Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/learning-and-developmental-disorders/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a syndrome of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Diagnosis is made by clinical criteria. ADHD affects an estimated 5 to 15% of children. Diagnosis of ADHD is clinical and is based on comprehensive medical, developmental, educational, and psychological evaluations. DSM-5-TR diagnostic criteria include 9 symptoms and signs of inattention and 9 of hyperactivity and impulsivity. Diagnosis using these criteria requires 6 symptoms and signs from one or each group. The symptoms need to be present often for 6 months, be more pronounced than expected for the child’s developmental level, occur in at least 2 situations (eg, home and school), be present before age 12 (at least some symptoms), and interfere with functioning at home, school, or work. Diagnosis of the predominantly inattentive type requires 6 symptoms and signs of inattention. Diagnosis of the hyperactive/impulsive type requires 6 symptoms and signs of hyperactivity and impulsivity. Diagnosis of the combined type requires 6 symptoms and signs each of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity.

• #1 Diagnosing ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/diagnosis/index.html

  Healthcare providers use the guidelines in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth edition (DSM-5), to help diagnose ADHD. This diagnostic standard helps ensure that people are appropriately diagnosed and treated for ADHD. […] The number of symptoms required for an ADHD diagnosis (by age group) are as follows: Six or more symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16 years, OR Five or more symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity for adolescents ages 17 years and older and adults. […] People with ADHD show a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. […] Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.

• #1

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/adhd/Pages/Diagnosing-ADHD-in-Children-Guidelines-Information-for-Parents.aspx

  Your pediatrician will determine whether your child has ADHD using standard guidelines developed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. These diagnosis guidelines are specifically for children 4 to 18 years of age. […] There is no single test for ADHD. The process requires several steps and involves gathering a lot of information from multiple sources. You, your child, your child’s school, and other caregivers should be involved in assessing your child’s behavior. […] The following guidelines are used to confirm a diagnosis of ADHD: Symptoms occur in 2 or more settings, such as home, school, and social situations, and cause some impairment. In a child 4 to 17 years of age, 6 or more symptoms must be identified. In a child 17 years and older, 5 or more symptoms must be identified. Symptoms significantly impair your child’s ability to function in some of the activities of daily life, such as schoolwork, relationships with you and siblings, relationships with friends, or the ability to function in groups such as sports teams. Symptoms start before the child reaches 12 years of age. However, these may not be recognized as ADHD symptoms until a child is older. Symptoms have continued for more than 6 months.

• #1 ADD vs. ADHD: What’s the Difference Between ADD & ADHD?

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/add-vs-adhd

  If your child daydreams a lot at school, is easily distracted while doing homework or chores, or fidgets constantly, you might wonder if they have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] The right diagnosis for you, your family member, or your child will depend on the specific symptoms and how they affect you. It’s important to talk with an experienced mental health provider to make sure you get the right diagnosis. […] Mental health professionals in the U.S. use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to diagnose all psychiatric conditions, including ADHD. The latest version divides it into three types: ADHD, predominantly inattentive presentation; ADHD, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation; ADHD, combined presentation (both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms).

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350895

  In general, a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is made if the core symptoms of ADHD start early in life before age 12 and create major problems at home and at school on an ongoing basis. […] There’s no specific test for ADHD. An evaluation can help find out whether symptoms are related to ADHD or another problem. Making a diagnosis will likely include: […] Signs of ADHD can sometimes be noticed in preschoolers or even younger children. But diagnosing the condition in very young children is harder. That’s because developmental conditions such as language delays can be mistaken for ADHD. […] Children preschool age or younger suspected of having ADHD are more likely to need evaluation by a specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist, speech pathologist, or developmental pediatrician.

• #1 Approach to diagnosis and management of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7571664/

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a common neurodevelopmental disorder. […] Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is diagnosed by applying the criteria defined within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, and is supplemented by validated rating scales. […] The diagnosis of ADHD should be considered in children or adolescents who present with a history of inattention, hyperactivity, distractibility, poor academic performance, or behavioural problems. […] The diagnosis requires gathering collateral information and should be performed over multiple assessments. […] The diagnosis of ADHD is established by demonstrating that a patient meets the diagnostic criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5).

• #1 Diagnosing ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/diagnosis/index.html

  Diagnosing ADHD is a process with several steps. There is no single test to diagnose ADHD, and many other problems, such as sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and certain types of learning disabilities, can also have symptoms similar to ADHD. […] If you are concerned about whether someone might have ADHD, the first step is to talk with a healthcare provider to find out if the symptoms fit an ADHD diagnosis. The diagnosis can be made by a mental health professional, like a psychologist or psychiatrist, or by a primary care provider, like a pediatrician. […] The healthcare provider will look to determine whether the child has another condition or conditions that might explain the symptoms better, or that can often occur at the same time as ADHD. […] For children, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that healthcare providers ask parents, teachers, and other adults who care for the child about the child’s behavior in different settings, including at home, school, or with peers.

• #1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  The diagnosis of ADHD has been criticized as being subjective because it is not based on a biological test. The International Consensus Statement on ADHD concluded that this criticism is unfounded, on the basis that ADHD meets standard criteria for validity of a mental disorder established by Robins and Guze. […] The most commonly used rating scales for diagnosing ADHD are the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) and include the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) used for parents to rate their child’s behaviour, the Youth Self Report Form (YSR) used for children to rate their own behaviour, and the Teacher Report Form (TRF) used for teachers to rate their pupil’s behaviour. […] Imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals; thus, they are only used for research purposes and not a diagnosis.

