Siameczki
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Siamiaczki (bliźnięta syjamskie) to rzadkie monozygotyczne, monochorioniczne i monoamniotyczne bliźnięta połączone fizycznie, powstające w wyniku niekompletnego podziału zygoty po 13-15 dniu od zapłodnienia lub fuzji dwóch zarodków przed końcem 4 tygodnia ciąży. Częstość występowania wynosi 1:50 000 do 1:200 000 żywych urodzeń, z wyższą śmiertelnością – około 50% ciąż kończy się poronieniem, a 35% urodzonych bliźniąt umiera w ciągu 24 godzin. Dominują płci żeńskie w stosunku 3:1. Patogeneza obejmuje zaburzenia rozwoju węzła i smugi pierwotnej oraz nieprawidłową ekspresję genów, np. goosecoid, co może prowadzić do anomalii strukturalnych, takich jak most wzgórzowy u craniopagus. Typy siamiaczków klasyfikuje się anatomicznie (np. craniopagus, thoracopagus, omphalopagus), a ich patofizjologia wiąże się z dzieleniem narządów i układów, co determinuje rokowanie i możliwości chirurgicznego rozdzielenia.

Patogeneza i mechanizm powstawania siamiaczków

Siamiaczki (ang. conjoined twins), znane również jako bliźnięta syjamskie, to rzadkie zjawisko embriologiczne polegające na fizycznym połączeniu dwóch bliźniąt w łonie matki. Częstość występowania szacuje się na 1:50 000 do 1:200 000 żywych urodzeń, przy czym obserwuje się nieco wyższą częstotliwość w południowo-zachodniej Azji i Afryce.1 Około połowa ciąż z siamiaczkami kończy się urodzeniem martwych płodów, a dodatkowa jedna trzecia umiera w ciągu 24 godzin po urodzeniu. Wśród żywo urodzonych siamiaczków dominują dziewczynki, w stosunku 3:1.2

Główne teorie powstawania siamiaczków

W odniesieniu do etiologii i patogenezy siamiaczków istnieją dwie główne teorie wyjaśniające ich powstawanie:34

  • Teoria rozszczepiania (fission theory) – zakłada, że siamiaczki powstają w wyniku niekompletnego podziału zygoty. Według tej teorii, pojedyncze zapłodnione jajo nie dzieli się całkowicie podczas procesu tworzenia identycznych bliźniąt. Podział zarodka zachodzi po 13-15 dniu od zapłodnienia, ale proces rozdzielenia zatrzymuje się przed jego zakończeniem, co prowadzi do powstania bliźniąt połączonych fizycznie.56
  • Teoria fuzji (fusion theory) – sugeruje, że dwa oddzielne zarodki, które początkowo rozwijały się niezależnie, łączą się we wczesnym stadium rozwoju. Zgodnie z tą teorią, komórki macierzyste z jednego płodu przyciągają podobne komórki macierzyste drugiego płodu, co prowadzi do ich częściowego połączenia.78

Obie teorie mogą wyjaśniać obserwowane zjawiska embriologiczne i anatomiczne występujące u siamiaczków, jednak teoria rozszczepiania jest obecnie powszechniej akceptowana.9 Warto zauważyć, że mimo licznych badań, dokładny mechanizm powstawania siamiaczków pozostaje nie w pełni wyjaśniony, a naukowcy wciąż nie znają przyczyn, dlaczego dochodzi do tych zjawisk.10

Rola czasu w patogenezie siamiaczków

Kluczowym czynnikiem w powstawaniu siamiaczków jest moment, w którym dochodzi do nieprawidłowego podziału lub fuzji zarodka. W normalnych warunkach podział zapłodnionej komórki jajowej prowadzący do powstania bliźniąt jednojajowych następuje między 8 a 12 dniem po zapłodnieniu.11 Jednak w przypadku siamiaczków:

  • Jeśli podział nastąpi po 13 dniu od zapłodnienia, proces separacji może zostać zatrzymany, co prowadzi do powstania siamiaczków.12
  • Szczególnie krytyczny jest okres między 13 a 15 dniem po zapłodnieniu, kiedy to niekompletny podział tarczy zarodkowej może skutkować powstaniem bliźniąt połączonych.13
  • Według teorii fuzji, proces łączenia się dwóch oddzielnych zarodków musi nastąpić przed końcem 4 tygodnia ciąży.14

Nieprawidłowości strukturalne i ich mechanizm

Powstawanie siamiaczków wiąże się z określonymi nieprawidłowościami strukturalnymi na poziomie embriologicznym:15

  • Częściowe rozdzielenie węzła pierwotnego i smugi pierwotnej może prowadzić do powstania siamiaczków. Typ powstałych bliźniąt zależy od czasu i stopnia nieprawidłowości w rozwoju węzła i smugi pierwotnej.16
  • Nieprawidłowa ekspresja genów, takich jak goosecoid, który aktywuje inhibitory BMP4 i przyczynia się do regulacji rozwoju głowy. Nadmierna lub niedostateczna ekspresja tego genu może prowadzić do poważnych malformacji regionu głowy, w tym duplikacji, podobnych do niektórych typów siamiaczków.17
  • W przypadku szczególnego typu siamiaczków – craniopagus (połączonych głowami) – badania obrazowe ujawniają obecność tzw. mostu wzgórzowego (thalamic bridge), który łączy wzgórza mózgowe obojga bliźniąt. Ponieważ wzgórze funkcjonuje jako stacja przekaźnikowa, bodźce czuciowe odbierane przez jedno dziecko mogą przechodzić przez ten most do mózgu drugiego.18

Uwarunkowania patofizjologiczne

Z punktu widzenia patofizjologii, rozwój siamiaczków charakteryzuje się kilkoma istotnymi aspektami:19

  • Siamiaczki są zawsze monozygotyczne (powstają z jednej zapłodnionej komórki jajowej), monoamniotyczne i monochorioniczne (rozwijają się w jednym worku owodniowym i łożysku).20
  • W zależności od miejsca połączenia, siamiaczki mogą dzielić różne narządy i układy, co stanowi podstawę ich klasyfikacji anatomicznej.21
  • Częstym zjawiskiem jest występowanie dodatkowych wad rozwojowych (w 10-20% przypadków), które nie są związane z miejscem fuzji.22
  • U siamiaczków połączonych brzusznie może rozwinąć się wspólny układ krążenia we wczesnym okresie rozwoju, umożliwiający prawidłowo rozwijającemu się bliźniakowi dostarczanie tlenu i składników odżywczych bliźniakowi z nieprawidłowościami.23

Mechanizmy molekularne w rozwoju siamiaczków

Badania na poziomie molekularnym rzucają dodatkowe światło na mechanizmy prowadzące do powstania siamiaczków, choć wiele aspektów pozostaje niewyjaśnionych.24

Aberracje molekularne a fenotyp siamiaczków

W kontekście molekularnym, istotne znaczenie dla zrozumienia patogenezy siamiaczków mają następujące obserwacje:2526

  • Mimo wspólnego środowiska wewnątrzmacicznego i teoretycznie identycznych ścieżek molekularnych i genetycznych, u siamiaczków często obserwuje się niezgodne anomalie (discordant anomalies), które trudno wyjaśnić z perspektywy rozwojowej.27
  • Występowanie tych niezgodnych anomalii świadczy o tym, że określone pola rozwojowe i ich odpowiednie ścieżki molekularne mogą przebiegać różnie u poszczególnych członków pary siamiaczków.28
  • Obserwacje wskazują, że bliźnięta połączone bardziej powierzchownie wykazują więcej niezgodnych wzorców w porównaniu do bliźniąt połączonych głębiej.29
  • Wbrew intuicyjnemu przekonaniu, bliźnięta jednojajowe, w tym siamiaczki, nie są całkowicie identyczne pod względem fenotypowym czy molekularnym.30

Zaburzenia lateralizacji w rozwoju siamiaczków

Istotnym aspektem patogenezy siamiaczków są zaburzenia lateralizacji (asymetrii ciała), które różnią się w zależności od typu połączenia:31

  • Zaburzenia lateralizacji są stosunkowo częste u siamiaczków typu thoracoileopagus (połączonych w okolicy klatki piersiowej i brzucha) oraz parapagus dicephalus (z jednym ciałem i dwiema głowami), ale rzadkie w innych typach.32
  • Teoretyczny model powstawania siamiaczków może dostarczyć wyjaśnienia wysokiej częstości występowania zaburzeń lateralizacji w określonych typach siamiaczków.33
  • Występowanie zaburzeń lateralizacji może być związane z nieprawidłowym rozwojem śledziony, co stanowi wyzwanie diagnostyczne w badaniach pośmiertnych siamiaczków.34

