Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350889

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, also called ADHD, is a long-term condition that affects millions of children. It often continues into adulthood. ADHD includes a mix of ongoing problems. These can include having a hard time paying attention, being hyperactive and being impulsive. […] ADHD occurs more often in boys than in girls. Behaviors can be different in boys and girls. For example, boys may be more hyperactive and girls may tend to quietly not pay attention. […] While the exact cause of ADHD is not clear, research efforts continue. Factors that may be involved in the development of ADHD include genetics, the environment or central nervous system conditions at key moments in development. […] Risk factors for ADHD may include having a blood relative, such as a parent or sibling, with ADHD or another mental health condition. […] ADHD can make life hard for children. Children with ADHD often have trouble in the classroom, which can lead to failing grades and being judged by other children and adults.

• #2 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, risk factors and evaluation in youth – Cabral – Translational Pediatrics

  https://tp.amegroups.org/article/view/30808/28327

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood with persistence into adulthood. It has a multifactorial etiology. Its chronicity, if diagnosis is missed or delayed, will result in significant negative impact on the individuals overall functioning and development. […] ADHD is a complex, chronic, and heterogenous developmental disorder with typical onset in childhood and known persistence into adulthood. It is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder with significant impact on the affected individuals personal, social, academic, and occupational functioning and development. […] Estimates of the prevalence of ADHD vary worldwide. The American Psychiatric Association estimated that 5% of children have ADHD with lower prevalence in adults. A 2015 meta-analysis of 179 prevalence estimates determined an overall pooled estimate of 7.2%. From a nationally representative data of children and adolescents in the United States, there is apparent increase of ADHD diagnosis in two decades from 6.1% in 19971998 to 10.2% in 20152016. Recent estimates by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found 6.1 million American children (9.4%) between the ages of 217 years had ever been diagnosed with ADHD, with approximately half belonging to ages 1217 years.

• #3 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a childhood-onset disorder characterised by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity that may continue into adulthood and jeopardise functional and relationship outcomes, both in school and in everyday activities. It is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in children and adolescents, although it has a chronic course that requires long-term treatment. […] In recent years, the management of ADHD has become increasingly complex as new therapies are introduced in clinical practice. We do not have comprehensive knowledge of all the causes that may play a role in the development of ADHD, but it seems to result from the interaction of multiple socio-cultural, environmental and genetic factors. At present, there are still uncertainties and various challenges regarding the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD that may be overshadowed by the needs of individuals living with the disorder.

• #4 The global prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Italian Journal of Pediatrics | Full Text

  https://ijponline.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13052-023-01456-1

  Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder is a developmental neurological disorder that has three basic characteristics: Attention Deficit, Hyperactivity, and impulsivity. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents. […] This analysis includes 61 cross-sectional research, with 53 research used to determine the prevalence of ADHD in children, 7.6% of 96,907 children aged 3 to 12 years had ADHD (95% confidence interval: 6.19.4%), and 5.6% of teenagers aged 12 to 18 years have ADHD (95% confidence interval: 4.8-7%). The prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents according to the DSM-V criterion is also higher than previous diagnostic criteria, according to studies. […] The findings of this study based on meta-analysis show the high prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The findings of this study demonstrate the importance of management and policy in the treatment and control of ADHD in children and adolescents.

• #5 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Children:A Short Review and Literature

  https://jpp.mums.ac.ir/article_3749.html

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. The worldwide prevalence in children 18 years has been estimated at 5.3% in a systematic review of 102 studies from all continents, with a majority from North America and Europe. […] The mean worldwide prevalence of ADHD is between 5.29% and 7.1% in children and adolescents. It is estimated that ADHD affects between 5.4-8.7% of children in Africa. A 2008 evaluation of the KiGGS survey, monitoring 14,836 girls and boys (age between 3 to 17 years), showed that 4.8% of the participants had an ADHD diagnosis. Rates in Spain are estimated at 6.8% among people under 18. In the United States it is diagnosed in 2-16 percent of school children. The frequency of the diagnosis differs between male children (10%) and female children (4%) in the United States.

• #6 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  CDC uses datasets from parent surveys and healthcare claims to understand diagnosis and treatment patterns for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD.

• #7 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Objective: To provide updated national prevalence estimates of diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), ADHD severity, co-occurring disorders, and receipt of ADHD medication and behavioral treatment among U.S. children and adolescents by demographic and clinical subgroups using data from the 2022 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH). […] Results: Approximately 1 in 9 U.S. children have ever received an ADHD diagnosis (11.4%, 7.1 million children) and 10.5% (6.5 million) had current ADHD. Among children with current ADHD, 58.1% had moderate or severe ADHD, 77.9% had at least one co-occurring disorder, approximately half of children with current ADHD (53.6%) received ADHD medication, and 44.4% had received behavioral treatment for ADHD in the past year; nearly one third (30.1%) did not receive any ADHD-specific treatment.

• #8 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  CDC uses datasets from parent surveys and healthcare claims to understand diagnosis and treatment patterns for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD.