• #1 Think your child has ADHD? What your pediatrician can do – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/think-your-child-has-adhd-what-your-pediatrician-can-do-201911152012

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is the most common neurobehavioral disorder of childhood. It affects approximately 7% to 8% of all children and youth in the US. […] A diagnosis of ADHD is made only if a child has symptoms that are present in more than one setting: For most children, that would be both home and school. […] There are ADHD rating scales that have been studied and shown to be reliable, such as the Vanderbilt and the Conners assessments. These scales can be very helpful, not just in making diagnoses, but also in following the progress of a child over time. […] If a diagnosis of ADHD is made, your pediatrician should discuss treatment options with you. […] Your pediatrician also should follow up with you and your child. Early on, there should be frequent visits while you figure out the diagnosis, as well as any other possible problems. […] ADHD can be a lifelong problem, bringing different challenges at different times, and it’s important that you, your child, and your doctor meet regularly so that you can best meet those challenges.

• #1 ADHD Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/research

  Multiple approaches showed promising diagnostic performance (e.g., using parental rating scales), but estimates of performance varied considerably across studies, and the strength of evidence (SoE) was generally low. […] Diagnostic test performance likely depends on whether youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are being differentiated from typically developing children or from clinically referred children who had some kind of mental health or behavioral problem. […] Rating scales for parent, teacher, or self-assessment as a diagnostic tool for ADHD have high internal consistency but poor to moderate reliability between raters, indicating that obtaining ratings from multiple informants (the youth, both parents, and teachers) may be valuable to inform clinical judgement.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350895

  Some medical conditions or their treatments may cause symptoms much like those of ADHD. Examples include: Learning or language delays. Mood disorders such as depression. Anxiety disorders. Seizure disorders. Vision or hearing conditions. Autism spectrum disorder. Medical conditions or medicines that affect thinking or behavior. Sleep disorders. Brain injury. […] Standard treatments for ADHD in children include medicines, behavior therapy, counseling and education services. These treatments can lessen many of the symptoms of ADHD, but they don’t cure it. Treatment also can help prevent some complications caused by ADHD. It may take some time to find what works best for your child. […] Stimulant medicines, also called psychostimulants, are currently the most prescribed medicines for ADHD. Stimulants appear to boost and balance levels of brain chemicals called neurotransmitters. The medicines help lessen the symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. They can sometimes help in a short period of time.

• #1

  https://www.npcmc.com/behavior/ADHD%E2%80%94How-Is-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disord

  Your child’s teacher may write and send a report or discuss the following topics with your child’s doctor: Your child’s actions in the classroom, your child’s learning patterns, how long the symptoms have been a problem, how the symptoms are affecting your child’s progress at school, ways the classroom program is being adapted to help your child, whether other conditions may be affecting the symptoms, and if there are evaluations and support the school can provide. […] Other caregivers may also provide important information about your child’s actions. […] Direct information about the way your child acts in more than one setting is required to make a diagnosis. […] You may have heard theories about other tests for ADHD. There are no other proven diagnostic tests at this time. […] As part of the diagnosis, your child’s doctor will look for other conditions that cause the same types of symptoms as ADHD does. Your child may simply have a different condition or ADHD combined with another condition (a coexisting condition). Most children with a diagnosis of ADHD have at least one additional condition. […] Common coexisting conditions include learning disabilities; oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder; anxiety disorders; mood disorders, including depression; and language disorders.

• #1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Children’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/learning-and-developmental-disorders/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  ADHD has no known single specific cause, but genetic (inherited) factors are often present. […] ADHD is primarily a problem with sustained attention, concentration, and task persistence (ability to finish a task). […] Affected children may also be overactive and impulsive. […] Signs must be present in two or more situations (for example, at home and at school) and must interfere with social or academic functioning. […] About 20 to 60% of children with ADHD have learning disabilities affecting reading, math, or written language, and most have academic problems such as poor grades due to disorganization or incomplete homework (executive skills). […] The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide free and appropriate education to children and adolescents with ADHD.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  A diagnosis is based on the presence of persistent symptoms that have occurred over a period of time and are noticeable over the past six months. While ADHD can be diagnosed at any age, this disorder begins in childhood. When considering the diagnosis, the symptoms must be present before the individual is 12 years old and must have caused difficulties in more than one setting. For instance, the symptoms can not only occur at home. […] ADHD is typically diagnosed by mental health providers or primary care providers. A psychiatric evaluation will include a description of symptoms from the patient and caregivers, completion of scales and questionnaires by patient, caregivers and teachers, complete psychiatric and medical history, family history, and information regarding education, environment, and upbringing. It may also include a referral for medical evaluation to rule out other medical conditions.

• #1 ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) | University of Gothenburg

  https://www.gu.se/en/gnc/adhd-attention-deficithyperactivity-disorder

  Objective methods for diagnosing ADHD are lacking. There is too much subjectivity involved. Objective methods that can supplement the present criteria based on behaviour are lacking. The issue of including objective methods (biomarkers) as supplements to the behavioural criteria was discussed during preparation of the present diagnostic manual (DSM-5). A limited number of supporting research studies is one reason that such criteria were not included. […] Most patients diagnosed with ADHD meet the criteria for at least one other diagnosis. This is even more common in adults than in children. As mentioned above, the diagnostic process includes an evaluation of alternative explanations of the symptoms before diagnosing additional disorders (comorbidities). In children the most common comorbid conditions are: Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD; Conduct Disorder), Learning Disabilities including dyslexia, language disorders, autism spectrum disorder/Asperger syndrome, Tourette syndrome (involuntary movements and sounds, Anxiety disorders depression, sleep disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anorexia / bulimia.

