChR w mózgu.25

Adaptacje neuronalne związane z przewlekłym używaniem substancji, które są uważane za podtrzymujące zachowanie związane z przyjmowaniem narkotyku, obejmują między innymi zmniejszone odpowiedzi neuronalne na naturalne nagrody.26 Palacze tracą znaczny stopień tolerancji podczas snu każdego dnia i odzyskują ją po wznowieniu palenia.27

Zespół odstawienia nikotyny

Po co najmniej „kilku tygodniach” ekspozycji na nikotynę rozwija się uzależnienie fizyczne, a po pozbawieniu przez więcej niż kilka godzin pojawiają się objawy odstawienia, które są ogólnie przeciwne do skutków początkowo wywoływanych przez nikotynę.28 Adaptacje komórkowe i neurologiczne, które wywołują tolerancję, prowadzą również do uzależnienia fizycznego.29

Zespół odstawienia nikotyny został szczegółowo opisany. Nasilenie zespołu i specyficzne wyraźne objawy różnią się u poszczególnych osób, ale generalnie jest nieprzyjemny i często nieznośny, przy czym większość pacjentów nawraca, zanim zespół zacznie ustępować.30 Terapia zastępcza nikotyną nie wydaje się skracać przebiegu zespołu, ale może zmniejszyć nasilenie objawów do ogólnie bardziej tolerowanych poziomów, które są typowo zgłaszane po około 4-5 tygodniach abstynencji bez leczenia.31

Objawy odstawienia

Objawy odstawienia mogą obejmować głód nikotynowy, złość, drażliwość, lęk, depresję, niecierpliwość, problemy ze snem, niepokój, głód, przyrost masy ciała i trudności z koncentracją.32 Odstawienie nikotyny wiąże się z negatywnym stanem emocjonalnym, obejmującym lęk i percepcję zwiększonego stresu, co może stanowić silny bodziec do nawrotu do używania tytoniu.33

Zespół abstynencyjny od nikotyny jest mediowany przez noradrenalinę i zaczyna się 8 godzin po ostatnim papierosie, osiągając szczyt trzeciego dnia.34 Zarówno hipoaktywność układu dopaminergicznego, jak i aktywacja układu czynnika uwalniającego kortykotropinę (CRF) wydają się pośredniczyć w objawach odstawienia nikotyny, które często przyspieszają nawrót do palenia.35

Inne układy neuroprzekaźnikowe w uzależnieniu od nikotyny

Oprócz układu dopaminergicznego, w mediacji działań nikotyny mogą być zaangażowane również inne systemy neurologiczne, takie jak GABAergiczny, serotoninergiczny, noradrenergiczny i pniowy cholinergiczny.3637

Układ GABAergiczny

Interakcja między nikotyną a układem GABAergicznym została ostatnio ujawniona. W badaniach tych liczne metody elektrofizjologiczne potwierdziły, że agoniści nikotynowi pobudzają uwalnianie GABA z części mózgu zwierząt i było to zależne od Ca2+.3839

Nikotyna stymuluje również receptory μ-opioidowe (MOR) z kwasu gamma-aminomasłowego (GABA) w obszarze VTA, zmniejszając wydzielanie GABA i zwiększając uwalnianie dopaminy z jądra półleżącego.40

Powtarzalna stymulacja neuronów GABAergicznych prowadzi do desensytyzacji tej ścieżki, zmniejszając jej hamujący wpływ na dopaminę.41

Układ serotoninergiczny

Spożywanie tytoniu i codzienne narażenie na nikotynę obniża zastosowanie 5-HT w hipokampie. Może to być głównie spowodowane selektywnym zwiększeniem stężenia receptorów 5-HT1A w segmencie mózgu.42 Układ serotoninergiczny jest zaangażowany w konsumpcję nikotyny.43

Układ glutaminianergiczny

Wzmocniona transmisja glutaminianowa do neuronów dopaminergicznych w brzusznym polu nakrywki wydaje się odgrywać ważną rolę w procesie uzależnienia od nikotyny.44 Acetylocholina reguluje sygnalizację glutaminianową w habenuli, identyfikując nowy mechanizm ważny dla uzależnienia od nikotyny.45

Na podstawie tych ustaleń badacze sugerują, że acetylocholina reguluje, ile glutaminianu jest uwalniane do synapsy i z jaką częstotliwością. Ułatwia również pakowanie glutaminianu do pęcherzyków.46

Behawioralnie, usunięcie acetylocholiny z habenuli sprawiło, że myszy stały się niewrażliwe na nagradzające właściwości nikotyny i nie rozwinęły tolerancji na ciągłą ekspozycję na nikotynę. Ponadto te myszy nie doświadczały objawów odstawienia, takich jak drżenia ciała i drapanie. Te ustalenia wskazują, że bez acetylocholiny uzależnienie od nikotyny nie wystąpiłoby.4748

Rola MAO w uzależnieniu od nikotyny

Sugeruje się, że zarówno MAO A, jak i B są hamowane przez nikotynę. Ten enzym pomaga w degradacji dopaminy, która jest głównie odpowiedzialna za działanie nikotyny i uzależnienie od niej.495051

Nowsze techniki, takie jak zaawansowana technologia neuroobrazowania, umożliwiły faktyczne obserwowanie spektakularnego działania spożycia tytoniu na mózg świadomych i zachowujących się ssaków. Pozytonowa tomografia emisyjna (PET) pozwoliła naukowcom ujawnić, że spożywanie tytoniu wywołuje zauważalną redukcję intensywności istotnego enzymu, MAO (monoaminooksydazy), który jest odpowiedzialny za naruszenie dopaminy. Redukcja dwóch typów tego enzymu MAO-A i B, skutkuje podwyższonym poziomem dopaminy.5253

Innym czynnikiem, który może również promować uzależnienie od nikotyny, jest zmniejszenie aktywności enzymu monoaminooksydazy. Ten enzym jest zaangażowany w metabolizm katecholamin, w tym dopaminy. Efekt netto polegałby na utrzymywaniu się stymulującej dopaminy w jądrze półleżącym.54

Warunkowanie i kontekst środowiskowy

Skojarzenie między bodźcami środowiskowymi a przewidywanymi efektami narkotyku, oraz wynikająca z tego chęć użycia narkotyku, jest rodzajem warunkowania.55 Warunkowanie jest głównym czynnikiem, który powoduje nawrót do używania narkotyku po okresie abstynencji.56

Oprócz czynników fizycznych związanych z uzależnieniem od nikotyny, istnieją również czynniki psychologiczne. Ludzie rozwijają warunkowane sygnały lub wyzwalacze dla używania tytoniu. Na przykład niektórzy ludzie zawsze palą po posiłku lub gdy czują lęk. Te wyzwalacze prowadzą do wzorców zachowań, które mogą być trudne do zmiany.57

Czynniki genetyczne w uzależnieniu od nikotyny

Uzależnienie od nikotyny jest wysoce dziedziczne. Badania genetyczne wskazują na rolę podtypów receptorów nikotynowych, a także genów zaangażowanych w neuroplastyczność i uczenie się, w rozwoju uzależnienia.58

Różne czynniki wpływają na to, kto jest bardziej skłonny do używania tytoniu i rozwoju uzależnienia od nikotyny. Dziedziczność może determinować, jak receptory w mózgu reagują na wysokie dawki nikotyny dostarczane przez produkty tytoniowe.59

Badania bliźniąt donoszą, że 60% indywidualnej podatności na rozwój POChP zależy od czynników genetycznych.60 Badania asocjacyjne całego genomu (GWAS) wykazały związek między uzależnieniem od nikotyny a genem podjednostki receptora nikotynowego α5.61

Receptor dopaminy D4, a dokładnie polimorfizm zmiennej liczby powtórzeń tandemowych (VNTR), znajduje się wśród genów z wyższymi dowodami związku z procesem uzależnienia od nikotyny.62

Przy użyciu strategii GWAS zidentyfikowano geny zaangażowane w proces uzależnienia, wcześniej nie uznawane za kandydatów funkcjonalnych.63 Zidentyfikowano polimorfizmy związane z uzależnieniem od nikotyny i POChP. Wśród genów o takich plejotropowych efektach są te kodujące nAChR, w szczególności podjednostki α5 i α3 (CHRNA5-CHRNA3).64

Potencjalne nowe mechanizmy w uzależnieniu od nikotyny

Nowe badanie ujawnia, że u szczurów przewlekłe używanie nikotyny rekrutuje główny system stresu mózgowego, pozapodwzgórzowy układ czynnika uwalniającego kortykotropinę (CRF), który przyczynia się do ciągłego używania tytoniu poprzez zaostrzenie lęku i głodu podczas odstawienia.65