• #9 Epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactive disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_attention_deficit_hyperactive_disorder

  The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reports that the most recent national data on childhood and adolescent mental health demonstrated that the prevalence of ADHD was 8.2% in children aged 4-11 and 6.3% in adolescents aged 12-17. […] A 2008 evaluation of the KiGGS survey, monitoring 14,836 girls and boys (age between 3 and 17 years), showed that 4.8% of the participants had an ADHD diagnosis. […] The prevalence of residents of France with ADHD is estimated to be between 3.5-5.6% of youth. […] ADHD has a prevalence rate of around 5-12% in children residing in Spain. […] Estimates of the prevalence of childhood ADHD in the United Kingdom (UK) ranges from 0.2% to 2.2%, varying by the study methodology. […] In the United States it is diagnosed in roughly 7 million children aged 3-17, with boys being 15% more likely to be diagnosed than girls at 8%.

• #10 Epidemiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Annals of General Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://annals-general-psychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12991-020-00271-w

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood and adolescence, affecting 2.2 to 17.8% of all school-aged children and adolescents. […] Our systematic review suggested a higher prevalence of ADHD (7.47%) in children and adolescents in Africa, indicating that ADHD is a serious public health problem in children and adolescents in Africa. The prevalence of ADHD was considerably greater in males than in females. […] The pooled prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents in Africa was 7.47% (95% CI 609.26). […] The prevalence of ADHD was apparently greater in boys (10.60%) than in girls (5.28%) with a male:female ratio of 2.01:1. […] The predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I) was found to be the most common subtype of ADHD, followed by hyperactiveimpulsive type (ADHD-HI) and the combined type (ADHD-C) with the prevalence of 2.95%, 2.77%, and 2.44% respectively.

• #11

  https://www.ijcmph.com/index.php/ijcmph/article/view/10602

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is an important growing psychiatric health problem of children and adolescents all over the world. This review aimed to investigate the prevalence of ADHD in the Arab Gulf countries. The prevalence of ADHD was 5.90% (95% confidence interval (CI)=1.73-20.14). We found no significant difference in the prevalence of ADHD between males and females (odds ratio (OR)=1.48; 95% CI=0.53-4.14; p value=0.456). The difference between different education subgroups was statistically significant (p=0.040). There were no statistically significant differences in ADHD prevalence when comparing different mothers educational levels (p=0.260). The estimated cumulative evidence is high but comparable with the reported worldwide rates. Unlike these studies, the prevalence of ADHD was not associated with gender or maternal education. On the other hand, the highest prevalence of ADHD was found among children of fathers with at least a secondary education.

• #12 Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents and adults in the Middle East and North Africa region: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/14/1/e078849

  Objectives To systematically estimate the overall prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children, adolescents and adults across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. […] The overall prevalence of ADHD was 10.3% (95% CI 0.081 to 0.129). The prevalence rate ranged from 1.3% (Yemen) to 22.2% (Iran). Subgroup analyses showed that the prevalence in adults was 13.5 and 10.1 in children and adolescents. Males exhibited significantly higher prevalence compared with females as these were 11.1% and 7%, respectively. Attention-deficit subtype was significantly the most prevalent (46.7%) compared with hyperactivity/impulsivity (33.7%) and combined types (20.6%). […] The overall prevalence of ADHD was high in the MENA region. It is crucial to allocate more attention and resources towards the prevention and treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents and adults within the region.

• #13 The Prevalence of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder among Chinese Children and Adolescents | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-29488-2

  Updating the worldwide prevalence estimates of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has significant applications for the further study of ADHD. […] The prevalence estimates of ADHD in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were 6.5%, 6.4%, and 4.2%, respectively, with a pooled estimate of 6.3%. […] Our findings suggest that geographic location plays a limited role in the large variability of ADHD prevalence estimates. Instead, the variability may be explained primarily by the years of data collection, and children’s socioeconomic backgrounds, and methodological characteristics of studies. […] Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood psychiatric disorders, with symptoms including inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. […] Concerns have been raised regarding the true prevalence of ADHD among children, the knowledge of which is critical for further service planning, resource allocation, training, and research priorities.

• #14 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  ADHD is estimated to affect about 67% of people aged 18 and under when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria. When diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria, rates in this age group are estimated around 12%. Rates are similar between countries and differences in rates depend mostly on how it is diagnosed. […] Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East; this is believed to be due to differing methods of diagnosis rather than a difference in underlying frequency. […] As of 2019, it was estimated to affect 84.7 million people globally. […] ADHD is diagnosed approximately twice as often in boys as in girls, and 1.6 times more often in men than in women, although the disorder is overlooked in girls or diagnosed in later life because their symptoms sometimes differ from diagnostic criteria.