• #1 ADHD in children and youth: Part 1—Etiology, diagnosis, and comorbidity | Canadian Paediatric Society

  https://cps.ca/documents/position/adhd-etiology-diagnosis-and-comorbidity

  The DSM-5 lists 16 conditions or groups of conditions to be distinguished from ADHD, many of which can also occur as comorbidities. […] The prevalence of ADHD in children with epilepsy is two to three times higher than in the general population, and is typically inattentive presentation. […] ADHD, a neurodevelopmental disorder, is most commonly comorbid with other psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions. […] The presence of a comorbid disorder can affect symptom presentation, increase symptom severity, and lead to greater functional impairment. […] Clinicians must be aware of common comorbidities to develop an effective, multidimensional treatment approach, first addressing the condition that is causing the greatest impairment, whether it be the ADHD or a comorbid disorder. […] ADHD symptoms, especially in females, increase risk for eating disorders.

• #1 ADHD in children and youth: Part 1—Etiology, diagnosis, and comorbidity | Canadian Paediatric Society

  https://cps.ca/documents/position/adhd-etiology-diagnosis-and-comorbidity

  While some changes occurred between DSM-IV and -5, the same (or similar) questionnaires, rating scales and screening tools can be used to gather diagnostic information from multiple informants. […] Key elements of the diagnostic procedure are discussed in several guidelines and outlined in Table 1. […] Obtaining a diagnosis of ADHD in preschoolers and adolescents can be complicated. […] Before establishing a diagnosis of ADHD and initiating treatment in preschoolers, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that parents of young children referred for ADHD assessment enrol in a parent training program. […] Obtaining diagnostic information from multiple informants for adolescents can also be challenging. […] As with many complex presentations, the differential diagnosis for ADHD can be narrowed considerably by a skillful history and physical examination.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/1001/p456.html

  Children typically present with ADHD symptoms during the early school years. Patients with primarily hyperactive-impulsive or combined types may present with behaviors considered as problematic before those with primarily inattentive features. […] New onset of ADHD symptoms is less common beyond 12 years of age, but may occur because of increased academic demands or if subtle symptoms are unrecognized at an earlier age. […] The goal of ADHD treatment is to improve symptoms, optimize functional performance, and remove behavioral obstacles. The primary care physician should provide families with ADHD-specific resources and general parenting advice. […] Treatment of children younger than six years should begin with behavioral therapy. Medications may be considered if ADHD symptoms are moderate to severe and not responsive to behavioral therapy. Therapy should start with medications in children six years and older.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Childhood: Overview, Diagnosis and Treatment | Journal of Ethics | American Medical Association

  https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-childhood-overview-diagnosis-and-treatment/2007-06

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurobehavioral disorder of childhood and among the most prevalent chronic health conditions affecting school-age children. ADHD is characterized by some combination of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention. Children with ADHD may experience functional difficulties in every aspect of their lives, including behavior, academic achievement, and interpersonal relationships with family and peers. […] With the establishment of more comprehensive diagnostic criteria that identify the various subtypes, estimates now place the childhood prevalence of ADHD at 4 to 8 percent. […] The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has developed diagnostic guidelines based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) criteria. They urge that all children between the ages of 6 and 12 who present with symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, academic underachievement or behavior problems be evaluated for ADHD.

• #1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know

  Primary care providers sometimes diagnose and treat ADHD, or they may refer the person to a mental health professional. […] During an evaluation, a provider usually examines the person’s mental health and medical history, including their mood and past or current health conditions. […] Uses standardized behavior rating scales or ADHD symptom checklists to determine whether the person meets the criteria for a diagnosis of ADHD. […] ADHD can also be diagnosed at any age, although symptoms must have begun in childhood (before age 12). […] ADHD symptoms may change as a person gets older. […] Some adults may not have been diagnosed with ADHD when younger because their teachers or family did not recognize the disorder, they had a mild form of the disorder, or they managed well until experiencing the demands of adulthood. But it is never too late to seek a diagnosis and treatment for ADHD and other mental health conditions that may co-occur with it. Effective treatment can make day-to-day life easier for people with ADHD and their families.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350889

  If you’re concerned that your child shows signs of ADHD, see your pediatrician or family healthcare professional. Your healthcare professional can do a medical evaluation to check for other causes of your child’s symptoms. Then if needed, your child may be referred to a specialist, such as a developmental-behavioral pediatrician, psychologist, psychiatrist or pediatric neurologist.

• #1 Diagnosing ADHD – CHADD

  https://chadd.org/about-adhd/diagnosing-adhd/

  There is no single test to diagnose ADHD. Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation is necessary to establish a diagnosis, rule out other causes, and determine the presence or absence of co-existing conditions. Such an evaluation requires time and effort and should include a careful history and a clinical assessment of the individuals academic, social, and emotional functioning and developmental level. […] There are several types of professionals who can diagnose ADHD, including clinical psychologists, clinical social workers, nurse practitioners, neurologists, psychiatrists and pediatricians. Regardless of who does the evaluation, the use of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for ADHD is necessary. […] Determining if a child has ADHD is a complex process. Many biological and psychological problems can contribute to symptoms similar to those exhibited by children with ADHD. For example, anxiety, depression and certain types of learning disabilities may cause similar symptoms. In some cases, these other conditions may actually be the primary diagnosis; in others, these conditions may co-exist with ADHD. A thorough history should be taken from the parents and teachers, and when appropriate, from the child. Checklists for rating ADHD symptoms and ruling out other disabilities are often used by clinicians; these instruments factor in age-appropriate behaviors and show when symptoms are extreme for the childs developmental level.