Chociaż nikotyna może wywoływać łagodnie przyjemne efekty, naukowcy z Scripps Research uważają, że ważniejszym czynnikiem w trudności rzucenia palenia jest adaptacja mózgu do tej nagrody, która wywołuje intensywny dyskomfort podczas odstawienia.66

W badaniu tym badacze postanowili sprawdzić, czy uzależnienie od nikotyny jest związane ze zmianami w układzie CRF w ciele migdałowatym, obszarze mózgu, który odgrywa podstawową rolę w przetwarzaniu i pamięci reakcji emocjonalnych.67 Pomiary wykazały, że to zachowanie rzeczywiście odpowiadało nadaktywności w układzie CRF, a te efekty odstawienia trwały zaskakująco długo.68

Te wyniki sugerują długotrwałe neuroadaptacje układu CRF, możliwie poprzez regulację genów, co może pomóc wyjaśnić, dlaczego wielu palaczy papierosów nawraca nawet po długiej abstynencji od palenia.69

Co ważne, badacze byli w stanie złagodzić efekty pozbawienia nikotyny. Kiedy uzależnionym szczurom wstrzyknięto antagonistę receptora CRF, wstrzyknięte szczury wykazywały mniej zachowań podobnych do lęku podczas odstawienia i samopodawały mniej nikotyny w porównaniu z uzależnionymi kontrolami.70

Rola melatoniny w uzależnieniu od nikotyny

Potencjalny związek między melatoniną a uzależnieniem od nikotyny przyciągnął coraz większą uwagę społeczności naukowej. Receptory melatoniny są szeroko rozpowszechnione w całym mózgu, w tym w obszarach zaangażowanych w szlak nagrody i zachowania związane z uzależnieniem.71

Dowody sugerują, że melatonina może modulować wzmacniające efekty nikotyny poprzez wpływ na transmisję dopaminergiczną i osłabianie zachowań poszukiwania nikotyny. Dodatkowo właściwości antyoksydacyjne melatoniny mogą zapewnić obronę przed stresem oksydacyjnym, który powoduje przewlekła ekspozycja na nikotynę, minimalizując uszkodzenia komórkowe i obniżając ryzyko problemów zdrowotnych związanych z nikotyną.72

Badania przedkliniczne sugerują potencjał melatoniny w modulowaniu przetwarzania nagrody, osłabianiu nadaktywności wywołanej narkotykami i zmniejszaniu objawów odstawienia opioidów. Podejścia chronoterapeutyczne ukierunkowane na rytmy dobowe i sygnalizację melatoniny wykazują obiecujące wyniki w interwencjach zaprzestania palenia.73

Suplementacja melatoniną w okresach zwiększonego głodu nikotynowego może złagodzić objawy odstawienia i zmniejszyć wzmacniające efekty nikotyny. Potrzebne są jednak dalsze badania, aby zbadać mechanizmy molekularne leżące u podstaw związku melatonina-nikotyna i optymalizacji interwencji terapeutycznych.74

Nowe podejścia terapeutyczne

Biorąc pod uwagę rozpowszechnienie i poważne konsekwencje palenia i uzależnienia od nikotyny, opracowanie skutecznych terapii wspomagających zaprzestanie palenia jest konieczne.75 Te oparte na mechanizmach strategie farmakologiczne mogą prowadzić do bardziej nowatorskich związków do oceny w badaniach klinicznych na ludziach dotyczących zaprzestania palenia.76

Wiele funkcjonalnych badań obrazowych mózgu dotyczących używania tytoniu i uzależnienia zostało przeprowadzonych: pozytonowa tomografia emisyjna, tomografia emisyjna pojedynczego fotonu i funkcjonalny rezonans magnetyczny (fMRI).77

Ponieważ różni ludzie mają inaczej połączone obwody mózgowe, użycie ocen funkcjonalnej łączności jako narzędzia do charakteryzacji zmian obwodów związanych z uzależnieniem, może być narzędziem diagnostycznym do stratyfikacji osób i potencjalnie zidentyfikowania spersonalizowanych terapii z wyższym prawdopodobieństwem sukcesu wyników.78

Nieinwazyjne metody stymulacji mózgu (NIBS), takie jak powtarzalna przezczaszkowa stymulacja magnetyczna (rTMS) i przezczaszkowa stymulacja prądem stałym (tDCS), są obiecującymi terapiami uzależnienia od nikotyny.79

Co wydaje się jasne w różnych metaanalizach badań klinicznych, to że protokoły wielosesyjne dawały większe wielkości efektu dla zmniejszenia głodu i spożycia niż protokoły jednosesyjne, oraz że rTMS był terapeutycznie bardziej skuteczny niż tDCS, prawdopodobnie dlatego, że rTMS może celować w regiony mózgu bardziej precyzyjnie niż tDCS.80