Typy siamiaczków i ich patogeneza

Klasyfikacja siamiaczków opiera się głównie na anatomicznym miejscu połączenia, co odzwierciedla różnice w patogenezie poszczególnych typów.35

Klasyfikacja ogólna

Siamiaczki można podzielić na dwie główne grupy:36

  • Asymetryczne – obejmują przypadki, w których tylko jeden komponent (autositus) jest zdolny do życia i zapewnia krążenie:
    • Acardius acephalus – bliźnię bez serca i głowy
    • Fetus-in-fetu – płód w płodzie
    • Heteropagus – bliźnięta pasożytnicze
  • Symetryczne – określane w zależności od miejsca połączenia:
    • Craniopagus – połączone głowami
    • Thoracopagus – połączone klatką piersiową
    • Omphalopagus – połączone w okolicy pępka
    • Rachiopagus – połączone kręgosłupami
    • Ischiopagus – połączone miednicami
    • Pygopagus – połączone w okolicy odbytu
    • Parapagus – połączone bokami ciała

Specyfika patogenetyczna wybranych typów

Poszczególne typy siamiaczków charakteryzują się specyficznymi mechanizmami patogenetycznymi:3738

  • Craniopagus (połączenie w obrębie czaszki):
    • Fuzja może obejmować dowolną część czaszki, ale nie obejmuje zasadniczo twarzy ani otworu wielkiego
    • Mózgi są zwykle oddzielne, ale mogą dzielić pewne tkanki mózgowe
    • Występuje połączenie naczyń krwionośnych, kości czaszki i opony twardej, co komplikuje operację rozdzielenia
  • Thoracopagus (połączenie w obrębie klatki piersiowej):
    • Stanowi ponad 40% przypadków siamiaczków
    • Rokowanie jest zwykle niekorzystne ze względu na obecność wspólnego serca i/lub wątroby
    • Separacja chirurgiczna jest trudna lub niemożliwa w przypadku wspólnego serca
  • Parasitic rachipagus (pasożytniczy typ połączony kręgosłupem):
    • Wady cewy nerwowej różnego stopnia występują prawie u wszystkich pasożytów typu rachipagus
    • Powstają w wyniku fuzji kręgosłupa, opon mózgowych i rdzenia kręgowego w środkowej części otwartej cewy nerwowej podczas wczesnego rozwoju zarodkowego

Siamiaczki pasożytnicze – szczególny przypadek patogenezy

Szczególnym typem siamiaczków są bliźnięta pasożytnicze (parasitic twin), które stanowią około 10% wszystkich przypadków siamiaczków:3940

  • W tym przypadku jeden z płodów w parze siamiaczków przestaje się rozwijać, ale pozostaje przyłączony do swojego bliźniaka, który nadal rozwija się do momentu narodzin
  • Pasożytniczy bliźniak nigdy nie rozwija się w pełni, co prowadzi do sytuacji, w której zdrowy, rozwinięty bliźniak (dominujący lub autosityczny) rodzi się z dodatkowymi kończynami, narządami lub tkankami od swojego pasożytniczego bliźniaka
  • Pasożytniczy bliźniak nie jest żywy i obumiera w macicy, pozostając przyłączonym do dominującego bliźniaka
  • Leczenie wymaga chirurgicznego usunięcia pasożytniczego bliźniaka od dominującego, aby zapobiec chorobom i powikłaniom

Implikacje kliniczne patogenezy siamiaczków

Zrozumienie patogenezy siamiaczków ma kluczowe znaczenie dla podejmowania decyzji klinicznych dotyczących ich leczenia.41

Diagnostyka prenatalna

Wczesna i dokładna diagnostyka prenatalna ma fundamentalne znaczenie dla dalszego postępowania:4243

  • Badanie ultrasonograficzne pozwala na wczesne rozpoznanie siamiaczków i określenie typu połączenia
  • Dokładna ocena prenatalna jest szczególnie ważna dla siamiaczków, ponieważ lokalizacja i zakres połączenia oraz wspólne narządy odgrywają kluczową rolę w podejmowaniu decyzji o możliwości rozdzielenia
  • Nowoczesne techniki obrazowania, w tym zaawansowane badania MRI, umożliwiają szczegółową ocenę anatomii siamiaczków, w tym wspólnych struktur naczyniowych
  • Wczesne rozpoznanie może pozwolić na selektywną terminację ciąży lub planowanie sposobu porodu i postępowania pooperacyjnego

Czynniki wpływające na możliwość rozdzielenia

Możliwość chirurgicznego rozdzielenia siamiaczków zależy od wielu czynników związanych z ich patogenezą:4445

  • Miejsce i stopień połączenia bliźniąt – im bardziej złożone i rozległe połączenie, tym trudniejsze rozdzielenie
  • Rodzaj i liczba wspólnych narządów – szczególnie istotne jest, czy bliźnięta dzielą narządy witalne, takie jak serce czy mózg
  • Obecność i stopień zaawansowania wspólnego układu krążenia – separacja wspólnych naczyń może prowadzić do zakrzepicy, zatorów powietrznych, zawałów mózgu i krwotoków
  • Obecność dodatkowych wad rozwojowych niezwiązanych z miejscem połączenia, które mogą komplikować operację

Rozdzielenie siamiaczków dzielących serce jest zwykle niemożliwe, natomiast w przypadku innych typów połączeń może być wykonalne, choć obarczone znacznym ryzykiem.46

Czas i planowanie operacji rozdzielenia

Proces planowania i przeprowadzenia operacji rozdzielenia siamiaczków stanowi złożone wyzwanie medyczne:4748

  • Lekarze zwykle czekają od trzech miesięcy do roku po urodzeniu siamiaczków, aby podjąć decyzję o rozdzieleniu. Jest to czas potrzebny na:
    • Wzmocnienie bliźniąt, aby były wystarczająco silne do operacji
    • Dokładne poznanie anatomii bliźniąt przed zabiegiem
  • W niektórych przypadkach konieczne jest przeprowadzenie pilnej operacji rozdzielenia, np. gdy jeden z bliźniaków umiera lub występuje zagrożenie życia, aby uratować drugiego bliźniaka
  • Planowa operacja rozdzielenia jest niezwykle skomplikowana i wymaga multidyscyplinarnego podejścia z udziałem specjalistów z różnych dziedzin, w tym chirurgii ogólnej, klatki piersiowej, serca, ortopedycznej, urologicznej, neurochirurgicznej i plastycznej

Rokowanie i przeżywalność

Rokowanie dla siamiaczków w znacznej mierze zależy od patogenezy i rodzaju połączenia:4950

  • Ponad 50% ciąż z siamiaczkami kończy się poronieniem lub urodzeniem martwego płodu
  • Około 35% urodzonych siamiaczków umiera w ciągu 24 godzin po urodzeniu, ponieważ ich narządy nie mogą ich podtrzymać przy życiu
  • Spośród siamiaczków, które przeżywają, tylko około 25% żyje wystarczająco długo, aby kwalifikować się do operacji
  • Około 60% chirurgicznie rozdzielonych bliźniąt przeżywa
  • Jakość życia po rozdzieleniu jest często obciążona nietrzymaniem kału i moczu lub nieprawidłowościami kończyn i narządów płciowych, które są ceną za rozdzielenie

Mimo tych wyzwań, dzięki postępom w badaniach obrazowych i technikach chirurgicznych, coraz więcej siamiaczków przeżywa obecnie niż w przeszłości.51

Aspekty etyczne związane z patogenezą siamiaczków

Złożoność patogenezy siamiaczków prowadzi do istotnych dylematów etycznych i prawnych, które wpływają na decyzje kliniczne.52

Wyzwania etyczne w leczeniu siamiaczków

W kontekście leczenia siamiaczków, pojawiają się następujące wyzwania etyczne:5354

  • Kwestia ustalenia, kto ma prawo do wyrażenia zgody na leczenie
  • Określenie akceptowalnego ryzyka operacyjnego
  • Ocena jakości życia pooperacyjnej
  • Pytanie, czy mamy do czynienia z jednym, czy dwoma istotami ludzkimi
  • W niektórych przypadkach, gdy operacja rozdzielenia jest niemożliwa, pozostawanie w połączeniu jest jedyną realną opcją, co rodzi pytania o autonomię i jakość życia

Uwarunkowania kulturowe i decyzyjne

Podejście do siamiaczków i decyzje dotyczące ich rozdzielenia mogą znacząco różnić się w zależności od uwarunkowań kulturowych:55