• #1 Approach to diagnosis and management of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7571664/

  Indications for referral to a specialist depend on the comfort of the PCP in diagnosing and treating ADHD. […] Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is diagnosed using the criteria in the DSM-5, supplemented with validated rating scales. […] Comorbidities are common and might prompt referral to a specialist.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/1001/p456.html

  Medications reduce core ADHD symptoms for most children. Psychostimulants are the most effective and safe option, and are the first choice for ADHD treatment in national guidelines and reviews. Atomoxetine and alpha-2 receptor agonists are also effective but have fewer supporting studies and are less effective than psychostimulants.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  Teachers and school staff can provide parents and doctors with information to help evaluate behavior and learning problems and can assist with behavioral training. However, school staff cannot diagnose ADHD, make decisions about treatment or require that a student take medication to attend school. Only parents and guardians can make those decisions with the child’s health care clinician. […] Students whose ADHD impairs their learning may qualify for special education under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act or for a Section 504 plan (for children who do not require special education) under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Children with ADHD can benefit from study skills instruction, changes to the classroom setup, alternative teaching techniques and a modified curriculum. […] Many children diagnosed with ADHD will continue to meet criteria for the disorder later in life and may show impairments requiring ongoing treatment (Pliszka, 2007). However, sometimes a diagnosis of ADHD is missed during childhood. Many adults with ADHD do not realize they have the disorder. A comprehensive evaluation typically includes a review of past and current symptoms, a medical exam and history, and use of adult rating scales or checklists. Adults with ADHD are treated with medication, psychotherapy or a combination. Behavior management strategies, such as ways to minimize distractions and increase structure and organization, and support from immediate family members can also be helpful.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350895

  Some research suggests that using ADHD stimulant medicines with certain heart problems may be a concern. Weight and growth may be affected. Also, the risk of certain mental health symptoms may be higher when using stimulant medicines. […] It’s very important to make sure your child takes the right amount of the prescribed medicine. […] Children with ADHD often benefit from behavior therapy, social skills training, parent skills training and counseling. […] Your child should see a healthcare professional regularly while being treated for ADHD. If symptoms are much better and stable, visits usually take place every 3 to 6 months. […] Although not proved, concerns have been raised that there may be a slightly higher risk of suicidal thinking in children and teenagers taking atomoxetine, viloxazine or antidepressants.

• #1 Identifying and Treating ADHD in Children | Children’s Hospital Colorado

  https://www.childrenscolorado.org/doctors-and-departments/departments/psych/mental-health-professional-resources/primary-care-articles/identifying-treating-adhd/

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder typically diagnosed in childhood. Approximately 11.3% of youth (ages 5 to 17) in the United States have been diagnosed with ADHD. […] A recent systematic scoping review found evidence that ADHD is likely over diagnosed, particularly in youth with milder symptoms, and recommended providers use a stepped-diagnosis approach to improve the balance of benefit to harm in practice. […] With all this in mind, its important for primary care providers to know how to recognize, diagnose and treat ADHD in their practices. […] Timely identification of youth with ADHD is critical, as poorly controlled ADHD symptoms can negatively impact their academic performance, peer relationships and self-esteem. One screening measure providers commonly use to identify ADHD symptoms in youth is the National Institute of Childrens Health Equity Vanderbilt Assessment Scale. But there is no single test available to diagnose ADHD.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  Inaccurate diagnoses of ADHD can lead either to the administration of treatments, usually stimulant medications, in children who do not need them, or to the withholding of treatment and services for those who would benefit from such treatments. Prescription of stimulant medications has doubled in the last decade, with a US prevalence in 2019 of approximately 6 percent, and as high as 14 percent regionally. These rates are higher than the 5.3 percent population prevalence of rigorously diagnosed ADHD, suggesting that many youth may be receiving stimulants when they do not have ADHD. These trends have created alarm in the lay public, policy makers, and health care providers. Adding to their concern is that diversion and abuse of stimulants is common, particularly in college students. Little is known or understood about how the risk for diversion and abuse of stimulant medications approved for ADHD varies with patient characteristics (e.g., as a function of age, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status). Conversely, only about half of US children who receive a clinical diagnosis of ADHD are treated with stimulants, suggesting a large number of children are not receiving medication when perhaps they should be. Additional important clinical consequences of an incorrect diagnosis include stigmatizing youth unnecessarily with a diagnosis of ADHD (i.e., labeling harms, which can impair self-esteem or reduce future educational attainment or career opportunities). Misdiagnosis of ADHD not only leads to its overdiagnosis or underdiagnosis, but it can also can lead to incorrectly diagnosing as ADHD other conditions that share symptoms with ADHD (e.g., anxiety, conduct disorders, speech or language delay, complex trauma, difficult home environments, attachment problems or other medical disorders/diseases or developmental disorders). Thus, treating disorders misconstrued as ADHD may withhold appropriate psychosocial and psychological therapies for those conditions and instead inappropriately treat them with stimulants and other ADHD therapies that may have little or no effectiveness in treating those conditions.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the single most prevalent behavioral and mental health problem in youth. Approximately 10 percent of US children have received a clinical diagnosis of ADHD. Clinical diagnoses have increased steadily over time, though the higher rates seem attributable to changing clinical practices rather than to an increase in true population rates. The prevalence of ADHD based on rigorous diagnostic procedures is approximately 5.3 percent, a rate that has remained constant over the more than 20 years when diagnostic criteria have not changed and that is similar across geographic regions worldwide. This rate, when compared with the much higher rates of clinical diagnoses, suggests that a large number of youth may be receiving a diagnosis when they should not be, though the increasing rates of diagnosis could also represent the clinical recognition of youth who have clinically significant and functionally impairing ADHD symptoms but who may not meet full, formal diagnostic criteria. ADHD is more than twice as likely to be diagnosed in boys than in girls. It is a more prevalent diagnosis in youth from low-income families and in Caucasian compared to Black, Hispanic, and Asian youth, though diagnostic bias and cultural influences may contribute to these socioeconomic, ethnic, and racial disparities in diagnostic rates.