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  1. 14.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #2
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #3 Tobacco and nicotine use | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-022-00346-w
    Neurobiological findings have identified the mechanisms by which nicotine in tobacco affects the brain reward system and causes addiction. […] These brain changes contribute to the maintenance of nicotine or tobacco use despite knowledge of its negative consequences, a hallmark of addiction. […] The effectiveness of psychosocial and pharmacological interventions in helping people quit smoking has been demonstrated. […] As the majority of people who smoke ultimately relapse, it is important to enhance the reach of available interventions and to continue to develop novel interventions. […] These efforts associated with innovative policy regulations (aimed at reducing nicotine content or eliminating tobacco products) have the potential to reduce the prevalence of tobacco and nicotine use and their enormous adverse impact on population health.
  • #4 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    Nicotine sustains tobacco addiction, a major cause of disability and premature death. Nicotine binds to nicotinic cholinergic receptors, facilitating neurotransmitter release and thereby mediating the complex actions of nicotine in tobacco users. Dopamine, glutamate, and gamma aminobutyric acid release are particularly important in the development of nicotine dependence, and corticotropin-releasing factor appears to contribute to nicotine withdrawal. Nicotine dependence is highly heritable. Genetic studies indicate roles for nicotinic receptor subtypes, as well as genes involved in neuroplasticity and learning, in development of dependence. […] The most abundant receptor subtypes in the brains of humans are 42, 34, and 7 (homomeric). The 42* receptor subtype is predominant in the human brain and is believed to be the main receptor mediating nicotine dependence.
  • #5 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    Nicotine sustains tobacco addiction, a major cause of disability and premature death. Nicotine binds to nicotinic cholinergic receptors, facilitating neurotransmitter release and thereby mediating the complex actions of nicotine in tobacco users. Dopamine, glutamate, and gamma aminobutyric acid release are particularly important in the development of nicotine dependence, and corticotropin-releasing factor appears to contribute to nicotine withdrawal. Nicotine dependence is highly heritable. Genetic studies indicate roles for nicotinic receptor subtypes, as well as genes involved in neuroplasticity and learning, in development of dependence. […] The most abundant receptor subtypes in the brains of humans are 42, 34, and 7 (homomeric). The 42* receptor subtype is predominant in the human brain and is believed to be the main receptor mediating nicotine dependence.
  • #6 Top of page button
    https://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter-6-addiction/6-3-mechanism-of-action
    Nicotine binds to receptors (known as nicotine acetylcholine receptors, abbreviated as nAChRs) which are located on the smokers muscles and throughout the brain. […] Animal research suggests that the 42 receptor subtype is the main receptor affecting nicotine dependence as eliminating the 2 subunit stops the behavioural responses to nicotine. […] Mutations to the 4 subunit changes the sensitivity to nicotine.
  • #7 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    The nAChR complex is composed of five subunits and is found in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. […] The 4 subunit appears to be an important determinant of sensitivity to nicotine. […] The 34 nAChR is believed to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nicotine. […] Dopamine release signals a pleasurable experience, and is critical to the reinforcing effects of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. […] With repeated exposure to nicotine, tolerance (neuroadaptation) develops to some, but not all, of the effects of nicotine. […] Nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative emotional state, including anxiety and the perception of increased stress, which may represent powerful stimuli to relapse to tobacco use. […] Thus, both the hypoactivity of the dopaminergic system and the activation of the CRF system appear to mediate nicotine withdrawal symptoms that often precipitate relapse to smoking.
  • #8
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    Many other investigators had also provided even more ideas as about action of nicotine in brain. The production of nicotine central effect is through nAChRs. The cholinergic receptors are one of the largest receptors and contain numerous elements identified as subunits. Nicotinic receptors consist of XII subunits which participate in autonomic communication. The maximum sensitivity by nicotine is on alpha 4-beta 2 subunit arrangement. […] These findings depicts that the beta subunit must have a crucial function in eliciting the pleasing property of nicotine. Results associated with these consequences provided researchers important innovative illustrations regarding nicotine action in the brain. […] The interface among nicotine and GABAergic system was currently revealed. With this research numerous electrophysiological methods have confirmed that agonists of nicotinic rouse discharge of GABA from animals brain parts plus it was Ca2+ dependent.
  • #9 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    The nAChR complex is composed of five subunits and is found in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. […] The 4 subunit appears to be an important determinant of sensitivity to nicotine. […] The 34 nAChR is believed to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nicotine. […] Dopamine release signals a pleasurable experience, and is critical to the reinforcing effects of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. […] With repeated exposure to nicotine, tolerance (neuroadaptation) develops to some, but not all, of the effects of nicotine. […] Nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative emotional state, including anxiety and the perception of increased stress, which may represent powerful stimuli to relapse to tobacco use. […] Thus, both the hypoactivity of the dopaminergic system and the activation of the CRF system appear to mediate nicotine withdrawal symptoms that often precipitate relapse to smoking.
  • #10 Role of Genetic Susceptibility in Nicotine Addiction and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-83762019000100036
    The dopamine D4 receptor, specifically a variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism, is found among the genes with higher evidence of association with the nicotine addiction process. […] The serotonergic system is involved in nicotine consumption. […] Using the GWAS strategy, genes involved in the addiction process not previously considered as functional candidates have been identified. […] Polymorphisms associated with nicotine addiction and COPD have been identified. Among genes with such pleiotropic effects are those encoding nAChR, specifically subunits 5 and 3 (CHRNA5-CHRNA3). […] The nicotine that enters the body of the smoker activates these receptors in the brain, unleashing the signaling for the release of neurotransmitters, with dopamine being the most important in the addiction process.
  • #11 Nicotine dependence (Chapter 23) – Principles of Psychiatric Genetics
    https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/principles-of-psychiatric-genetics/nicotine-dependence/19B46921CD98C0D3BC85EFFE3A777F22
    Understanding the genetics of nicotine dependence can lead to targeted treatments and ultimately significantly decrease tobacco-associated morbidity and mortality. […] Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have found associations between nicotine dependence and the a5 nicotinic receptor subunit gene. […] This chapter postulates that there are at least two distinct biological mechanisms that alter the risk of nicotine dependence. The first biological mechanism is caused by an amino acid change in CHRNA5, in the non-synonymous SNP rs16969968. The second mechanism altering risk of nicotine dependence is through altered expression of the 5 mRNA. Associations in this region have also been found in lung disease.
  • #12 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #13
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #14 SciELO Brazil – Genetic variability in the neurobiology of nicotine dependence: effects on smoking behavior Genetic variability in the neurobiology of nicotine dependence: effects on smoking behavior
    https://www.scielo.br/j/cadsc/a/GDdx8vX5mjvstgCzX7JxDwk/
    These regions are related to the mechanisms of addiction to nicotine, such as craving, memory, emotions related to use, tolerance, and dysphoria due to abstinence. […] The mechanism of activation of the dopaminergic reward system by nicotine occurs by binding nicotine to the nicotinic receptors of presynaptic neurons (nAChRs), thereby opening cationic channels and, consequently, causing neuronal depolarization. […] Under these circumstances, dopamine and other neurotransmitters are released in the synaptic cleft and bind to dopamine receptors (DRDs) in post-synaptic neurons, transmitting the signal between neurons. […] The genes involved in the neurobiology of smoking behavior have been investigated as candidates for individual susceptibility to smoking. […] Among these, special attention has been paid to those related to the nicotinic response and the neurotransmitter dopamine, considered the key to substance addiction and abuse.
  • #15 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    There is significant proof to recommend that nicotine participates in sustaining the tobacco smoking practice and a lot of regular smokers turn out to be reliant on nicotine. It is a dominant carving substance in human being. Mechanism by which it elicits compulsion stays uncertain. Behavioral research in animals does specify that it is a compulsive substance that adds force to self-administration. The property of nicotine by the virtue of corroboration and behavioral uptaking is mainly done via mesolimbic dopamine system. […] The Ventral tagmental area and associated neuron protuberances to NAc are supposed to be implicated in reward with the craving property of abusive substance. Recent research findings showed that dopamine is the key chemical in the brain which is implicated in intervene the need to use abusive drug. In mind, it excites the discharge of dopamine into gratification track. The extracellular concentration of dopamine is enhanced in NAcs by nicotine.
  • #16
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    There is significant proof to recommend that nicotine participates in sustaining the tobacco smoking practice and a lot of regular smokers turn out to be reliant on nicotine. It is a dominant carving substance in human being. Mechanism by which it elicits compulsion stays uncertain. Behavioral research in animals does specify that it is a compulsive substance that adds force to self-administration. The property of nicotine by the virtue of corroboration and behavioral uptaking is mainly done via mesolimbic dopamine system. […] This system is considered accountable for the reinforcing operations such as dependence and reliance activity of Nicotiana. So, nicotine shows somewhat similar actions to other addictive substances like cocaine, amphetamine, alcohol, and opiate. The Ventral tagmental area and associated neuron protuberances to NAc are supposed to be implicated in reward with the craving property of abusive substance.
  • #17 Functional Brain Imaging in the Treatment of Nicotine Dependence | Archivos de Bronconeumología
    https://www.archbronconeumol.org/en-functional-brain-imaging-in-treatment-articulo-S0300289623000182