  • Chęć rozdzielenia siamiaczków różni się znacznie w zależności od kultury i określonych standardów etycznych
  • W niektórych przypadkach prawdopodobne jest, że potrzeba późniejszej opieki będzie mniejsza u bliźniąt nierozdzielonych niż u tych poddanych operacji rozdzielenia
  • Decyzje dotyczące selektywnej redukcji płodów lub terminacji ciąży z siamiaczkami wiążą się z dodatkowymi dylematami moralnymi

Jakość życia a decyzja o rozdzieleniu

Ocena potencjalnej jakości życia siamiaczków stanowi istotny element procesu decyzyjnego:5657

  • Decyzja o przeprowadzeniu operacji rozdzielenia zależy od szansy przeżycia i jakości życia każdego z bliźniąt
  • Bez rozdzielenia bliźnięta mogą nie być w stanie normalnie chodzić ani spędzać czasu osobno, a ich ciała mogą ulegać deformacji w miarę adaptacji do zsynchronizowanego poruszania się
  • Po rozdzieleniu mogą wystąpić istotne zmiany behawioralne, co sugeruje, że nawet po fizycznym rozdzieleniu może istnieć pewnego rodzaju „pamięć fizyczna” u bliźniąt

Perspektywy badawcze w patogenezie siamiaczków

Mimo znacznych postępów w zrozumieniu patogenezy siamiaczków, wiele aspektów pozostaje niewyjaśnionych, co otwiera pole do dalszych badań.58

Modele zwierzęce w badaniach patogenezy

Badania na modelach zwierzęcych mogą dostarczyć cennych informacji na temat mechanizmów powstawania siamiaczków:59

  • Siamiaczki występują również u innych gatunków, w tym ssaków, gadów, płazów i ryb
  • Ryby łososiowate mogą służyć jako organizmy modelowe do badania morfogenezy układu krążenia u siamiaczków
  • Przezroczysty woreczek żółtkowy i możliwość obserwacji układu krążenia in vivo w okresie od wyklucia do rozpoczęcia karmienia czynią bliźnięta ryb cennym modelem do zrozumienia podstaw morfogenezy układu krążenia u siamiaczków

Przyszłe kierunki badań

Dalsze badania w obszarze patogenezy siamiaczków powinny koncentrować się na:6061

  • Dalsza praca w dziedzinie epidemiologii i badań molekularnych jest niezbędna do zrozumienia etiologii i patogenezy związanej z rozwojem tego fascynującego zjawiska natury
  • Badania nad czynnikami genetycznymi i środowiskowymi, które mogą przyczyniać się do powstawania siamiaczków
  • Lepsze zrozumienie mechanizmów regulacyjnych we wczesnym rozwoju embriologicznym
  • Rozwój nowych technik obrazowania i diagnostycznych umożliwiających wcześniejsze i dokładniejsze rozpoznanie
  • Istotne jest, aby zdać sobie sprawę, że bliźnięta syjamskie należy interpretować jako wadę wrodzoną samą w sobie, na którą wtórnie wpływają nieprawidłowo połączone narządy i nałożone efekty nieprawidłowej hemodynamiki oraz aberracji molekularnych wynikających z dostosowań embriologicznych i/lub mechanicznych po powstaniu bliźniąt

Znaczenie multidyscyplinarnego podejścia

Kompleksowe zrozumienie patogenezy siamiaczków wymaga multidyscyplinarnego podejścia, obejmującego:6263

  • Współpracę specjalistów z różnych dziedzin, w tym embriologii, genetyki, chirurgii dziecięcej, radiologii i etyki
  • Rozwiązania systemowe wspierające badania i opiekę nad siamiaczkami
  • Dokładne planowanie, badania przedoperacyjne, podejście multidyscyplinarne oraz skrupulatne postępowanie operacyjne i pooperacyjne są niezbędne dla skutecznego leczenia siamiaczków
  • Powodzenie chirurgicznego rozdzielenia zależy od zaangażowania, podejścia multidyscyplinarnego i starannego doboru pacjentów po dokładnej ocenie

Siamiaczki pozostają jednym z najbardziej złożonych wyzwań w chirurgii dziecięcej, wymagając dogłębnej znajomości literatury oraz zrozumienia anatomii i embriologii pacjenta, aby zapewnić dobry wynik leczenia.64