• #1 Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Children, Adolescents and Teens | Phoenix Children’s Hospital

  https://phoenixchildrens.org/specialties-conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-children-adolescents-and-teens

  ADHD, also called attention-deficit disorder, is a behavior disorder, usually first diagnosed in childhood, that is characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and, in some cases, hyperactivity. […] The symptoms of hyperactivity, when present, are almost always apparent by the age of 7 and may be present in very young preschoolers. Inattention or attention-deficit may not be evident until a child faces the expectations of elementary school. […] ADHD is one of the most researched areas in child and adolescent mental health. However, the precise cause of the disorder is still unknown. Available evidence suggests that ADHD is genetic. It is a brain-based biological disorder. […] Estimates suggest that about 4% to 12% of children have ADHD. Boys are 2 to 3 times more likely to have ADHD of the hyperactive or combined type than girls.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  An estimated 8.4% of children and 2.5% of adults have ADHD (Danielson, 2018; Simon, et al., 2009). ADHD is often first identified in school-aged children when it leads to disruption in the classroom or problems with schoolwork. It is more commonly diagnosed among boys than girls given differences in how the symptoms present. However, this does not mean that boys are more likely to have ADHD. Boys tend to present with hyperactivity and other externalizing symptoms whereas girls tend to have inactivity. […] Many children may have difficulties sitting still, waiting their turn, paying attention, being fidgety, and acting impulsively. However, children who meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD, differ in that their symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, organization, and/or inattention are noticeably greater than expected for their age or developmental level. These symptoms lead to significant suffering and cause problems at home, at school or work, and in relationships. The observed symptoms are not the result of an individual being defiant or not being able to understand tasks or instructions.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350895

  To prepare for your child’s appointment: Make a list of any symptoms and troubles your child has at home or at school. Bring notes about important personal information, including any major stresses or recent life changes. Make a list of all medicines, vitamins, herbs and other supplements that your child is taking, and the doses. Bring any past evaluations and results of formal testing if you have them, and school report cards. Make a list of questions to ask your child’s healthcare professional.

• #2 Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/adhd

  ADHD is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood, affecting an estimated 5 to 7 percent of all school-age children. […] For these reasons, early diagnosis and intervention are very important. […] Symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity must cause functional impairment for the child (e.g., academic challenges; difficulties with peers). […] In many cases, ADHD can be diagnosed by a child’s primary care provider or pediatrician. […] During a psychological or neuropsychological evaluation, clinicians conduct a series of physical, neurological, and psychological tests to get a full picture of the child. […] Criteria established by the American Psychiatric Association help clinicians determine if a child meets diagnostic criteria for ADHD.

• #2 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and its text revision (DSM-5-TR), symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age. This requires at least six symptoms of either inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity for those under 17 and at least five symptoms for those 17 years or older. The symptoms must be present in at least two settings (e.g., social, school, work, or home), and must directly interfere with or reduce quality of functioning. Additionally, several symptoms must have been present before age 12 as per DSM-5 criteria. […] ADHD is divided into three primary presentations: predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI or ADHD-I), predominantly hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-PH or ADHD-HI), and combined presentation (ADHD-C).

• #2

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/adhd/Pages/Diagnosing-ADHD-in-Children-Guidelines-Information-for-Parents.aspx

  Your pediatrician will determine whether your child has ADHD using standard guidelines developed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. These diagnosis guidelines are specifically for children 4 to 18 years of age. […] There is no single test for ADHD. The process requires several steps and involves gathering a lot of information from multiple sources. You, your child, your child’s school, and other caregivers should be involved in assessing your child’s behavior. […] The following guidelines are used to confirm a diagnosis of ADHD: Symptoms occur in 2 or more settings, such as home, school, and social situations, and cause some impairment. In a child 4 to 17 years of age, 6 or more symptoms must be identified. In a child 17 years and older, 5 or more symptoms must be identified. Symptoms significantly impair your child’s ability to function in some of the activities of daily life, such as schoolwork, relationships with you and siblings, relationships with friends, or the ability to function in groups such as sports teams. Symptoms start before the child reaches 12 years of age. However, these may not be recognized as ADHD symptoms until a child is older. Symptoms have continued for more than 6 months.

• #2

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/adhd/Pages/Diagnosing-ADHD-in-Children-Guidelines-Information-for-Parents.aspx

  For an accurate diagnosis, your pediatrician will need to get information about your child directly from your child’s classroom teacher or another school professional. […] Your child may not behave the same way at home as he does in other settings. Direct information about the way your child acts in more than one setting is required. It is important to consider other possible causes of your child’s symptoms in these settings. […] You may have heard theories about other tests for ADHD. There are no other proven tests for ADHD at this time.

• #2 Approach to diagnosis and management of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7571664/

  To meet the DSM-5 criteria, it is necessary that patients demonstrate at least 6 symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, or both. […] Symptoms of ADHD must have first been present before the age of 12 years, and must be present in 2 or more settings. […] Primary care providers should screen for ADHD mimics and comorbidities whenever they assess patients for ADHD. […] For preschool-aged patients (4 to 5 years old) diagnosed with ADHD, behavioural management is the recommended first-line therapy. […] In school-aged patients (6 years of age and older) both behavioural management and medical management are first-line interventions. […] Amphetamine and methylphenidate stimulants are the first-line medications for patients with ADHD. […] All patients with ADHD should be screened for risk factors for sudden cardiac death before starting to take stimulant medication.