    Smoking is a chronic addictive disease, and it is the world’s main cause of preventable death and preventable disability. It is estimated that tobacco contributes to more than 8 million deaths each year worldwide. […] Smoking cessation is difficult to achieve since tobacco dependence involves behavioral, and cognitive phenomena such as attention, reward effect and memory. […] The brain is structurally and functionally modified by sustained exposure to nicotine. When a person smokes, nicotine reaches the brain with 15s, dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain are activated, which increases dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. […] There is a remodeling of neuronal contacts and pathways, which is known as neuronal plasticity after sustained exposure to nicotine.
  • #18 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    The nAChR complex is composed of five subunits and is found in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. […] The 4 subunit appears to be an important determinant of sensitivity to nicotine. […] The 34 nAChR is believed to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nicotine. […] Dopamine release signals a pleasurable experience, and is critical to the reinforcing effects of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. […] With repeated exposure to nicotine, tolerance (neuroadaptation) develops to some, but not all, of the effects of nicotine. […] Nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative emotional state, including anxiety and the perception of increased stress, which may represent powerful stimuli to relapse to tobacco use. […] Thus, both the hypoactivity of the dopaminergic system and the activation of the CRF system appear to mediate nicotine withdrawal symptoms that often precipitate relapse to smoking.
  • #19 The Science Behind Nicotine Dependence | Haleon HealthPartner
    https://www.haleonhealthpartner.com/en-us/respiratory-health/conditions/smokers-health-conditions-home/smoking-cessation/nicotine-dependance/
    Nicotine reaches the brain within 11 seconds, binding to nicotinic receptors and momentarily satisfying the urge to smoke. […] Long-term effects of smoking include an increased number of nicotinic receptors, leading to an increased need for nicotine. […] Nicotine from smoking cigarettes increases the number of receptor sites in the brain. […] When nicotine reaches the brain, it binds to nicotinic receptors which release neurotransmitters, like dopamine. Dopamine release is critical to reinforcing effects of nicotine, as it signals a pleasurable experience. […] Smoking cessation helps reduce the number of nicotinic receptors in the brain. […] In one post-mortem study, 9 smokers who had quit for at least 2 months had similar nicotinic receptor levels as nonsmokers. […] The chemical dependence makes quitting difficult.
  • #20
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    There is significant proof to recommend that nicotine participates in sustaining the tobacco smoking practice and a lot of regular smokers turn out to be reliant on nicotine. It is a dominant carving substance in human being. Mechanism by which it elicits compulsion stays uncertain. Behavioral research in animals does specify that it is a compulsive substance that adds force to self-administration. The property of nicotine by the virtue of corroboration and behavioral uptaking is mainly done via mesolimbic dopamine system. […] This system is considered accountable for the reinforcing operations such as dependence and reliance activity of Nicotiana. So, nicotine shows somewhat similar actions to other addictive substances like cocaine, amphetamine, alcohol, and opiate. The Ventral tagmental area and associated neuron protuberances to NAc are supposed to be implicated in reward with the craving property of abusive substance.
  • #21 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    The nAChR complex is composed of five subunits and is found in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. […] The 4 subunit appears to be an important determinant of sensitivity to nicotine. […] The 34 nAChR is believed to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nicotine. […] Dopamine release signals a pleasurable experience, and is critical to the reinforcing effects of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. […] With repeated exposure to nicotine, tolerance (neuroadaptation) develops to some, but not all, of the effects of nicotine. […] Nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative emotional state, including anxiety and the perception of increased stress, which may represent powerful stimuli to relapse to tobacco use. […] Thus, both the hypoactivity of the dopaminergic system and the activation of the CRF system appear to mediate nicotine withdrawal symptoms that often precipitate relapse to smoking.
  • #22 Nicotine dependence – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine_dependence
    Nicotine dependence is a state of substance dependence on nicotine. It is a chronic, relapsing disease characterized by a compulsive craving to use the drug despite social consequences, loss of control over drug intake, and the emergence of withdrawal symptoms. Nicotine dependence develops over time as an individual continues to use nicotine. […] Neuroplasticity within the brain’s reward system, including an increase in the number of nicotine receptors, occurs as a result of long-term nicotine use and leads to nicotine dependence. […] Genetic risk factors contribute to the development of dependence. For instance, genetic markers for specific types of nicotinic receptors (the 534 nicotinic receptors) have been linked to an increased risk of dependence. […] Nicotine is a parasympathomimetic stimulant that binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, which subsequently causes the release of dopamine and other neurotransmitters. Repeated exposure to nicotine can cause an increase in the number of nicotinic receptors, which is believed to be a result of receptor desensitization and subsequent receptor upregulation.
  • #23 The Science Behind Nicotine Dependence | Haleon HealthPartner
    https://www.haleonhealthpartner.com/en-us/respiratory-health/conditions/smokers-health-conditions-home/smoking-cessation/nicotine-dependance/
    Nicotine reaches the brain within 11 seconds, binding to nicotinic receptors and momentarily satisfying the urge to smoke. […] Long-term effects of smoking include an increased number of nicotinic receptors, leading to an increased need for nicotine. […] Nicotine from smoking cigarettes increases the number of receptor sites in the brain. […] When nicotine reaches the brain, it binds to nicotinic receptors which release neurotransmitters, like dopamine. Dopamine release is critical to reinforcing effects of nicotine, as it signals a pleasurable experience. […] Smoking cessation helps reduce the number of nicotinic receptors in the brain. […] In one post-mortem study, 9 smokers who had quit for at least 2 months had similar nicotinic receptor levels as nonsmokers. […] The chemical dependence makes quitting difficult.
  • #24 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    It has been suggested that craving and withdrawal symptoms begin in chronic smokers when previously desensitized 42* nAChRs become unoccupied and recover to a responsive state during periods of abstinence such as during nighttime sleep. […] The idea that desensitization of nAChRs occurs in the usual smoker is supported by a brain imaging study showing that cigarette smoking in amounts used by typical daily smokers maintains near-complete saturation and thus desensitization of brain nAChRs. […] The association between such cues and anticipated drug effects, and the resulting urge to use the drug, is a type of conditioning. […] Conditioning is a major factor that causes relapse to drug use after a period of cessation.
  • #25 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    It has been suggested that craving and withdrawal symptoms begin in chronic smokers when previously desensitized 42* nAChRs become unoccupied and recover to a responsive state during periods of abstinence such as during nighttime sleep. […] The idea that desensitization of nAChRs occurs in the usual smoker is supported by a brain imaging study showing that cigarette smoking in amounts used by typical daily smokers maintains near-complete saturation and thus desensitization of brain nAChRs. […] The association between such cues and anticipated drug effects, and the resulting urge to use the drug, is a type of conditioning. […] Conditioning is a major factor that causes relapse to drug use after a period of cessation.
  • #26 Neuroadaptive Changes Associated with Smoking: Structural and Functional Neural Changes in Nicotine Dependence
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/3/1/159
    The transition from substance abuse to substance dependence is related to the counterregulatory homeostatic mechanisms, which elicit negative affective states and withdrawal symptoms. These processes are thought to be associated with an activation of neurobiological stress systems, including CRF and norepinephrine transmission. […] The chronic use of the substance is associated with long-term neuroadaptive changes, consisting in (1) an excessive incentive value of drug cues and (2) the creation of a drug-related memory. […] The hypothesis of a reduced function of the brain reward system is supported by previous PET studies showing a reduced activation of the striatum in response to monetary rewards in heroin-dependent subjects and in smokers. […] The neuroadaptive changes associated with chronic use of the drug that are thought to maintain the drug taking behavior consist, among others, in reduced neural responses to natural rewards.
  • #27 Pathophysiology of Tobacco Dependence
    https://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000167/CH163.html
    Although other factors continue to operate, cigarette dependence is powerfully and critically driven by the positively and negatively reinforcing effects of nicotine, as will be discussed below. […] Continued smoke intake is accompanied by the development of tolerance and physiological dependence. […] For example, a survey of adults in Great Britain in the early 1960s indicated that 94% of those who smoked more than three cigarettes became „long-term regular smokers.” […] Tobacco use tends to be chronic, with short-lived remission occurring rarely. […] Cigarette smokers lose a substantial degree of tolerance while sleeping each day and regain it upon resumption of smoking. […] After at least „several weeks” of nicotine exposure, physical dependence on nicotine develops, and, when deprived for more than a few hours, withdrawal symptoms that are generally opposite to the effects initially produced by nicotine are reported.
  • #28 Pathophysiology of Tobacco Dependence
    https://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000167/CH163.html
    Although other factors continue to operate, cigarette dependence is powerfully and critically driven by the positively and negatively reinforcing effects of nicotine, as will be discussed below. […] Continued smoke intake is accompanied by the development of tolerance and physiological dependence. […] For example, a survey of adults in Great Britain in the early 1960s indicated that 94% of those who smoked more than three cigarettes became „long-term regular smokers.” […] Tobacco use tends to be chronic, with short-lived remission occurring rarely. […] Cigarette smokers lose a substantial degree of tolerance while sleeping each day and regain it upon resumption of smoking. […] After at least „several weeks” of nicotine exposure, physical dependence on nicotine develops, and, when deprived for more than a few hours, withdrawal symptoms that are generally opposite to the effects initially produced by nicotine are reported.
  • #29 Pathophysiology of Tobacco Dependence