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  1. 10.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    Conjoined twins, popularly referred to as Siamese twins, are twins joined in utero. It is a very rare phenomenon, estimated to occur in anywhere between one in 50,000 births to one in 200,000 births, with a somewhat higher incidence in southwest Asia and Africa. Approximately half are stillborn, and an additional one-third die within 24 hours. Most live births are female, with a ratio of 3:1. […] Two possible explanations of the cause of conjoined twins have been proposed. The one that is generally accepted is fission, in which the fertilized egg splits partially. The other explanation, no longer believed to be accurate, is fusion, in which the fertilized egg completely separates, but stem cells (that search for similar cells) find similar stem cells on the other twin and fuse the twins together.
  • #2 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    Conjoined twins, popularly referred to as Siamese twins, are twins joined in utero. It is a very rare phenomenon, estimated to occur in anywhere between one in 50,000 births to one in 200,000 births, with a somewhat higher incidence in southwest Asia and Africa. Approximately half are stillborn, and an additional one-third die within 24 hours. Most live births are female, with a ratio of 3:1. […] Two possible explanations of the cause of conjoined twins have been proposed. The one that is generally accepted is fission, in which the fertilized egg splits partially. The other explanation, no longer believed to be accurate, is fusion, in which the fertilized egg completely separates, but stem cells (that search for similar cells) find similar stem cells on the other twin and fuse the twins together.
  • #3 Conjoined Twins and Ectopia Cordis | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/conjoined-twins-and-ectopia-cordis/
    Conjoined twins are monozygotic (one egg) and are monoaminiotic and monochorionic. […] There are two theories of the mechanism of conjoined twinning (which are incompletely understood and are contradictory). One theory is called fission in which there is an incomplete and asymmetrical partial splitting of a single embryonic fertilized egg. The second theory is called fusion in which the fertilized egg was destined to become completely separate twins but then stem cells search for like stem cells on the other twin (due to their close proximity) then fuse together. […] If the splitting or rejoining of the fertilized egg occurs after 12 days with either theory, the result will be a conjoined twin.
  • #4 Conjoined Twins – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560839/
    Conjoined twins refers to twins that are physically fused in utero and consequently at birth. […] The condition is proposed to result from either fission or fusion. […] The most commonly believed etiology of conjoined twinning is either partial fission or secondary fusion. […] Both of these processes can be used to explain the embryological and anatomical findings observed in conjoined twins. […] Conjoined twinning is the result of cleavage or axis duplication that occurs after day 13 of fertilization. […] The site of fusion and organs involved are a primary consideration for separation surgery. […] The sharing of organs, in particular, the heart is an important consideration because it determines whether surgical treatment is possible and its prognostic outlook.
  • #5 Conjoined Twins: Definition, Causes & Outlook
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22895-conjoined-twins
    Conjoined twins are caused by two embryos that are joined together during fertilization, resulting in twins that are physically connected, most commonly at the abdomen, chest or head. […] Experts dont know exactly what causes the condition. But it likely involves splitting or fusion of very early-stage embryos soon after fertilization. […] There are two theories of what causes conjoined twins: Fission: An early embryo, comprising a small sphere of identical cells, splits into two spheres but doesnt separate completely. The two spheres each develop independently into the conjoined twins. […] Fusion: An identical twin pregnancy contains separate early twin embryo spheres that merge together and join at a random point of connection. […] Both of these theories help explain how conjoined twins might form during the first 12-14 days of fertilization. But scientists still dont know why this happens.
  • #6 Conjoined twins // Middlesex Health
    https://middlesexhealth.org/learning-center/diseases-and-conditions/conjoined-twins
    Conjoined twins develop when an early embryo only partially separates to form two individuals. […] It’s believed that when the embryo splits later than this usually between 13 and 15 days after conception separation stops before the process is complete. The resulting twins are conjoined. […] An alternative theory suggests that two separate embryos may somehow fuse together in early development.
  • #7 Conjoined Twins: Definition, Causes & Outlook
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22895-conjoined-twins
    Conjoined twins are caused by two embryos that are joined together during fertilization, resulting in twins that are physically connected, most commonly at the abdomen, chest or head. […] Experts dont know exactly what causes the condition. But it likely involves splitting or fusion of very early-stage embryos soon after fertilization. […] There are two theories of what causes conjoined twins: Fission: An early embryo, comprising a small sphere of identical cells, splits into two spheres but doesnt separate completely. The two spheres each develop independently into the conjoined twins. […] Fusion: An identical twin pregnancy contains separate early twin embryo spheres that merge together and join at a random point of connection. […] Both of these theories help explain how conjoined twins might form during the first 12-14 days of fertilization. But scientists still dont know why this happens.
  • #8 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    Conjoined twins, popularly referred to as Siamese twins, are twins joined in utero. It is a very rare phenomenon, estimated to occur in anywhere between one in 50,000 births to one in 200,000 births, with a somewhat higher incidence in southwest Asia and Africa. Approximately half are stillborn, and an additional one-third die within 24 hours. Most live births are female, with a ratio of 3:1. […] Two possible explanations of the cause of conjoined twins have been proposed. The one that is generally accepted is fission, in which the fertilized egg splits partially. The other explanation, no longer believed to be accurate, is fusion, in which the fertilized egg completely separates, but stem cells (that search for similar cells) find similar stem cells on the other twin and fuse the twins together.
  • #9 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    Conjoined twins, popularly referred to as Siamese twins, are twins joined in utero. It is a very rare phenomenon, estimated to occur in anywhere between one in 50,000 births to one in 200,000 births, with a somewhat higher incidence in southwest Asia and Africa. Approximately half are stillborn, and an additional one-third die within 24 hours. Most live births are female, with a ratio of 3:1. […] Two possible explanations of the cause of conjoined twins have been proposed. The one that is generally accepted is fission, in which the fertilized egg splits partially. The other explanation, no longer believed to be accurate, is fusion, in which the fertilized egg completely separates, but stem cells (that search for similar cells) find similar stem cells on the other twin and fuse the twins together.
  • #10 Conjoined Twins: Definition, Causes & Outlook
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22895-conjoined-twins
    Conjoined twins are caused by two embryos that are joined together during fertilization, resulting in twins that are physically connected, most commonly at the abdomen, chest or head. […] Experts dont know exactly what causes the condition. But it likely involves splitting or fusion of very early-stage embryos soon after fertilization. […] There are two theories of what causes conjoined twins: Fission: An early embryo, comprising a small sphere of identical cells, splits into two spheres but doesnt separate completely. The two spheres each develop independently into the conjoined twins. […] Fusion: An identical twin pregnancy contains separate early twin embryo spheres that merge together and join at a random point of connection. […] Both of these theories help explain how conjoined twins might form during the first 12-14 days of fertilization. But scientists still dont know why this happens.
  • #11 Conjoined Twins – Types, Causes, Signs & Treatment
    https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/conjoined-twins-causes-signs-and-treatment/
    Being pregnant with twin babies can be an ecstatic experience for would-be parents, filled with anticipation and excitement as they prepare to welcome two new lives. However, some twins can be joined by their skin and other internal organs; such babies are referred to as conjoined twins. Statistically, one in every 200,000 twins can be conjoined, and a concerning 40 to 60 percent of conjoined twins arrive stillborn, highlighting the serious nature of this condition. […] In the case of conjoined twins, the single egg does not separate completely after fertilization. The partially separated egg turns into conjoined twins. These twins are identical twins and are of the same sex. In the womb, they share the same amniotic cavity and placenta. […] Generally, the division of the fertilized egg takes place between eight to twelve days after the conception. However, any division of the egg that takes place later than thirteen to fifteen days may completely stop in between, and this situation may result in conjoined twins.
  • #12 Conjoined twins | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/conjoined-twins?lang=us
    Conjoined twin pregnancy is a rare occurrence resulting from the failure of a zygote to separate completely after 13 days. This results in the twins being physically joined. […] Conjoined twins are monozygotic, monoamniotic, and monochorionic (MCMA) and result due to a failure of normal complete separation of the embryonic plate from an incomplete delayed division of the inner cell mass. This is thought to occur around 13-17 days of gestation. […] There is a higher incidence of congenital malformations in conjoined twins (10-20%) which are unrelated to the point of fusion.
  • #13 Conjoined twins in dichorionic diamniotic triplet pregnancy: a report of three cases and literature review | BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth | Full Text
    https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-021-04165-x
    Conjoined twins are a rare and serious complication of monochorionic twins. The pathogenesis of conjoined twins is unclear. Fission theory and fusion theory are widely accepted. The fission theory suggests that the embryo undergoes incomplete division 13-15 days after fertilization, resulting in conjoined twins. The fusion theory suggests that two separate embryos undergo a second fusion 13 days after fertilization. Conjoined twins can be classified according to their most prominent conjoined parts. Conjoined twins in a dichorionic diamniotic (DCDA) triplet pregnancy are extremely rare. Conjoined twins have a low survival rate, and the prognosis is generally poor. The difficulty and prognosis of surgical treatment are related to the location and degree of conjoined parts. Early antenatal diagnosis of conjoined twins and determination of chorionicity of triplet gestations are critical for individualized management options and the prognosis of the normal fetus. Early selective termination of the conjoined twins by intrathoracic injection of potassium chloride may be a procedure in dichorionic diamniotic triplet pregnancies to improve the perinatal outcomes of the normal fetus in triplets.