• #2 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  A diagnosis is based on the presence of persistent symptoms that have occurred over a period of time and are noticeable over the past six months. While ADHD can be diagnosed at any age, this disorder begins in childhood. When considering the diagnosis, the symptoms must be present before the individual is 12 years old and must have caused difficulties in more than one setting. For instance, the symptoms can not only occur at home. […] ADHD is typically diagnosed by mental health providers or primary care providers. A psychiatric evaluation will include a description of symptoms from the patient and caregivers, completion of scales and questionnaires by patient, caregivers and teachers, complete psychiatric and medical history, family history, and information regarding education, environment, and upbringing. It may also include a referral for medical evaluation to rule out other medical conditions.

• #2 Think your child has ADHD? What your pediatrician can do – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/think-your-child-has-adhd-what-your-pediatrician-can-do-201911152012

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is the most common neurobehavioral disorder of childhood. It affects approximately 7% to 8% of all children and youth in the US. […] A diagnosis of ADHD is made only if a child has symptoms that are present in more than one setting: For most children, that would be both home and school. […] There are ADHD rating scales that have been studied and shown to be reliable, such as the Vanderbilt and the Conners assessments. These scales can be very helpful, not just in making diagnoses, but also in following the progress of a child over time. […] If a diagnosis of ADHD is made, your pediatrician should discuss treatment options with you. […] Your pediatrician also should follow up with you and your child. Early on, there should be frequent visits while you figure out the diagnosis, as well as any other possible problems. […] ADHD can be a lifelong problem, bringing different challenges at different times, and it’s important that you, your child, and your doctor meet regularly so that you can best meet those challenges.

• #2 Identifying and Treating ADHD in Children | Children’s Hospital Colorado

  https://www.childrenscolorado.org/doctors-and-departments/departments/psych/mental-health-professional-resources/primary-care-articles/identifying-treating-adhd/

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder typically diagnosed in childhood. Approximately 11.3% of youth (ages 5 to 17) in the United States have been diagnosed with ADHD. […] A recent systematic scoping review found evidence that ADHD is likely over diagnosed, particularly in youth with milder symptoms, and recommended providers use a stepped-diagnosis approach to improve the balance of benefit to harm in practice. […] With all this in mind, its important for primary care providers to know how to recognize, diagnose and treat ADHD in their practices. […] Timely identification of youth with ADHD is critical, as poorly controlled ADHD symptoms can negatively impact their academic performance, peer relationships and self-esteem. One screening measure providers commonly use to identify ADHD symptoms in youth is the National Institute of Childrens Health Equity Vanderbilt Assessment Scale. But there is no single test available to diagnose ADHD.

• #2 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Children’s Health

  https://www.childrens.com/specialties-services/conditions/adhd

  Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have difficulties concentrating on a single task or sitting still. Early diagnosis and treatment of ADHD can help a child manage symptoms and do better in school. […] ADHD symptoms usually start before age 12 and may be noticeable as early as age three. Symptoms can be mild, moderate or severe. […] To be diagnosed with ADHD, a child must have symptoms for at least six months, and the symptoms must occur in different settings, such as at home and school. […] To diagnose ADHD, we work closely with children and their families to do a complete cognitive evaluation. […] We also use psychometric tests, such as Conners rating scale, which asks questions about a child’s social, behavioral and academic experiences. Other tests can assess a child’s degree of attention or impulse control. […] Overall, our team will partner closely with your family and child to help you decide what steps to take so that your child can acquire the social and academic skills that they need while growing up.

• #2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/learning-and-developmental-disorders/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Differentiating between ADHD and other conditions can be challenging. Overdiagnosis must be avoided, and other conditions must be accurately identified. […] Medical assessment is focused on identifying potentially treatable conditions that may contribute to or worsen symptoms and signs. Assessment should include seeking a history of prenatal exposures, perinatal complications or infections, central nervous system infections, traumatic brain injury, cardiac disease, sleep-disordered breathing, poor appetite and/or picky eating, and a family history of ADHD. […] Developmental assessment is focused on determining the onset and course of symptoms and signs. The assessment includes checking developmental milestones, particularly language milestones, and the use of ADHD-specific rating scales. […] Educational assessment is focused on documenting core symptoms and signs; it may involve reviewing educational records and using rating scales or checklists. However, rating scales and checklists alone often cannot distinguish ADHD from other developmental disorders or from behavioral disorders.

• #2 Approach to diagnosis and management of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7571664/

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a common neurodevelopmental disorder. […] Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is diagnosed by applying the criteria defined within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, and is supplemented by validated rating scales. […] The diagnosis of ADHD should be considered in children or adolescents who present with a history of inattention, hyperactivity, distractibility, poor academic performance, or behavioural problems. […] The diagnosis requires gathering collateral information and should be performed over multiple assessments. […] The diagnosis of ADHD is established by demonstrating that a patient meets the diagnostic criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5).

• #2 Diagnosing ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/diagnosis/index.html

  Diagnosing ADHD is a process with several steps. There is no single test to diagnose ADHD, and many other problems, such as sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and certain types of learning disabilities, can also have symptoms similar to ADHD. […] If you are concerned about whether someone might have ADHD, the first step is to talk with a healthcare provider to find out if the symptoms fit an ADHD diagnosis. The diagnosis can be made by a mental health professional, like a psychologist or psychiatrist, or by a primary care provider, like a pediatrician. […] The healthcare provider will look to determine whether the child has another condition or conditions that might explain the symptoms better, or that can often occur at the same time as ADHD. […] For children, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that healthcare providers ask parents, teachers, and other adults who care for the child about the child’s behavior in different settings, including at home, school, or with peers.