    https://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000167/CH163.html
    The cellular and neurological adaptations that produce tolerance also lead to physical dependence. […] The nicotine withdrawal syndrome has been described in detail. […] The severity of the syndrome and specific prominent symptoms vary across individuals, but it is generally unpleasant and frequently intolerable, with most patients relapsing before the syndrome begins to subside. […] Nicotine replacement therapy does not appear to shorten the course of the syndrome but can reduce symptom severity to the generally more tolerable levels that are typically reported after about 4-5 weeks of untreated abstinence. […] Nicotine administration and withdrawal produce a number of neurohormonal and other physiological effects. […] The powerful conditioning action of nicotine is mediated, at least in part, by the activation of nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the brain and the modulation of levels of hormones such as epinephrine („adrenalin”) and cortisol.
  • #30 Pathophysiology of Tobacco Dependence
    https://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000167/CH163.html
    The cellular and neurological adaptations that produce tolerance also lead to physical dependence. […] The nicotine withdrawal syndrome has been described in detail. […] The severity of the syndrome and specific prominent symptoms vary across individuals, but it is generally unpleasant and frequently intolerable, with most patients relapsing before the syndrome begins to subside. […] Nicotine replacement therapy does not appear to shorten the course of the syndrome but can reduce symptom severity to the generally more tolerable levels that are typically reported after about 4-5 weeks of untreated abstinence. […] Nicotine administration and withdrawal produce a number of neurohormonal and other physiological effects. […] The powerful conditioning action of nicotine is mediated, at least in part, by the activation of nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the brain and the modulation of levels of hormones such as epinephrine („adrenalin”) and cortisol.
  • #31 Pathophysiology of Tobacco Dependence
    https://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000167/CH163.html
    The cellular and neurological adaptations that produce tolerance also lead to physical dependence. […] The nicotine withdrawal syndrome has been described in detail. […] The severity of the syndrome and specific prominent symptoms vary across individuals, but it is generally unpleasant and frequently intolerable, with most patients relapsing before the syndrome begins to subside. […] Nicotine replacement therapy does not appear to shorten the course of the syndrome but can reduce symptom severity to the generally more tolerable levels that are typically reported after about 4-5 weeks of untreated abstinence. […] Nicotine administration and withdrawal produce a number of neurohormonal and other physiological effects. […] The powerful conditioning action of nicotine is mediated, at least in part, by the activation of nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the brain and the modulation of levels of hormones such as epinephrine („adrenalin”) and cortisol.
  • #32 Nicotine dependence – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine_dependence
    Chronic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation from repeated nicotine exposure can induce strong effects on the brain, including changes in the brain’s physiology, that result from the stimulation of regions of the brain associated with reward, pleasure, and anxiety. […] When these receptors are not occupied by nicotine, they are believed to produce withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms can include cravings for nicotine, anger, irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger, weight gain, and difficulty concentrating. […] There is an increased frequency of nicotine dependence in people with anxiety disorders.
  • #33 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    The nAChR complex is composed of five subunits and is found in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. […] The 4 subunit appears to be an important determinant of sensitivity to nicotine. […] The 34 nAChR is believed to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nicotine. […] Dopamine release signals a pleasurable experience, and is critical to the reinforcing effects of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. […] With repeated exposure to nicotine, tolerance (neuroadaptation) develops to some, but not all, of the effects of nicotine. […] Nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative emotional state, including anxiety and the perception of increased stress, which may represent powerful stimuli to relapse to tobacco use. […] Thus, both the hypoactivity of the dopaminergic system and the activation of the CRF system appear to mediate nicotine withdrawal symptoms that often precipitate relapse to smoking.
  • #34 Methods for smoking cessation and treatment of nicotine dependence | Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology
    https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-brazilian-journal-otorhinolaryngology-english-edition–497-articulo-methods-for-smoking-cessation-treatment-S1808869415312544
    Nicotine abstinence syndrome is mediated by noradrenalin and starts 8 hours after the last cigarette, reaching a peak on the third day. […] Main symptoms include: anxiety, irritability, sleep disorders (insomnia and daytime sleepiness), appetite increase, cognitive disorders (decrease of concentration and attention) and craving. […] Nicotine’s main acute effects over the cardiovascular system are peripheral vasoconstriction, increase of the blood pressure and heart rate. […] Nicotine is rapidly absorbed by the lung alveolus and reaches the brain within 10 seconds. […] The most important nicotine metabolite is cotinine, which can be detected in urine, saliva and blood.
  • #35 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    The nAChR complex is composed of five subunits and is found in both the peripheral and central nervous systems. […] The 4 subunit appears to be an important determinant of sensitivity to nicotine. […] The 34 nAChR is believed to mediate the cardiovascular effects of nicotine. […] Dopamine release signals a pleasurable experience, and is critical to the reinforcing effects of nicotine and other drugs of abuse. […] With repeated exposure to nicotine, tolerance (neuroadaptation) develops to some, but not all, of the effects of nicotine. […] Nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative emotional state, including anxiety and the perception of increased stress, which may represent powerful stimuli to relapse to tobacco use. […] Thus, both the hypoactivity of the dopaminergic system and the activation of the CRF system appear to mediate nicotine withdrawal symptoms that often precipitate relapse to smoking.
  • #36 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #37
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #38 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    The interface among nicotine and GABAergic system was currently revealed. With this research numerous electrophysiological methods have confirmed that agonists of nicotinic rouse discharge of GABA from animals brain parts plus it was Ca2+ dependent. […] Tobacco ingestion and daily nicotine exposure lowers the application of 5-HT in hippocampus. It could be mainly because of selective enhancement of concentration of 5 HT1A receptors in brain segment. […] A current research depicts that cotinine enhance nicotinic receptors to enhance the discharge of DA in a calcium-dependent way. Newer techniques such as advanced neuroimaging technology had made it feasible to really observe spectacular action of tobacco ingestion on the brain of an conscious and behaving mammals. Positron emission tomography (PET) has provided scientists reveal that tobaco ingestion effect a noticeable reduction in intensity of an essential enzyme, MAO (monoamine-oxidase), which is accountable for infringement of dopamine.
  • #39
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    Many other investigators had also provided even more ideas as about action of nicotine in brain. The production of nicotine central effect is through nAChRs. The cholinergic receptors are one of the largest receptors and contain numerous elements identified as subunits. Nicotinic receptors consist of XII subunits which participate in autonomic communication. The maximum sensitivity by nicotine is on alpha 4-beta 2 subunit arrangement. […] These findings depicts that the beta subunit must have a crucial function in eliciting the pleasing property of nicotine. Results associated with these consequences provided researchers important innovative illustrations regarding nicotine action in the brain. […] The interface among nicotine and GABAergic system was currently revealed. With this research numerous electrophysiological methods have confirmed that agonists of nicotinic rouse discharge of GABA from animals brain parts plus it was Ca2+ dependent.
  • #40 Insights Into the Pathogenesis of Nicotine Addiction. Could a Salivary Biosensor Be Useful in Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT)?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2392-7674/6/2/29
    Nicotine also stimulates μ-opioid receptors (MOR) from gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the VTA area, decreasing GABA secretion and increasing DA release from NAC. […] In chronic consumers, nAChRs are regulated by either cholinergic or GABA neuron sub-populations of mHb-IPN, which increase the parasympathetic activity and lead to IPN stimulation as a final result, increasing withdrawal symptoms. […] Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have assessed single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genes associated with smoking initiation. […] Results have shown that the following proteins are involved in smoking behavior and addiction: glutamate receptor subunits (GRIN2A, GRIN2B, GRIK2, and GRM8), cell adhesion molecules (CDH23), neurotrophic receptor tyrosine kinase (NTRK2), and the growth factor receptor-bound protein 14 (GRB14).
  • #41 Nicotine Dependence: Identification and Recommendations
    https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/nicotine-dependence-identification-and-recommendations
    Nicotine dependence is a mental health disorder defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual- 5 (DSM-5) as a Problematic pattern of tobacco use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress. […] Nicotine found in tobacco, and in other formulations, is highly addictive and was found to be as addictive as cocaine and heroin. […] This addiction is thought to be caused by stimulation of the reward center, the mesolimbic-dopamine pathway, which results in improved cognitive function and mood enhancement. […] Repetitive stimulation of the GABAergic neurons results in a desensitization of this pathway, decreasing its inhibitory effect on dopamine. […] Nicotine use has multiple systemic effects in the human body and contributes to the development of multiple chronic diseases.
  • #42 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    The interface among nicotine and GABAergic system was currently revealed. With this research numerous electrophysiological methods have confirmed that agonists of nicotinic rouse discharge of GABA from animals brain parts plus it was Ca2+ dependent. […] Tobacco ingestion and daily nicotine exposure lowers the application of 5-HT in hippocampus. It could be mainly because of selective enhancement of concentration of 5 HT1A receptors in brain segment. […] A current research depicts that cotinine enhance nicotinic receptors to enhance the discharge of DA in a calcium-dependent way. Newer techniques such as advanced neuroimaging technology had made it feasible to really observe spectacular action of tobacco ingestion on the brain of an conscious and behaving mammals. Positron emission tomography (PET) has provided scientists reveal that tobaco ingestion effect a noticeable reduction in intensity of an essential enzyme, MAO (monoamine-oxidase), which is accountable for infringement of dopamine.