  • #14 Craniopagus twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniopagus_twins
    Craniopagus twins are conjoined twins who are fused at the cranium. The union may occur on any portion of the cranium, but does not primarily involve either the face or the foramen magnum; the two brains are usually separate, but they may share some brain tissue. […] The exact nature of how conjoined twins develop in utero remains unclear. Embryologists have traditionally attributed identical twinning as „splitting or fission” of either the inner cell mass of pleuripotent cells or early embryonic disc at 1314 days of gestation just before the primitive streak. Some theorists suggested that conjoined twins develop as a result of the failed division (fission) of a single fertilized ovum. However a new hypothesis suggests that cranial fusion occurs between two separate embryos before the end of the 4th week of gestation.
  • #15 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    There are two hypotheses about the development of conjoined twins. A single fertilized egg does not fully split during the process of forming identical twins. If the zygote division occurs after two weeks of the development of the embryonic disc, it results in the formation of conjoined twins. Fusion of two fertilized eggs occurs early in development. […] Partial splitting of the primitive node and streak may result in the formation of conjoined twins. These twins are classified according to the nature and degree of their union. Occasionally, monozygotic twins are connected only by a common skin bridge or by a common liver bridge. The type of twins formed depends on when and to what extent abnormalities of the node and streak occurred. Misexpression of genes, such as goosecoid, may also result in conjoined twins. Goosecoid activates inhibitors of BMP4 and contributes to regulation of head development. Over- or underexpression of this gene in laboratory animals results in severe malformations of the head region, including duplications, similar to some types of conjoined twins.
  • #16 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    There are two hypotheses about the development of conjoined twins. A single fertilized egg does not fully split during the process of forming identical twins. If the zygote division occurs after two weeks of the development of the embryonic disc, it results in the formation of conjoined twins. Fusion of two fertilized eggs occurs early in development. […] Partial splitting of the primitive node and streak may result in the formation of conjoined twins. These twins are classified according to the nature and degree of their union. Occasionally, monozygotic twins are connected only by a common skin bridge or by a common liver bridge. The type of twins formed depends on when and to what extent abnormalities of the node and streak occurred. Misexpression of genes, such as goosecoid, may also result in conjoined twins. Goosecoid activates inhibitors of BMP4 and contributes to regulation of head development. Over- or underexpression of this gene in laboratory animals results in severe malformations of the head region, including duplications, similar to some types of conjoined twins.
  • #17 Conjoined twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins
    There are two hypotheses about the development of conjoined twins. A single fertilized egg does not fully split during the process of forming identical twins. If the zygote division occurs after two weeks of the development of the embryonic disc, it results in the formation of conjoined twins. Fusion of two fertilized eggs occurs early in development. […] Partial splitting of the primitive node and streak may result in the formation of conjoined twins. These twins are classified according to the nature and degree of their union. Occasionally, monozygotic twins are connected only by a common skin bridge or by a common liver bridge. The type of twins formed depends on when and to what extent abnormalities of the node and streak occurred. Misexpression of genes, such as goosecoid, may also result in conjoined twins. Goosecoid activates inhibitors of BMP4 and contributes to regulation of head development. Over- or underexpression of this gene in laboratory animals results in severe malformations of the head region, including duplications, similar to some types of conjoined twins.
  • #18 Could Conjoined Twins Share a Mind? – The New York Times
    https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/29/magazine/could-conjoined-twins-share-a-mind.html
    Twins joined at the head — the medical term is craniopagus — are one in 2.5 million, of which only a fraction survive. […] Their brain images reveal what looks like an attenuated line stretching between the two organs, a piece of anatomy their neurosurgeon, Douglas Cochrane of British Columbia Children’s Hospital, has called a thalamic bridge, because he believes it links the thalamus of one girl to the thalamus of her sister. The thalamus is a kind of switchboard, a two-lobed organ that filters most sensory input and has long been thought to be essential in the neural loops that create consciousness. Because the thalamus functions as a relay station, the girls’ doctors believe it is entirely possible that the sensory input that one girl receives could somehow cross that bridge into the brain of the other. One girl drinks, another girl feels it.
  • #19 Salmonid fish: model organisms to study cardiovascular morphogenesis in conjoined twins? | BMC Developmental Biology | Full Text
    https://bmcdevbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12861-016-0125-x
    There is a gap in knowledge regarding the cardiovascular system in fish conjoined twins, and regarding the cardiovascular morphogenesis of conjoined twins in general. […] Ventrally conjoined fish twins can develop cardiovascular connections during early development, enabling a normal superior twin to supply a malfunctioning twin with oxygen and nutrients. […] This study shows that conjoined fish twins can have a joined cardiovascular system, and that one twin can support its conjoined sibling with both oxygen and nutrients. […] The twins investigated in the present study had intact circulatory systems, inter-connected by arteries and veins. This is the first time that this phenomena has been recorded in fish, most probably since conjoined twins rarely survive past the first feeding period, after the yolk sac is absorbed.
  • #20 Conjoined Twins | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-43588-5_86
    Monozygotic, monochorionic, and isosexual twins united by a part of their anatomy are known as Conjoined Twins. This is a rare and fascinating malformation that represents one of the more complex challenges of pediatric surgery. The twins are classified into two main groups: asymmetric and symmetric. Asymmetric ones are acardius acephalus, fetus-in-fetu, or heteropagus twins. In all these, only one component, the autositus supplying circulation, is viable. Symmetric twins are designated craniopagus, thoracopagus, omphalopagus, rachiopagus, ischiopagus, pygopagus, or parapagus according to the location of the joining bridge. This can be large and often contains shared organs. The cardiovascular systems of both components of the set are communicated and the internal environment is also shared to a variable extent.
  • #21 Conjoined Twins | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-43588-5_86
    Monozygotic, monochorionic, and isosexual twins united by a part of their anatomy are known as Conjoined Twins. This is a rare and fascinating malformation that represents one of the more complex challenges of pediatric surgery. The twins are classified into two main groups: asymmetric and symmetric. Asymmetric ones are acardius acephalus, fetus-in-fetu, or heteropagus twins. In all these, only one component, the autositus supplying circulation, is viable. Symmetric twins are designated craniopagus, thoracopagus, omphalopagus, rachiopagus, ischiopagus, pygopagus, or parapagus according to the location of the joining bridge. This can be large and often contains shared organs. The cardiovascular systems of both components of the set are communicated and the internal environment is also shared to a variable extent.
  • #22 Conjoined twins | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/conjoined-twins?lang=us
    Conjoined twin pregnancy is a rare occurrence resulting from the failure of a zygote to separate completely after 13 days. This results in the twins being physically joined. […] Conjoined twins are monozygotic, monoamniotic, and monochorionic (MCMA) and result due to a failure of normal complete separation of the embryonic plate from an incomplete delayed division of the inner cell mass. This is thought to occur around 13-17 days of gestation. […] There is a higher incidence of congenital malformations in conjoined twins (10-20%) which are unrelated to the point of fusion.
  • #23 Salmonid fish: model organisms to study cardiovascular morphogenesis in conjoined twins? | BMC Developmental Biology | Full Text
    https://bmcdevbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12861-016-0125-x
    There is a gap in knowledge regarding the cardiovascular system in fish conjoined twins, and regarding the cardiovascular morphogenesis of conjoined twins in general. […] Ventrally conjoined fish twins can develop cardiovascular connections during early development, enabling a normal superior twin to supply a malfunctioning twin with oxygen and nutrients. […] This study shows that conjoined fish twins can have a joined cardiovascular system, and that one twin can support its conjoined sibling with both oxygen and nutrients. […] The twins investigated in the present study had intact circulatory systems, inter-connected by arteries and veins. This is the first time that this phenomena has been recorded in fish, most probably since conjoined twins rarely survive past the first feeding period, after the yolk sac is absorbed.
  • #24 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    A multitude of additional anomalies can be observed in virtually all types of symmetrical conjoined twins. […] The so-called shared anomalies are traceable to embryological adjustments and directly linked to the conjoined-twinning mechanism itself, inherently located within the boundaries of the coalescence area. […] These dysmorphological entities are much more difficult to place in a developmental perspective, as it is presumed that conjoined twins share identical intra-uterine environments and intra-embryonic molecular and genetic footprints. […] However, their existence testifies that certain developmental fields and their respective developmental pathways take different routes in members of conjoined twins. […] The pathogenesis of symmetrical conjoined twins is still disputed but can potentially be etiologized by the formation of two—instead of one—embryonic primordia in a single embryoblast.
  • #25 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    A multitude of additional anomalies can be observed in virtually all types of symmetrical conjoined twins. […] The so-called shared anomalies are traceable to embryological adjustments and directly linked to the conjoined-twinning mechanism itself, inherently located within the boundaries of the coalescence area. […] These dysmorphological entities are much more difficult to place in a developmental perspective, as it is presumed that conjoined twins share identical intra-uterine environments and intra-embryonic molecular and genetic footprints. […] However, their existence testifies that certain developmental fields and their respective developmental pathways take different routes in members of conjoined twins. […] The pathogenesis of symmetrical conjoined twins is still disputed but can potentially be etiologized by the formation of two—instead of one—embryonic primordia in a single embryoblast.