• #2

  https://www.npcmc.com/behavior/ADHD%E2%80%94How-Is-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disord

  Your child’s teacher may write and send a report or discuss the following topics with your child’s doctor: Your child’s actions in the classroom, your child’s learning patterns, how long the symptoms have been a problem, how the symptoms are affecting your child’s progress at school, ways the classroom program is being adapted to help your child, whether other conditions may be affecting the symptoms, and if there are evaluations and support the school can provide. […] Other caregivers may also provide important information about your child’s actions. […] Direct information about the way your child acts in more than one setting is required to make a diagnosis. […] You may have heard theories about other tests for ADHD. There are no other proven diagnostic tests at this time. […] As part of the diagnosis, your child’s doctor will look for other conditions that cause the same types of symptoms as ADHD does. Your child may simply have a different condition or ADHD combined with another condition (a coexisting condition). Most children with a diagnosis of ADHD have at least one additional condition. […] Common coexisting conditions include learning disabilities; oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder; anxiety disorders; mood disorders, including depression; and language disorders.

• #2 ADHD in Kids & Teens (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth

  https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/adhd.html

  After getting this information, doctors diagnose ADHD if it’s clear that: A child’s trouble with paying attention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity go beyond what’s usual for their age. The behaviors have been going on since the child was young. The behaviors affect the child at school and at home. A health check shows that another health or learning issue isn’t causing the problems. […] Many kids with ADHD also have learning problems, oppositional and defiant behaviors, or mood and anxiety problems. Doctors usually treat these along with the ADHD. […] When ADHD is not treated, it can be hard for kids to succeed. This may lead to low self-esteem, depression, oppositional behavior, school failure, risk-taking behavior, or family conflict.

• #2 Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/1001/p456.html

  The evaluation of ADHD in children and adolescents includes a history and physical examination, review of information across home and community settings, and application of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed., (DSM-5) diagnostic criteria. The physician should ask about the presence and duration of core ADHD symptoms and the degree of functional impairment from the perspective of the patient, family, and school. […] No specific test can diagnose ADHD, and the DSM-5 requires the presence of a sufficient number of core symptoms and functional impairment. ADHD includes three subtypes: primarily inattentive; primarily hyperactive-impulsive; and combined. A positive family history for ADHD is supportive of an ADHD diagnosis. […] ADHD cannot be reliably diagnosed in children younger than four years. Although it is difficult to determine whether symptoms are beyond the expected behavior of four- and five-year-olds, validated behavioral rating scales for this age group can improve diagnostic confidence.

• #2 ADHD in children and youth: Part 1—Etiology, diagnosis, and comorbidity | Canadian Paediatric Society

  https://cps.ca/documents/position/adhd-etiology-diagnosis-and-comorbidity

  While some changes occurred between DSM-IV and -5, the same (or similar) questionnaires, rating scales and screening tools can be used to gather diagnostic information from multiple informants. […] Key elements of the diagnostic procedure are discussed in several guidelines and outlined in Table 1. […] Obtaining a diagnosis of ADHD in preschoolers and adolescents can be complicated. […] Before establishing a diagnosis of ADHD and initiating treatment in preschoolers, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that parents of young children referred for ADHD assessment enrol in a parent training program. […] Obtaining diagnostic information from multiple informants for adolescents can also be challenging. […] As with many complex presentations, the differential diagnosis for ADHD can be narrowed considerably by a skillful history and physical examination.

• #2 Diagnosing ADHD – CHADD

  https://chadd.org/about-adhd/diagnosing-adhd/

  There is no single test to diagnose ADHD. Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation is necessary to establish a diagnosis, rule out other causes, and determine the presence or absence of co-existing conditions. Such an evaluation requires time and effort and should include a careful history and a clinical assessment of the individuals academic, social, and emotional functioning and developmental level. […] There are several types of professionals who can diagnose ADHD, including clinical psychologists, clinical social workers, nurse practitioners, neurologists, psychiatrists and pediatricians. Regardless of who does the evaluation, the use of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for ADHD is necessary. […] Determining if a child has ADHD is a complex process. Many biological and psychological problems can contribute to symptoms similar to those exhibited by children with ADHD. For example, anxiety, depression and certain types of learning disabilities may cause similar symptoms. In some cases, these other conditions may actually be the primary diagnosis; in others, these conditions may co-exist with ADHD. A thorough history should be taken from the parents and teachers, and when appropriate, from the child. Checklists for rating ADHD symptoms and ruling out other disabilities are often used by clinicians; these instruments factor in age-appropriate behaviors and show when symptoms are extreme for the childs developmental level.

• #2

  https://www.aacap.org/aacap/Families_and_Youth/Resource_Centers/ADHD_Resource_Center/Home.aspx

  A child and adolescent psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders that affect children and adolescents. Child and adolescent psychiatrists have completed four years of medical school, and at least three years of residency training in medicine, neurology, or general psychiatry with adults, and two years of additional training in psychiatric work with children and adolescents.

• #2 Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/1001/p456.html

  Children typically present with ADHD symptoms during the early school years. Patients with primarily hyperactive-impulsive or combined types may present with behaviors considered as problematic before those with primarily inattentive features. […] New onset of ADHD symptoms is less common beyond 12 years of age, but may occur because of increased academic demands or if subtle symptoms are unrecognized at an earlier age. […] The goal of ADHD treatment is to improve symptoms, optimize functional performance, and remove behavioral obstacles. The primary care physician should provide families with ADHD-specific resources and general parenting advice. […] Treatment of children younger than six years should begin with behavioral therapy. Medications may be considered if ADHD symptoms are moderate to severe and not responsive to behavioral therapy. Therapy should start with medications in children six years and older.