  • #43 Role of Genetic Susceptibility in Nicotine Addiction and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-83762019000100036
    The dopamine D4 receptor, specifically a variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism, is found among the genes with higher evidence of association with the nicotine addiction process. […] The serotonergic system is involved in nicotine consumption. […] Using the GWAS strategy, genes involved in the addiction process not previously considered as functional candidates have been identified. […] Polymorphisms associated with nicotine addiction and COPD have been identified. Among genes with such pleiotropic effects are those encoding nAChR, specifically subunits 5 and 3 (CHRNA5-CHRNA3). […] The nicotine that enters the body of the smoker activates these receptors in the brain, unleashing the signaling for the release of neurotransmitters, with dopamine being the most important in the addiction process.
  • #44 Mechanism-based medication development for the treatment of nicotine dependence | Acta Pharmacologica Sinica
    https://www.nature.com/articles/aps200946
    Tobacco use is a global problem with serious health consequences. […] In the present article, we first discuss the neural mechanisms underlying nicotine reward, and then review various mechanism-based pharmacological agents for the treatment of nicotine dependence. […] Nicotine binds to 42 and 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) located on dopaminergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons in the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system, which causes an increase in extracellular DA in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). […] Enhanced glutamate transmission to DA neurons in the ventral tegmental area appears to play an important role in this process. […] In addition, chronic nicotine treatment increases endocannabinoid levels in the mesolimbic DA system, which indirectly modulates NAc DA release and nicotine reward.
  • #45 Study reveals new mechanism in nicotine addiction
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-12-reveals-mechanism-nicotine-addiction.html
    Study reveals new mechanism in nicotine addiction […] The neurotransmitters acetylcholine and glutamate were known to play a role in nicotine dependence. […] Part of the reason people find smoking difficult to quit is that each time they have a cigarette, feelings of craving, irritability and anxiety melt away. […] The neurotransmitters acetylcholine and glutamate are thought to influence nicotine dependence in the habenula, but the molecular details of this regulation are unclear. […] Ibanez-Tallon and colleagues now report that acetylcholine regulates glutamate signaling in the habenula, identifying a new mechanism important for nicotine dependence. […] Based on these findings, the researchers suggest that acetylcholine regulates how much glutamate is released into the synapse, and at what frequency.
  • #46 The Rockefeller University » Study reveals new mechanism in nicotine addiction
    https://www.rockefeller.edu/news/10418-study-reveals-new-mechanism-in-nicotine-addiction/
    Part of the reason people find smoking difficult to quit is that each time they have a cigarette, feelings of craving, irritability and anxiety melt away. This component of addiction is known as negative reward and is controlled in part by a region of the brain called the habenula. The neurotransmitters acetylcholine and glutamate are thought to influence nicotine dependence in the habenula, but the molecular details of this regulation are unclear. […] Ibanez-Tallon and colleagues now report that acetylcholine regulates glutamate signaling in the habenula, identifying a new mechanism important for nicotine dependence. […] Based on these findings, the researchers suggest that acetylcholine regulates how much glutamate is released into the synapse, and at what frequency. It also facilitates the packaging of glutamate into vesicles.
  • #47 New Mechanism in Nicotine Addiction Revealed | RT
    https://respiratory-therapy.com/miscellaneous/new-mechanism-in-nicotine-addiction/
    The neurotransmitters acetylcholine and glutamate were known to play a role in nicotine dependence. […] Researchers publishing in the journal eLife report that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine regulates glutamate signaling in an addiction center of the brain called the habenula the interaction between these neurotransmitters influences nicotine dependence. […] Using a mouse model, researchers found that removing acetylcholine from the habenula caused the mice to become insensitive to the rewarding properties of nicotine, and they did not develop a tolerance to continued nicotine exposure. In addition, these mice did not experience withdrawal symptoms, such as body shakes and scratching. These findings and others indicate that without acetylcholine, nicotine addiction would not occur. […] What we didn’t know was how they might interact, or work together to reinforce addiction.
  • #48 Study reveals new mechanism in nicotine addiction
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-12-reveals-mechanism-nicotine-addiction.html
    Behaviorally, removing acetylcholine from the habenula caused the mice to become insensitive to the rewarding properties of nicotine, and they did not develop a tolerance to continued nicotine exposure. […] These findings and others indicate that without acetylcholine, nicotine addiction would not occur. […] This study helps us understand a bit more about the brain circuitry involved in this dependence, which is also relevant to opioid and cannabinoid addiction.
  • #49 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #50
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    Nicotine, primary component of tobaco produces craving and withdrawal effect both in humans and animals. Nicotine shows a close resemblance to other addictive drugs in molecular, neuroanatomical and pharmacological, particularly the drugs which enhances the cognitive functions. Nicotine mainly shows its action through specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located in brain. It stimulates presynaptic acetylcholine receptors thereby enhancing Ach release and metabolism. Dopaminergic system is also stimulated by it, thus increasing the concentration of dopamine in nuclear accumbens. This property of nicotine according to various researchers is responsible for reinforcing behavioral change and dependence of nicotine. […] Neurological systems such as GABAergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and brain stem cholinergic may also be involved to mediate the actions of nicotine. Further, the neurobiological pathway to nicotine dependence might perhaps be appropriate to the attachment of nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, peruse by stimulation of dopaminergic system and activation of general pharmacological changes that might be responsible for nicotine addiction. It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence.
  • #51 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/landing/article.kci?arti_id=ART002571793
    It is also suggested that MAO A and B both are restrained by nicotine. This enzyme helps in degradation dopamine, which is mainly responsible for nicotinic actions and dependence. […] Various questions remain uninsurable to nicotine mechanism and require more research. Also, various genetic methods united with modern instrumental analysis might result for more authentic information for nicotine addiction.
  • #52 Nicotine Addiction: Neurobiology and Mechanism
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7163392/
    The interface among nicotine and GABAergic system was currently revealed. With this research numerous electrophysiological methods have confirmed that agonists of nicotinic rouse discharge of GABA from animals brain parts plus it was Ca2+ dependent. […] Tobacco ingestion and daily nicotine exposure lowers the application of 5-HT in hippocampus. It could be mainly because of selective enhancement of concentration of 5 HT1A receptors in brain segment. […] A current research depicts that cotinine enhance nicotinic receptors to enhance the discharge of DA in a calcium-dependent way. Newer techniques such as advanced neuroimaging technology had made it feasible to really observe spectacular action of tobacco ingestion on the brain of an conscious and behaving mammals. Positron emission tomography (PET) has provided scientists reveal that tobaco ingestion effect a noticeable reduction in intensity of an essential enzyme, MAO (monoamine-oxidase), which is accountable for infringement of dopamine.
  • #53
    https://www.journal-jop.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.3831/KPI.2020.23.001
    A current research depicts that cotinine enhance nicotinic receptors to enhance the discharge of DA in a calcium-dependent way. Newer techniques such as advanced neuroimaging technology had made it feasible to really observe spectacular action of tobacco ingestion on the brain of an conscious and behaving mammals. Positron emission tomography (PET) has provided scientists reveal that tobaco ingestion effect a noticeable reduction in intensity of an essential enzyme, MAO (monoamine-oxidase), which is accountable for infringement of dopamine. The reduction in two types of this enzyme MAO-A and B, consequences in elevated level of dopamine.
  • #54 Nicotine Addiction: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287555-overview
    Nicotine exerts its neurophysiologic action principally through the brains reward center. This neuroanatomic complex, otherwise known as the mesolimbic dopamine system, stretches from the ventral tegmental area to the basal forebrain. The nucleus accumbens, a dopamine-rich area, is an intersection where all addictive behaviors meet. The release of dopamine at this site promotes pleasure and reinforces the associated behaviors, such as the use of alcohol and drugs, to replicate the positive experience. […] Other factors may also promote nicotine dependence, such as nicotines reduction in the monoamine oxidase inhibitor enzyme. This enzyme is involved in the metabolism of catecholamines, including dopamine. The net effect would be a lingering presence of the stimulating dopamine at the nucleus accumbens.
  • #55 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    It has been suggested that craving and withdrawal symptoms begin in chronic smokers when previously desensitized 42* nAChRs become unoccupied and recover to a responsive state during periods of abstinence such as during nighttime sleep. […] The idea that desensitization of nAChRs occurs in the usual smoker is supported by a brain imaging study showing that cigarette smoking in amounts used by typical daily smokers maintains near-complete saturation and thus desensitization of brain nAChRs. […] The association between such cues and anticipated drug effects, and the resulting urge to use the drug, is a type of conditioning. […] Conditioning is a major factor that causes relapse to drug use after a period of cessation.
  • #56 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    It has been suggested that craving and withdrawal symptoms begin in chronic smokers when previously desensitized 42* nAChRs become unoccupied and recover to a responsive state during periods of abstinence such as during nighttime sleep. […] The idea that desensitization of nAChRs occurs in the usual smoker is supported by a brain imaging study showing that cigarette smoking in amounts used by typical daily smokers maintains near-complete saturation and thus desensitization of brain nAChRs. […] The association between such cues and anticipated drug effects, and the resulting urge to use the drug, is a type of conditioning. […] Conditioning is a major factor that causes relapse to drug use after a period of cessation.