  • #26 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    The type, severity and overall morphology of conjoined twins are determined by the original and mutual localization, and potential mutual interactions of the duplicated primordia. […] The presence of discordant anomalies unrelated to the site of coalescence may intuitively be interpreted as coincidental without any etiological connection to the twinning mechanism itself. […] This paper gives the most complete overview of discordant anomalies present in symmetrical conjoined twins up to date. […] It appears that more superficially united twins show more discordant patterns in comparison to more deeply united twins. […] It is becoming evident that MZ twins are far from identical and that differences between ‘identical’ twins do occur, be it in a phenotypical sense or a molecular sense.
  • #27 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    A multitude of additional anomalies can be observed in virtually all types of symmetrical conjoined twins. […] The so-called shared anomalies are traceable to embryological adjustments and directly linked to the conjoined-twinning mechanism itself, inherently located within the boundaries of the coalescence area. […] These dysmorphological entities are much more difficult to place in a developmental perspective, as it is presumed that conjoined twins share identical intra-uterine environments and intra-embryonic molecular and genetic footprints. […] However, their existence testifies that certain developmental fields and their respective developmental pathways take different routes in members of conjoined twins. […] The pathogenesis of symmetrical conjoined twins is still disputed but can potentially be etiologized by the formation of two—instead of one—embryonic primordia in a single embryoblast.
  • #28 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    A multitude of additional anomalies can be observed in virtually all types of symmetrical conjoined twins. […] The so-called shared anomalies are traceable to embryological adjustments and directly linked to the conjoined-twinning mechanism itself, inherently located within the boundaries of the coalescence area. […] These dysmorphological entities are much more difficult to place in a developmental perspective, as it is presumed that conjoined twins share identical intra-uterine environments and intra-embryonic molecular and genetic footprints. […] However, their existence testifies that certain developmental fields and their respective developmental pathways take different routes in members of conjoined twins. […] The pathogenesis of symmetrical conjoined twins is still disputed but can potentially be etiologized by the formation of two—instead of one—embryonic primordia in a single embryoblast.
  • #29 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    The type, severity and overall morphology of conjoined twins are determined by the original and mutual localization, and potential mutual interactions of the duplicated primordia. […] The presence of discordant anomalies unrelated to the site of coalescence may intuitively be interpreted as coincidental without any etiological connection to the twinning mechanism itself. […] This paper gives the most complete overview of discordant anomalies present in symmetrical conjoined twins up to date. […] It appears that more superficially united twins show more discordant patterns in comparison to more deeply united twins. […] It is becoming evident that MZ twins are far from identical and that differences between ‘identical’ twins do occur, be it in a phenotypical sense or a molecular sense.
  • #30 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    The type, severity and overall morphology of conjoined twins are determined by the original and mutual localization, and potential mutual interactions of the duplicated primordia. […] The presence of discordant anomalies unrelated to the site of coalescence may intuitively be interpreted as coincidental without any etiological connection to the twinning mechanism itself. […] This paper gives the most complete overview of discordant anomalies present in symmetrical conjoined twins up to date. […] It appears that more superficially united twins show more discordant patterns in comparison to more deeply united twins. […] It is becoming evident that MZ twins are far from identical and that differences between ‘identical’ twins do occur, be it in a phenotypical sense or a molecular sense.
  • #31
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00247-011-2316-8
    Laterality defects are quite common in thoracoileopagus and parapagus dicephalus but rare in other types of conjoined twins. […] Despite the many hypotheses postulated during the past centuries, both the pathogenetic mechanism of conjoined twinning and the cause of monozygotic twinning itself are as yet unexplained. […] The above model also provides insight in the high incidence of laterality defects in specific conjoined twin types. […] Laterality defects appear to be uncommon in CTIP. […] Based on our findings, we were inclined to assume the presence of laterality defects in all four specimens. […] The theoretical and reported rarity of laterality defects in CTIP and probably also in PTIP forced us to reconsider this diagnosis in our cases and to question the reliability of the spleen as a diagnostic marker. […] The possible causes of an absent spleen in postmortem imaging of conjoined twins are listed in Table 3.
  • #32
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00247-011-2316-8
    Laterality defects are quite common in thoracoileopagus and parapagus dicephalus but rare in other types of conjoined twins. […] Despite the many hypotheses postulated during the past centuries, both the pathogenetic mechanism of conjoined twinning and the cause of monozygotic twinning itself are as yet unexplained. […] The above model also provides insight in the high incidence of laterality defects in specific conjoined twin types. […] Laterality defects appear to be uncommon in CTIP. […] Based on our findings, we were inclined to assume the presence of laterality defects in all four specimens. […] The theoretical and reported rarity of laterality defects in CTIP and probably also in PTIP forced us to reconsider this diagnosis in our cases and to question the reliability of the spleen as a diagnostic marker. […] The possible causes of an absent spleen in postmortem imaging of conjoined twins are listed in Table 3.
  • #33
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00247-011-2316-8
    Laterality defects are quite common in thoracoileopagus and parapagus dicephalus but rare in other types of conjoined twins. […] Despite the many hypotheses postulated during the past centuries, both the pathogenetic mechanism of conjoined twinning and the cause of monozygotic twinning itself are as yet unexplained. […] The above model also provides insight in the high incidence of laterality defects in specific conjoined twin types. […] Laterality defects appear to be uncommon in CTIP. […] Based on our findings, we were inclined to assume the presence of laterality defects in all four specimens. […] The theoretical and reported rarity of laterality defects in CTIP and probably also in PTIP forced us to reconsider this diagnosis in our cases and to question the reliability of the spleen as a diagnostic marker. […] The possible causes of an absent spleen in postmortem imaging of conjoined twins are listed in Table 3.
  • #34
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00247-011-2316-8
    Laterality defects are quite common in thoracoileopagus and parapagus dicephalus but rare in other types of conjoined twins. […] Despite the many hypotheses postulated during the past centuries, both the pathogenetic mechanism of conjoined twinning and the cause of monozygotic twinning itself are as yet unexplained. […] The above model also provides insight in the high incidence of laterality defects in specific conjoined twin types. […] Laterality defects appear to be uncommon in CTIP. […] Based on our findings, we were inclined to assume the presence of laterality defects in all four specimens. […] The theoretical and reported rarity of laterality defects in CTIP and probably also in PTIP forced us to reconsider this diagnosis in our cases and to question the reliability of the spleen as a diagnostic marker. […] The possible causes of an absent spleen in postmortem imaging of conjoined twins are listed in Table 3.
  • #35 Conjoined Twins | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-43588-5_86
    Monozygotic, monochorionic, and isosexual twins united by a part of their anatomy are known as Conjoined Twins. This is a rare and fascinating malformation that represents one of the more complex challenges of pediatric surgery. The twins are classified into two main groups: asymmetric and symmetric. Asymmetric ones are acardius acephalus, fetus-in-fetu, or heteropagus twins. In all these, only one component, the autositus supplying circulation, is viable. Symmetric twins are designated craniopagus, thoracopagus, omphalopagus, rachiopagus, ischiopagus, pygopagus, or parapagus according to the location of the joining bridge. This can be large and often contains shared organs. The cardiovascular systems of both components of the set are communicated and the internal environment is also shared to a variable extent.
  • #36 Conjoined Twins | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-43588-5_86
    Monozygotic, monochorionic, and isosexual twins united by a part of their anatomy are known as Conjoined Twins. This is a rare and fascinating malformation that represents one of the more complex challenges of pediatric surgery. The twins are classified into two main groups: asymmetric and symmetric. Asymmetric ones are acardius acephalus, fetus-in-fetu, or heteropagus twins. In all these, only one component, the autositus supplying circulation, is viable. Symmetric twins are designated craniopagus, thoracopagus, omphalopagus, rachiopagus, ischiopagus, pygopagus, or parapagus according to the location of the joining bridge. This can be large and often contains shared organs. The cardiovascular systems of both components of the set are communicated and the internal environment is also shared to a variable extent.
  • #37 Craniopagus twins – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniopagus_twins
    Craniopagus twins are conjoined twins who are fused at the cranium. The union may occur on any portion of the cranium, but does not primarily involve either the face or the foramen magnum; the two brains are usually separate, but they may share some brain tissue. […] The exact nature of how conjoined twins develop in utero remains unclear. Embryologists have traditionally attributed identical twinning as „splitting or fission” of either the inner cell mass of pleuripotent cells or early embryonic disc at 1314 days of gestation just before the primitive streak. Some theorists suggested that conjoined twins develop as a result of the failed division (fission) of a single fertilized ovum. However a new hypothesis suggests that cranial fusion occurs between two separate embryos before the end of the 4th week of gestation.
  • #38 Conjoined twins in dichorionic diamniotic triplet pregnancy: a report of three cases and literature review | BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth | Full Text
    https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-021-04165-x