• #2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder – Neurology Services – MultiCare Mary Bridge Children’s Hospital & Health NetworkLevel Access website accessibility icon.

  https://www.marybridge.org/services/neurology/conditions-treatments/add-adhd/

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common condition that causes problems with focusing and impulsive behavior. […] At Mary Bridge Children’s, we see many children with ADHD, and we provide comprehensive diagnosis and treatment resources as well as care for related neurological conditions. […] Diagnosing ADHD requires a professional evaluation of your child’s behavior. […] Sleep disorders and certain types of seizures can have symptoms similar to ADHD, and our neurologists can help determine whether an underlying medical condition is responsible. […] Treatment options and approaches for managing ADHD include: […] Medication. Doctors use medications, such as Concerta® (methylphenidate) and Adderall® (amphetamine and dextroamphetamine), to minimize symptoms of ADHD.

• #2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder – Neurology Services – MultiCare Mary Bridge Children’s Hospital & Health NetworkLevel Access website accessibility icon.

  https://www.marybridge.org/services/neurology/conditions-treatments/add-adhd/

  Behavioral therapy. We can connect you with child psychology professionals and training resources for replacing negative behaviors with positive ones. […] Educational accommodations. Our team can advise on 504 plans, which outline what your child needs at school to achieve their academic potential.

• #2 Identifying and Treating ADHD in Children | Children’s Hospital Colorado

  https://www.childrenscolorado.org/doctors-and-departments/departments/psych/mental-health-professional-resources/primary-care-articles/identifying-treating-adhd/

  Nonpharmacological treatment approaches are a critical component of an ADHD treatment plan. This often includes behavior therapy, such as parent management training (PMT), and school-based interventions. […] For children under age 6, mental health experts recommend behavior therapy as a first-line treatment. […] For children ages 6 to 11 years, the gold standard treatment is a combination of medication and behavior therapy. […] For youth ages 12 years and older, a multimodal treatment approach remains first-line; however, providers must consider unique circumstances in adolescent developmental including incorporating increased collaboration between parents and adolescent in developing behavioral contingencies, engaging in collaborative problem solving and improving parent-adolescent conflict and communication.

• #2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  Inaccurate diagnoses of ADHD can lead either to the administration of treatments, usually stimulant medications, in children who do not need them, or to the withholding of treatment and services for those who would benefit from such treatments. Prescription of stimulant medications has doubled in the last decade, with a US prevalence in 2019 of approximately 6 percent, and as high as 14 percent regionally. These rates are higher than the 5.3 percent population prevalence of rigorously diagnosed ADHD, suggesting that many youth may be receiving stimulants when they do not have ADHD. These trends have created alarm in the lay public, policy makers, and health care providers. Adding to their concern is that diversion and abuse of stimulants is common, particularly in college students. Little is known or understood about how the risk for diversion and abuse of stimulant medications approved for ADHD varies with patient characteristics (e.g., as a function of age, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status). Conversely, only about half of US children who receive a clinical diagnosis of ADHD are treated with stimulants, suggesting a large number of children are not receiving medication when perhaps they should be. Additional important clinical consequences of an incorrect diagnosis include stigmatizing youth unnecessarily with a diagnosis of ADHD (i.e., labeling harms, which can impair self-esteem or reduce future educational attainment or career opportunities). Misdiagnosis of ADHD not only leads to its overdiagnosis or underdiagnosis, but it can also can lead to incorrectly diagnosing as ADHD other conditions that share symptoms with ADHD (e.g., anxiety, conduct disorders, speech or language delay, complex trauma, difficult home environments, attachment problems or other medical disorders/diseases or developmental disorders). Thus, treating disorders misconstrued as ADHD may withhold appropriate psychosocial and psychological therapies for those conditions and instead inappropriately treat them with stimulants and other ADHD therapies that may have little or no effectiveness in treating those conditions.

• #2 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  Millions of U.S. children have been diagnosed with ADHD. An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD. […] Overall, non-Hispanic children (12%) were diagnosed with ADHD more often than Hispanic children (10%).

• #2 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350889

  If you’re concerned that your child shows signs of ADHD, see your pediatrician or family healthcare professional. Your healthcare professional can do a medical evaluation to check for other causes of your child’s symptoms. Then if needed, your child may be referred to a specialist, such as a developmental-behavioral pediatrician, psychologist, psychiatrist or pediatric neurologist.

• #3 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental condition of inattention and distractibility, with or without accompanying hyperactivity. There are 3 basic forms of ADHD described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) of the American Psychiatric Association: inattentive; hyperactive-impulsive; and combined. […] According to DSM-5, the 3 types of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are (1) predominantly inattentive, (2) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, and (3) combined. The specific criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are as follows: […] This must include at least 6 of the following symptoms of inattention that must have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level:

• #3 Diagnosing ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/diagnosis/index.html

  Several symptoms are present in two or more settings, (such as at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities). […] There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning. […] The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.

• #3

  https://www.npcmc.com/behavior/ADHD%E2%80%94How-Is-Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disord

  Your child’s doctor may refer your child to a pediatric subspecialist or mental health care professionals if there are concerns of intellectual disability (formerly called mental retardation), developmental disorder, such as in speech, coordination, or learning, chronic illness being treated with a medication that may interfere with learning, trouble seeing and/or hearing, history of abuse, major anxiety or major depression, severe aggression, possible seizure disorder, or possible sleep disorder. […] As a parent, you can provide crucial information about your child’s actions and how they affect life at home, in school, and in other social settings. […] For an accurate diagnosis, your child’s doctor will need to get information about your child directly from their classroom teacher or another school professional.

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