  • #57 Nicotine dependence | CAMH
    https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/nicotine-dependence
    Nicotine dependence involves physical and psychological factors. […] Tobacco use causes feelings of pleasure and alertness, but people with nicotine dependence become tolerant to the desired effects. They may no longer experience pleasure from using tobacco, but they continue to use it because they have cravings and want to avoid nicotine withdrawal. […] In addition to physical factors involved in nicotine dependence, there are psychological factors. People develop conditioned signals, or triggers, for tobacco use. For example, some people always smoke after a meal or when they feel anxious. These triggers lead to behaviour patterns that can be difficult to change. […] Various factors influence who is more likely to use tobacco and to develop nicotine dependence: Heredity may determine how receptors in the brain respond to high doses of nicotine delivered by tobacco products.
  • #58 Pharmacology of Nicotine: Addiction, Smoking-Induced Disease, and Therapeutics
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2946180/
    Nicotine sustains tobacco addiction, a major cause of disability and premature death. Nicotine binds to nicotinic cholinergic receptors, facilitating neurotransmitter release and thereby mediating the complex actions of nicotine in tobacco users. Dopamine, glutamate, and gamma aminobutyric acid release are particularly important in the development of nicotine dependence, and corticotropin-releasing factor appears to contribute to nicotine withdrawal. Nicotine dependence is highly heritable. Genetic studies indicate roles for nicotinic receptor subtypes, as well as genes involved in neuroplasticity and learning, in development of dependence. […] The most abundant receptor subtypes in the brains of humans are 42, 34, and 7 (homomeric). The 42* receptor subtype is predominant in the human brain and is believed to be the main receptor mediating nicotine dependence.
  • #59 Nicotine dependence | CAMH
    https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/nicotine-dependence
    Nicotine dependence involves physical and psychological factors. […] Tobacco use causes feelings of pleasure and alertness, but people with nicotine dependence become tolerant to the desired effects. They may no longer experience pleasure from using tobacco, but they continue to use it because they have cravings and want to avoid nicotine withdrawal. […] In addition to physical factors involved in nicotine dependence, there are psychological factors. People develop conditioned signals, or triggers, for tobacco use. For example, some people always smoke after a meal or when they feel anxious. These triggers lead to behaviour patterns that can be difficult to change. […] Various factors influence who is more likely to use tobacco and to develop nicotine dependence: Heredity may determine how receptors in the brain respond to high doses of nicotine delivered by tobacco products.
  • #60 Role of Genetic Susceptibility in Nicotine Addiction and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-83762019000100036
    COPD is characterized by an abnormal chronic inflammatory response in the lung that causes irreversible structural changes. […] The high morbidity and mortality associated with COPD and its chronic and progressive nature has prompted the use of molecular genetic studies to identify susceptibility factors for the disease. […] Studies in twins report that 60% of the individual susceptibility to develop COPD depends on genetic factors. […] Nicotine addiction and COPD are complex and multifactorial diseases, where the genetic component contributes to their development. […] The reinforcement effect of nicotine is the main reason for its consumption. However, between 10% and 20% of smokers never show addiction. […] In some cases, nicotine addiction causes an increase in cigarette smoking. Damage to lung function occurs in approximately 40% of smokers, which could result in the development and progression of COPD.
  • #61 Nicotine dependence (Chapter 23) – Principles of Psychiatric Genetics
    https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/principles-of-psychiatric-genetics/nicotine-dependence/19B46921CD98C0D3BC85EFFE3A777F22
    Understanding the genetics of nicotine dependence can lead to targeted treatments and ultimately significantly decrease tobacco-associated morbidity and mortality. […] Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have found associations between nicotine dependence and the a5 nicotinic receptor subunit gene. […] This chapter postulates that there are at least two distinct biological mechanisms that alter the risk of nicotine dependence. The first biological mechanism is caused by an amino acid change in CHRNA5, in the non-synonymous SNP rs16969968. The second mechanism altering risk of nicotine dependence is through altered expression of the 5 mRNA. Associations in this region have also been found in lung disease.
  • #62 Role of Genetic Susceptibility in Nicotine Addiction and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-83762019000100036
    The dopamine D4 receptor, specifically a variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism, is found among the genes with higher evidence of association with the nicotine addiction process. […] The serotonergic system is involved in nicotine consumption. […] Using the GWAS strategy, genes involved in the addiction process not previously considered as functional candidates have been identified. […] Polymorphisms associated with nicotine addiction and COPD have been identified. Among genes with such pleiotropic effects are those encoding nAChR, specifically subunits 5 and 3 (CHRNA5-CHRNA3). […] The nicotine that enters the body of the smoker activates these receptors in the brain, unleashing the signaling for the release of neurotransmitters, with dopamine being the most important in the addiction process.
  • #63 Role of Genetic Susceptibility in Nicotine Addiction and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-83762019000100036
    The dopamine D4 receptor, specifically a variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism, is found among the genes with higher evidence of association with the nicotine addiction process. […] The serotonergic system is involved in nicotine consumption. […] Using the GWAS strategy, genes involved in the addiction process not previously considered as functional candidates have been identified. […] Polymorphisms associated with nicotine addiction and COPD have been identified. Among genes with such pleiotropic effects are those encoding nAChR, specifically subunits 5 and 3 (CHRNA5-CHRNA3). […] The nicotine that enters the body of the smoker activates these receptors in the brain, unleashing the signaling for the release of neurotransmitters, with dopamine being the most important in the addiction process.
  • #64 Role of Genetic Susceptibility in Nicotine Addiction and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0034-83762019000100036
    The dopamine D4 receptor, specifically a variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism, is found among the genes with higher evidence of association with the nicotine addiction process. […] The serotonergic system is involved in nicotine consumption. […] Using the GWAS strategy, genes involved in the addiction process not previously considered as functional candidates have been identified. […] Polymorphisms associated with nicotine addiction and COPD have been identified. Among genes with such pleiotropic effects are those encoding nAChR, specifically subunits 5 and 3 (CHRNA5-CHRNA3). […] The nicotine that enters the body of the smoker activates these receptors in the brain, unleashing the signaling for the release of neurotransmitters, with dopamine being the most important in the addiction process.
  • #65 Mechanism Behind Nicotine Dependency Revealed | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071001172800.htm
    Many more people try to quit smoking than succeed in giving up this nicotine-delivering habit. Now, a group of scientists has identified one neurobiological mechanism that contributes to nicotine dependence, and to the anxiety and craving experienced upon withdrawal. […] A new study reveals that, in rats, chronic nicotine use recruits a major brain stress system, the extrahypothalamic corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) system, which contributes to continued tobacco use by exacerbating anxiety and craving upon withdrawal. […] „We reduced the need to take nicotine by blocking CRF-1 receptors in the brain,” says Olivier George, a research associate in the Scripps Research Koob lab who conducted the study with Sandy Ghozland and other colleagues. […] While nicotine can produce mildly pleasurable effects, the Scripps Research scientists believe a more important factor in the difficulty in quitting is the brain’s adaptation to that reward, which produces an intense discomfort upon withdrawal.
  • #66 Mechanism Behind Nicotine Dependency Revealed | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071001172800.htm
    Many more people try to quit smoking than succeed in giving up this nicotine-delivering habit. Now, a group of scientists has identified one neurobiological mechanism that contributes to nicotine dependence, and to the anxiety and craving experienced upon withdrawal. […] A new study reveals that, in rats, chronic nicotine use recruits a major brain stress system, the extrahypothalamic corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) system, which contributes to continued tobacco use by exacerbating anxiety and craving upon withdrawal. […] „We reduced the need to take nicotine by blocking CRF-1 receptors in the brain,” says Olivier George, a research associate in the Scripps Research Koob lab who conducted the study with Sandy Ghozland and other colleagues. […] While nicotine can produce mildly pleasurable effects, the Scripps Research scientists believe a more important factor in the difficulty in quitting is the brain’s adaptation to that reward, which produces an intense discomfort upon withdrawal.
  • #67 Mechanism Behind Nicotine Dependency Revealed | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071001172800.htm
    „The key in nicotine addiction is that the positive pleasurable effects of nicotine are instantaneous and short lasting, while the negative effects are delayed and long lasting,” George says. […] In the current study, the researchers set out to see if nicotine dependence is linked to changes in the CRF system in the amygdala, an area of the brain that plays a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions. […] Measurements showed this behavior was indeed matched by hyperactivity in the CRF system, and that these withdrawal effects lasted a surprisingly long time. […] These results suggest long-lasting neuroadaptations of the CRF system, possibly through gene regulation, that may help explain why many cigarette smokers relapse even after a long abstinence from smoking. […] Importantly, the researchers were able to moderate the effects of nicotine deprivation. When addicted rats were injected with a CRF receptor antagonist, the injected rats showed less anxiety-like behavior during withdrawal and self-administered less nicotine compared with an addicted controls.
  • #68 Mechanism Behind Nicotine Dependency Revealed | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071001172800.htm