    Conjoined twins are a rare and serious complication of monochorionic twins. The pathogenesis of conjoined twins is unclear. Fission theory and fusion theory are widely accepted. The fission theory suggests that the embryo undergoes incomplete division 13-15 days after fertilization, resulting in conjoined twins. The fusion theory suggests that two separate embryos undergo a second fusion 13 days after fertilization. Conjoined twins can be classified according to their most prominent conjoined parts. Conjoined twins in a dichorionic diamniotic (DCDA) triplet pregnancy are extremely rare. Conjoined twins have a low survival rate, and the prognosis is generally poor. The difficulty and prognosis of surgical treatment are related to the location and degree of conjoined parts. Early antenatal diagnosis of conjoined twins and determination of chorionicity of triplet gestations are critical for individualized management options and the prognosis of the normal fetus. Early selective termination of the conjoined twins by intrathoracic injection of potassium chloride may be a procedure in dichorionic diamniotic triplet pregnancies to improve the perinatal outcomes of the normal fetus in triplets.
  • #39 Parasitic Twin: Causes, Diagnosis & Removal
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23513-parasitic-twin
    A parasitic twin is a type of conjoined twin where one fetus stops developing but remains attached to its twin. […] A parasitic twin is a rare condition that happens when a conjoined twin stops developing. The parasitic twin never fully develops but stays attached to its twin, who continues to develop until birth. […] A parasitic twin happens early in embryonic development, so its organs or limbs can be nearly unrecognizable. This results in the healthy, developed twin (the dominant or autositic twin) being born with extra limbs, organs or tissue from its parasitic twin. […] A parasitic twin is a type of conjoined twin. It accounts for about 10% of all conjoined twins. […] A parasitic twin happens when one of the fetuses in a conjoined twin stops developing. […] The fission theory describes an incomplete separation of one fertilized egg.
  • #40 Parasitic Twin: Causes, Diagnosis & Removal
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23513-parasitic-twin
    A parasitic twin occurs when one of these two fertilized eggs stops developing but remains attached to its twin. […] If left untreated, the dominant twin could be susceptible to diseases and complications from supporting its parasitic twin. […] Surgical removal of the parasitic twin from the dominant twin is necessary. […] A parasitic twin isn’t alive and dies in the womb while attached to the dominant twin. […] The surviving, dominant twin may need comprehensive medical treatment to remove tissue, organs or limbs from its parasitic twin. […] A parasitic twin is a rare type of conjoined twin. It occurs when a partially formed fetus attaches to another fetus (its twin) very early in development. One fetus grows normally, while the partially formed fetus stops developing but remains connected to its twin.
  • #41 Conjoined Twins | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-43588-5_86
    Mortality is high before and after birth because of frequent and severe associated malformations. Viability of separation is difficult to determine and requires sophisticated imaging studies. Separation not only involves lengthy and complex operations but also difficult ethical decisions with familial, medical, and even court participation. […] Separation, when possible, requires various groups of specialists under a strong leadership. Bony parts, nervous system, hearts, great vessels, digestive and genitourinary organs, as well as the skin and musculoskeletal tissues have to be divided and reconstructed to achieve separation with preservation for each component of as much function as possible. Survival is nearly impossible when the hearts are united, but it is possible for one or both twins in all the other forms. Complications are frequent and long-term quality of life is often burdened by fecal and urinary incontinence or by abnormal limbs and genitalia that are the price to pay for separation. […] The quality of a pediatric surgical group is heavily put to test by these cases that can only be managed when outstanding expertise is available in the various specialties involved.
  • #42
    https://journals.lww.com/nbcs/fulltext/2018/15010/management_of_conjoined_twins_in_kano,_nigeria_.19.aspx
    Surgical separation of conjoined twins is one of the most stressful procedures in terms of planning and actual performance of the procedure. […] The decision for surgical separation of conjoined twins is determined based on the complex nature of the shared organs and general wellbeing one or both of the twins. […] The prognosis is often predetermined by the underlying anatomy which may preclude successful separation. […] There are many gray areas in the management of conjoined twins such as who has the consent authority, what is the acceptable operative risks, the postoperative quality of life, and the question as to whether we are dealing with one or two human beings. […] Early prenatal diagnosis may also change the concept of the management of conjoined twins. […] Anesthesia is another serious challenge in the management of conjoined twins, which can either be given for separation surgery or for magnetic resonance imaging or other evaluation procedures.
  • #43 Conjoined Twins | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/conjoined-twins
    Conjoined twins are twins that are born with their bodies physically connected. Conjoined twins occur once in every 50,000 to 60,000 births. Approximately 75 percent of conjoined twins are joined at least partially in the chest and share organs with one another. If they have separate sets of organs, chances for surgery and survival are greater than if they share the same organs. As a rule, shared heart conjoined twins cannot be separated. […] A thorough prenatal evaluation is particularly important for conjoined twins, as the location and extent of where the twins are joined and what organs are shared play a crucial role in deciding whether the twins will be separable. […] The prognosis for conjoined twins depends on where the twins are connected. […] Not all conjoined twins are candidates for separation, and the success rates for separating conjoined twins vary depending on the connection. […] When the conjoined twins share a heart, successful surgical division is usually not possible.
  • #44 Conjoined Twins – Seattle Children’s
    https://www.seattlechildrens.org/conditions/conjoined-twins/
    When twins are born with their bodies connected, they are called conjoined twins. […] Conjoined twins begin as a single fertilized egg. Sometimes a single egg splits in half to create 2 separate identical twins. Usually this happens about 2 weeks after the egg is fertilized. […] There are 2 ideas about what causes conjoined twinning: The egg divides late and does not divide all the way. The egg divides but then joins back together. […] The success of the separation surgery depends on many factors, mainly where the twins are connected and which structures they share. […] Treatment for each set of twins is unique. The connection between the twins bodies may range from fairly simple to very complex. […] They may share some structures or vital organs, like a heart. It may not be possible to separate the twins in all cases.
  • #45 Conjoined Twins – Seattle Children’s
    https://www.seattlechildrens.org/conditions/conjoined-twins/
    Whether to do surgery to separate your twins depends on their chance of survival and quality of life for each baby. […] Sometimes separation surgery is not possible for a variety of reasons, so staying connected is the only real option. […] The success of the separation surgery depends on many factors, mainly where the twins are connected and which structures they share. […] Each set of conjoined twins is unique. An expert team of healthcare providers will assess your twins condition and plan and carry out their treatment.
  • #46 Conjoined Twins | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/conjoined-twins
    Conjoined twins are twins that are born with their bodies physically connected. Conjoined twins occur once in every 50,000 to 60,000 births. Approximately 75 percent of conjoined twins are joined at least partially in the chest and share organs with one another. If they have separate sets of organs, chances for surgery and survival are greater than if they share the same organs. As a rule, shared heart conjoined twins cannot be separated. […] A thorough prenatal evaluation is particularly important for conjoined twins, as the location and extent of where the twins are joined and what organs are shared play a crucial role in deciding whether the twins will be separable. […] The prognosis for conjoined twins depends on where the twins are connected. […] Not all conjoined twins are candidates for separation, and the success rates for separating conjoined twins vary depending on the connection. […] When the conjoined twins share a heart, successful surgical division is usually not possible.
  • #47 Conjoined Twins: Types, Causes, Survival & Life Expectancy
    https://www.webmd.com/baby/what-are-conjoined-twins
    Scientists aren’t sure how it happens. But there are a few theories: […] Fission: This idea suggests that an early embryo contains a sphere of identical cells. The sphere splits into two, but never completely separates, developing into conjoined twins. […] Fusion: This theory says that conjoined twins are monozygotes, meaning they begin as one fertilized egg that splits into two embryos identical twins. But early on, the twin embryos join at some random point and become conjoined twins. […] Not all conjoined twins are good candidates for surgery to separate them. For twins who share vital organs such as a heart, surgery isn’t an option. […] Doctors usually wait three months to a year after the birth of conjoined twins to decide on separation. This is to give the twins time to grow strong enough for the operation. This also gives doctors enough time to understand the twins’ bodies before surgery.
  • #48 Conjoined Twins: Types, Causes, Survival & Life Expectancy
    https://www.webmd.com/baby/what-are-conjoined-twins
    In some cases, conjoined twins need emergency separation surgery. If one twin dies or has a life-threatening medical event, the surgery might save the other twin’s life. […] Elective separation surgery is very complicated. […] Unfortunately, the outlook for conjoined twins isn’t very good. More than 50% of conjoined twin pregnancies result in miscarriage or stillbirth. About 35% of those who are delivered die within 24 hours of birth because their organs can’t support them. […] Of the conjoined twins who do survive, only 25% live long enough to be candidates for surgery. Also, only about 60% of surgically separated twins survive. […] Still, there is good news. More conjoined twins are surviving today than in the past, thanks to improvements in imaging studies and surgical techniques.
  • #49 Conjoined Twins: Types, Causes, Survival & Life Expectancy
    https://www.webmd.com/baby/what-are-conjoined-twins
    In some cases, conjoined twins need emergency separation surgery. If one twin dies or has a life-threatening medical event, the surgery might save the other twin’s life. […] Elective separation surgery is very complicated. […] Unfortunately, the outlook for conjoined twins isn’t very good. More than 50% of conjoined twin pregnancies result in miscarriage or stillbirth. About 35% of those who are delivered die within 24 hours of birth because their organs can’t support them. […] Of the conjoined twins who do survive, only 25% live long enough to be candidates for surgery. Also, only about 60% of surgically separated twins survive. […] Still, there is good news. More conjoined twins are surviving today than in the past, thanks to improvements in imaging studies and surgical techniques.
  • #50 Conjoined Twins Causes, Gender, Surgery, Survival Rate
    https://www.emedicinehealth.com/conjoined_twins/article_em.htm
    An X-ray of conjoined twins. One of the causes of conjoined twins is when twin embryos in the egg do not separate completely in the womb. […] Conjoined twins are created early after fertilization of an egg (conception). […] One theory is that if this division process occurs late, conjoined twins may be formed. […] Another theory is that a fertilized egg splits in two but the two embryos later fuse together. […] The prognosis for conjoined twins who undergo surgical separation is highly individualized and is dependent upon the degree and severity of the condition such as the presence of shared organs. […] The prognosis and life-expectancy for conjoined twins is more guarded for conjoined twins who share critical organs. In severe cases, stillbirth often occurs, or surgical separation may not be possible (for example, twins that share a heart or brain).
  • #51 Conjoined Twins: Types, Causes, Survival & Life Expectancy
    https://www.webmd.com/baby/what-are-conjoined-twins
    In some cases, conjoined twins need emergency separation surgery. If one twin dies or has a life-threatening medical event, the surgery might save the other twin’s life. […] Elective separation surgery is very complicated. […] Unfortunately, the outlook for conjoined twins isn’t very good. More than 50% of conjoined twin pregnancies result in miscarriage or stillbirth. About 35% of those who are delivered die within 24 hours of birth because their organs can’t support them. […] Of the conjoined twins who do survive, only 25% live long enough to be candidates for surgery. Also, only about 60% of surgically separated twins survive. […] Still, there is good news. More conjoined twins are surviving today than in the past, thanks to improvements in imaging studies and surgical techniques.
  • #52
    https://journals.lww.com/nbcs/fulltext/2018/15010/management_of_conjoined_twins_in_kano,_nigeria_.19.aspx
    Surgical separation of conjoined twins is one of the most stressful procedures in terms of planning and actual performance of the procedure. […] The decision for surgical separation of conjoined twins is determined based on the complex nature of the shared organs and general wellbeing one or both of the twins. […] The prognosis is often predetermined by the underlying anatomy which may preclude successful separation. […] There are many gray areas in the management of conjoined twins such as who has the consent authority, what is the acceptable operative risks, the postoperative quality of life, and the question as to whether we are dealing with one or two human beings. […] Early prenatal diagnosis may also change the concept of the management of conjoined twins. […] Anesthesia is another serious challenge in the management of conjoined twins, which can either be given for separation surgery or for magnetic resonance imaging or other evaluation procedures.
  • #53
    https://journals.lww.com/nbcs/fulltext/2018/15010/management_of_conjoined_twins_in_kano,_nigeria_.19.aspx
    Surgical separation of conjoined twins is one of the most stressful procedures in terms of planning and actual performance of the procedure. […] The decision for surgical separation of conjoined twins is determined based on the complex nature of the shared organs and general wellbeing one or both of the twins. […] The prognosis is often predetermined by the underlying anatomy which may preclude successful separation. […] There are many gray areas in the management of conjoined twins such as who has the consent authority, what is the acceptable operative risks, the postoperative quality of life, and the question as to whether we are dealing with one or two human beings. […] Early prenatal diagnosis may also change the concept of the management of conjoined twins. […] Anesthesia is another serious challenge in the management of conjoined twins, which can either be given for separation surgery or for magnetic resonance imaging or other evaluation procedures.
  • #54 Conjoined Twins | EBSCO Research Starters
    https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/conjoined-twins
    These types of conjoined twins must remain connected if they are to survive, and even so their lifespan may be shorter than typical. […] This can create complicated ethical and legal dilemmas for the twins, their family, and the medical personnel charged with administering to their needs. […] The first type is symmetrical, which means that two fully developed babies are born with a physical connection between them. […] Because conjoined twins develop from the same egg and sperm, they have identical DNA and therefore are always the same sex. […] It is worth noting that the phenomenon of conjoined twins is not confined to human beings, but also occurs in other species, including mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish.
  • #55 Conjoined Twins | Pediatric Surgery NaT
    https://www.pedsurglibrary.com/apsa/view/Pediatric-Surgery-NaT/829673/13/Conjoined_Twins
    Conjoined twins are perhaps the most complex pediatric surgical patients. […] Therefore, extensive study of the literature and understanding of patient anatomy and embryology is essential to providing a good outcome. […] Care of these infants can be both the highlight and greatest challenges of ones career. […] This topic will provide an overview of conjoined twins and provide the basics of understanding for each type. […] Consultation with others who have previously cared for such infants, case reports and references is invaluable. […] It is important to understand that the desire to separate conjoined twins varies significantly by culture and certain ethical standards. […] In some instances, it is probable that the need for subsequent care will be less in a nonseparated set than in those undergoing separation.
  • #56 Conjoined Twins – Seattle Children’s
    https://www.seattlechildrens.org/conditions/conjoined-twins/
    Whether to do surgery to separate your twins depends on their chance of survival and quality of life for each baby. […] Sometimes separation surgery is not possible for a variety of reasons, so staying connected is the only real option. […] The success of the separation surgery depends on many factors, mainly where the twins are connected and which structures they share. […] Each set of conjoined twins is unique. An expert team of healthcare providers will assess your twins condition and plan and carry out their treatment.
  • #57 Parting is bittersweet for formerly conjoined twins | News Center
    https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2008/01/parting-is-bittersweet-for-formerly-conjoined-twins
    The physical connection is now gone, thanks to the efforts of an extraordinary number of people at Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital. […] Prior to the surgery, Hartman estimated the odds of both girls surviving the separation to be around 50 percent. […] Without separation the girls would never walk normally or spend time apart. Their heads would continue to twist and tilt to one side to allow them to look out at the world and their bodies would become malformed as they adapted to walking and moving in sync. And Yurelia’s heart defect could not be corrected. […] The girls were separated on Nov. 12 in a nine-hour procedure that was most remarkable for its lack of complications. […] 'The most exciting moment,’ Boltz recalls of the separation surgery, 'was in the final stage of the separation, when surgeons placed a clamp on the connection between the girls’ hearts.’ This was the riskiest part of the procedure because it was simply unknown how much the girls needed each other to survive. 'Immediately – as if someone had turned on a switch – their individual stats improved,’ said Boltz. 'Their blood pressures improved. It was clear the girls were going to be stronger apart.’
  • #58 Conjoined Twins: A Worldwide Collaborative Epidemiological Study of the International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research
    https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/33771
    Conjoined twins (CT) are a very rare developmental accident of uncertain etiology. […] The process by which monozygotic twins do not fully separate but form CT is not well understood. […] Further work in epidemiology and molecular research is necessary to understand the etiology and pathogenesis involved in the development of this fascinating phenomenon of nature.
  • #59 Salmonid fish: model organisms to study cardiovascular morphogenesis in conjoined twins? | BMC Developmental Biology | Full Text
    https://bmcdevbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12861-016-0125-x
    The small parasitic and handicapped twin studied herein would have died without the support of oxygen and nutrients from its bigger host twin. Death of the small twin would most probably be detrimental for the large twin. Hence, the development of a joined circulatory system may have been a mechanism to support life, or it may just be a developmental anomaly. […] This study demonstrates that ventrally conjoined fish twins can develop cardiovascular connections during early development, and that this can enable a normal superior twin to supply a malfunctioning twin with oxygen and nutrients. Since the yolk sac is transparent and the cardiovascular system can be inspected in vivo in the period from hatching until the fish starts feeding, twinning in fish can serve as a model to understand the basis of the cardiovascular morphogenesis in conjoined twins.
  • #60 Conjoined Twins: A Worldwide Collaborative Epidemiological Study of the International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research
    https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/33771
    Conjoined twins (CT) are a very rare developmental accident of uncertain etiology. […] The process by which monozygotic twins do not fully separate but form CT is not well understood. […] Further work in epidemiology and molecular research is necessary to understand the etiology and pathogenesis involved in the development of this fascinating phenomenon of nature.
  • #61 Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/22/3427
    It becomes more and more clear that it is essential to realize that conjoined twinning should be interpreted as a congenital malformation in itself that is secondarily influenced by abnormally united organs and superimposed effects of anomalous hemodynamics and molecular aberrations due to embryological and/or mechanical adjustments after twin formation.
  • #62
    https://journals.lww.com/nbcs/fulltext/2018/15010/management_of_conjoined_twins_in_kano,_nigeria_.19.aspx
    Antenatal care is essential and should be encouraged, especially in the low-resource countries, through public enlightenment, girl child education, and prenatal ultrasound scan. […] Accurate planning, preoperative investigations, multidisciplinary approach, and meticulous operative and postoperative management are essential for the successful management of conjoined twins. […] Success of surgical separation depends on dedication, multidisciplinary approach, and careful selection of patients after thorough evaluation and long-term experience in the management, which is generally rare.
  • #63 Conjoined Twins | Pediatric Surgery NaT
    https://www.pedsurglibrary.com/apsa/view/Pediatric-Surgery-NaT/829673/all/Conjoined_Twins
    Conjoined twins are perhaps the most complex pediatric surgical patients. […] Therefore, extensive study of the literature and understanding of patient anatomy and embryology is essential to providing a good outcome. […] It is also crucial to consider that separation is a team effort. […] The complexities of union and the specifics of separation call for expertise in a number of areas including general, thoracic, cardiac, orthopedic, urologic, neurosurgical and plastic surgery.
  • #64 Conjoined Twins | Pediatric Surgery NaT
    https://www.pedsurglibrary.com/apsa/view/Pediatric-Surgery-NaT/829673/all/Conjoined_Twins
    Conjoined twins are perhaps the most complex pediatric surgical patients. […] Therefore, extensive study of the literature and understanding of patient anatomy and embryology is essential to providing a good outcome. […] It is also crucial to consider that separation is a team effort. […] The complexities of union and the specifics of separation call for expertise in a number of areas including general, thoracic, cardiac, orthopedic, urologic, neurosurgical and plastic surgery.