    „The key in nicotine addiction is that the positive pleasurable effects of nicotine are instantaneous and short lasting, while the negative effects are delayed and long lasting,” George says. […] In the current study, the researchers set out to see if nicotine dependence is linked to changes in the CRF system in the amygdala, an area of the brain that plays a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions. […] Measurements showed this behavior was indeed matched by hyperactivity in the CRF system, and that these withdrawal effects lasted a surprisingly long time. […] These results suggest long-lasting neuroadaptations of the CRF system, possibly through gene regulation, that may help explain why many cigarette smokers relapse even after a long abstinence from smoking. […] Importantly, the researchers were able to moderate the effects of nicotine deprivation. When addicted rats were injected with a CRF receptor antagonist, the injected rats showed less anxiety-like behavior during withdrawal and self-administered less nicotine compared with an addicted controls.
  • #69 Mechanism Behind Nicotine Dependency Revealed | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071001172800.htm
    „The key in nicotine addiction is that the positive pleasurable effects of nicotine are instantaneous and short lasting, while the negative effects are delayed and long lasting,” George says. […] In the current study, the researchers set out to see if nicotine dependence is linked to changes in the CRF system in the amygdala, an area of the brain that plays a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions. […] Measurements showed this behavior was indeed matched by hyperactivity in the CRF system, and that these withdrawal effects lasted a surprisingly long time. […] These results suggest long-lasting neuroadaptations of the CRF system, possibly through gene regulation, that may help explain why many cigarette smokers relapse even after a long abstinence from smoking. […] Importantly, the researchers were able to moderate the effects of nicotine deprivation. When addicted rats were injected with a CRF receptor antagonist, the injected rats showed less anxiety-like behavior during withdrawal and self-administered less nicotine compared with an addicted controls.
  • #70 Mechanism Behind Nicotine Dependency Revealed | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071001172800.htm
    „The key in nicotine addiction is that the positive pleasurable effects of nicotine are instantaneous and short lasting, while the negative effects are delayed and long lasting,” George says. […] In the current study, the researchers set out to see if nicotine dependence is linked to changes in the CRF system in the amygdala, an area of the brain that plays a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions. […] Measurements showed this behavior was indeed matched by hyperactivity in the CRF system, and that these withdrawal effects lasted a surprisingly long time. […] These results suggest long-lasting neuroadaptations of the CRF system, possibly through gene regulation, that may help explain why many cigarette smokers relapse even after a long abstinence from smoking. […] Importantly, the researchers were able to moderate the effects of nicotine deprivation. When addicted rats were injected with a CRF receptor antagonist, the injected rats showed less anxiety-like behavior during withdrawal and self-administered less nicotine compared with an addicted controls.
  • #71 Exploring the association between melatonin and nicotine dependence (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2024.5406
    Due to the addictive qualities of tobacco products and the compulsive craving and dependence associated with their use, nicotine dependence continues to be a serious public health concern on a global scale. […] The addictive nature of nicotine stems from its ability to activate the brain’s reward pathways, particularly the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, leading to feelings of pleasure and reinforcement of addictive behavior. […] Melatonin receptors are widely distributed throughout the brain, including areas implicated in the reward pathway and addiction-related behaviors. […] Evidence suggests that melatonin may modulate the reinforcing effects of nicotine by influencing dopaminergic neurotransmission and attenuating nicotine-seeking behavior. […] Additionally, the antioxidant properties of melatonin may provide defense against the oxidative stress that chronic nicotine exposure causes, minimizing cellular damage and lowering the risk of nicotine-related health issues.
  • #72 Exploring the association between melatonin and nicotine dependence (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2024.5406
    Due to the addictive qualities of tobacco products and the compulsive craving and dependence associated with their use, nicotine dependence continues to be a serious public health concern on a global scale. […] The addictive nature of nicotine stems from its ability to activate the brain’s reward pathways, particularly the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, leading to feelings of pleasure and reinforcement of addictive behavior. […] Melatonin receptors are widely distributed throughout the brain, including areas implicated in the reward pathway and addiction-related behaviors. […] Evidence suggests that melatonin may modulate the reinforcing effects of nicotine by influencing dopaminergic neurotransmission and attenuating nicotine-seeking behavior. […] Additionally, the antioxidant properties of melatonin may provide defense against the oxidative stress that chronic nicotine exposure causes, minimizing cellular damage and lowering the risk of nicotine-related health issues.
  • #73 Exploring the association between melatonin and nicotine dependence (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2024.5406
    The potential association between melatonin and nicotine dependence has attracted increasing attention in the scientific community. […] Preclinical studies suggest the potential of melatonin in modulating reward processing, attenuating drug-induced hyperactivity and reducing opioid withdrawal symptoms. […] Chronotherapeutic approaches targeting circadian rhythms and melatonin signaling show promise in smoking cessation interventions. […] Melatonin supplementation during periods of heightened nicotine cravings may alleviate withdrawal symptoms and reduce the reinforcing effects of nicotine. […] Further research is required however, to examine the molecular mechanisms underlying the melatonin-nicotine association and the optimization of therapeutic interventions. […] Understanding these complexities could lead to personalized treatment strategies and improve smoking cessation outcomes.
  • #74 Exploring the association between melatonin and nicotine dependence (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2024.5406
    The potential association between melatonin and nicotine dependence has attracted increasing attention in the scientific community. […] Preclinical studies suggest the potential of melatonin in modulating reward processing, attenuating drug-induced hyperactivity and reducing opioid withdrawal symptoms. […] Chronotherapeutic approaches targeting circadian rhythms and melatonin signaling show promise in smoking cessation interventions. […] Melatonin supplementation during periods of heightened nicotine cravings may alleviate withdrawal symptoms and reduce the reinforcing effects of nicotine. […] Further research is required however, to examine the molecular mechanisms underlying the melatonin-nicotine association and the optimization of therapeutic interventions. […] Understanding these complexities could lead to personalized treatment strategies and improve smoking cessation outcomes.
  • #75 Mechanism-based medication development for the treatment of nicotine dependence | Acta Pharmacologica Sinica
    https://www.nature.com/articles/aps200946
    Given the prevalence and serious consequences of smoking and nicotine dependence, the development of effective therapies to aid smoking cessation is imperative. […] These mechanism-based pharmacological strategies may lead to more novel compounds for evaluation in human trials for smoking cessation.
  • #76 Mechanism-based medication development for the treatment of nicotine dependence | Acta Pharmacologica Sinica
    https://www.nature.com/articles/aps200946
    Given the prevalence and serious consequences of smoking and nicotine dependence, the development of effective therapies to aid smoking cessation is imperative. […] These mechanism-based pharmacological strategies may lead to more novel compounds for evaluation in human trials for smoking cessation.
  • #77 Functional Brain Imaging in the Treatment of Nicotine Dependence | Archivos de Bronconeumología
    https://www.archbronconeumol.org/en-functional-brain-imaging-in-treatment-articulo-S0300289623000182
    Many functional brain imaging studies of tobacco use and dependence have been performed: postitron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). […] Through fMRI good spatial resolution is achieved, with also good temporal resolution and does not require the administration of radiotracers. […] As different people have differently wired brain circuits, the use of functional connectivity assessments as a tool for the characterization of addiction-related circuit alterations, consider this as a diagnostic tool to stratify individuals and potentially identify personalized treatments with higher probabilities of outcomes success. […] Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) methods such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are promising treatments for nicotine dependence.
  • #78 Functional Brain Imaging in the Treatment of Nicotine Dependence | Archivos de Bronconeumología
    https://www.archbronconeumol.org/en-functional-brain-imaging-in-treatment-articulo-S0300289623000182
    Many functional brain imaging studies of tobacco use and dependence have been performed: postitron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). […] Through fMRI good spatial resolution is achieved, with also good temporal resolution and does not require the administration of radiotracers. […] As different people have differently wired brain circuits, the use of functional connectivity assessments as a tool for the characterization of addiction-related circuit alterations, consider this as a diagnostic tool to stratify individuals and potentially identify personalized treatments with higher probabilities of outcomes success. […] Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) methods such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are promising treatments for nicotine dependence.
  • #79 Functional Brain Imaging in the Treatment of Nicotine Dependence | Archivos de Bronconeumología
    https://www.archbronconeumol.org/en-functional-brain-imaging-in-treatment-articulo-S0300289623000182
    Many functional brain imaging studies of tobacco use and dependence have been performed: postitron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). […] Through fMRI good spatial resolution is achieved, with also good temporal resolution and does not require the administration of radiotracers. […] As different people have differently wired brain circuits, the use of functional connectivity assessments as a tool for the characterization of addiction-related circuit alterations, consider this as a diagnostic tool to stratify individuals and potentially identify personalized treatments with higher probabilities of outcomes success. […] Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) methods such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are promising treatments for nicotine dependence.
  • #80 Functional Brain Imaging in the Treatment of Nicotine Dependence | Archivos de Bronconeumología
    https://www.archbronconeumol.org/en-functional-brain-imaging-in-treatment-articulo-S0300289623000182
    What appears clear in different meta-analyses of clinical trials is that multi-session protocols yielded larger effect sizes for reducing cravings and consumption than single-session protocols and that rTMS was therapeutically more effective than tDCS, possibly because rTMS can target the brain regions more-precisely than tDCS can.