• #15 Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): systematic review and meta-analysis | European Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/prevalence-of-attentiondeficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis/CBC560705C72C55848087632C13DBD37

  The prevalence estimates of ADHD in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were 6.5%, 6.4%, and 4.2%, respectively, with a pooled estimate of 6.3%. […] The worldwide-pooled prevalence in subjects 18 years of age or younger from the general population or schools was 5.29%, and the prevalence estimate was associated with significant variability. […] The prevalence of ADHD was investigated across different age categories (children, adolescents, and adults). […] The results of this systematic review show that the overall prevalence of ADHD in register studies was 1.6%, in survey studies was 5.0%, in one-stage clinical studies was 4.2%, and in two-stage clinical studies was 4.8%. […] The register studies exhibit the lowest estimate for ADHD prevalence, mostly because of inclusion of the entire population (e.g., children under 2 years old), while the other three types of studies show similar estimates.

• #16 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and into adulthood. Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity (over-activity). […] Based on parent-report data from National Survey of Childrens Health (NSCH), Figure 1 shows the trends in prevalence of U.S. children aged 4-17 ever diagnosed with ADHD by a health care provider. The prevalence of children ever diagnosed with ADHD increased by 42% between 2003 (7.8%) and 2011 (11.0%). Males had a consistently higher prevalence of ADHD than females from 2003 to 2011. […] Based on data from the NSCH, the median age of onset for children with current ADHD was 6 years. More severe cases of ADHD in children, as described by parents, were diagnosed earlier. The median age of diagnosis for severe ADHD was 4 years. The median age of diagnosis for moderate ADHD was 6 years. The median age of diagnosis for mild ADHD was 7 years. Approximately one-third of children diagnosed with ADHD retain the diagnosis into adulthood.

• #17 Reddit – The heart of the internet

  https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/16zwk7n/the_prevalence_of_adhd_in_american_children_and/

  The prevalence of ADHD in American children and adolescents was 10.47% in 2021-2022 according to a new study. There was no significant annual change in the rate between 2017 and 2022. Diagnoses were more likely in older children, boys, and children living in poverty. […] The prevalence of ADHD in American children and adolescents was 10.47% in 2021-2022 according to a new study. There was no significant annual change in the rate between 2017 and 2022. Diagnoses were more likely in older children, boys, and children living in poverty.

• #18 The Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ADHD Medication Treatment in Active Component Service Members, U.S. Armed Forces, 2014–2018 | Health.mil

  https://health.mil/news/articles/2021/01/01/prevalence-of-att-msmr-jan-2021?type=Articles

  During the 5-year surveillance period, the crude annual ADHD prevalence among the active component declined from 3.9% in 2014 (n=58,691) to 2.8% in 2018 (n=41,338) […] The proportion of prevalent ADHD cases who were prescribed ADHD medication during the surveillance period was 60.2%. […] This report documents the prevalence and medication trends of ADHD among the active component service members during 2014-2018. […] In conclusion, this study found a decreasing trend in crude annual ADHD prevalence in the active component from 2014-2018.

• #19 ADHD: Why Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is Rising  | Brown University Health

  https://www.lifespan.org/be-well/adhd-why-diagnosis-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-rising

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a common condition that has steadily been on the increase in both children and adults. […] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is typically marked by a lack of focus and difficulty paying attention, overactivity, and impulsivity. […] Data from the National Survey of Childrens Health reports that ADHD currently affects nearly six million children in the United States more than one in 11 children. The National Health Interview Study estimated the prevalence in children ages four to 17 was about six percent in the 1990s. By 2016, that figure rose to 10 percent and continues to climb. […] Regardless of age, ADHD is being diagnosed more than ever before. However, that does not mean the condition itself is more common.

• #20 ADHD: Why Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is Rising  | Brown University Health

  https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/adhd-why-diagnosis-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-rising

  Individuals, parents, educators, and the medical community are more aware of ADHD and its symptoms, leading to additional ADHD diagnoses. […] In prior generations, many boys and girls with symptoms we now associate with ADHD were not diagnosed with ADHD. […] The improved diagnosis of ADHD has reduced the stigma and blame for these children. […] It is certainly possible ADHD may be over diagnosed by select providers in certain areas of the world, but this is not a major concern in areas where there is adequate mental health care.

• #21 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  CDC uses datasets from parent surveys and healthcare claims to understand diagnosis and treatment patterns for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD.

• #22 Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912633-overview

  ADHD is more frequently diagnosed in boys than in girls. Most estimates of the male-to-female ratio range between 3:1 and 4:1 in clinic populations. However, many community-based samples produce a ratio of 2:1. Recognition of ADHD has improved over the last decade, and the male-to-female ratio has been decreasing; this may be the result of the increased recognition of inattentive ADHD. […] Data concerning the likelihood that a child with ADHD will also have the disorder as an adult are conflicting. As definitions of ADHD subtypes improve, some subtypes that cause more adult dysfunction than others will likely be found. […] Approximately 3080% of children with ADHD have the disorder as adults. Most experts believe that the rate is well above 50%. […] Hyperactive symptoms may decrease with age because of developmental trends toward self-control and changes in brain composition (ie, pruning of abundant neural connections) that occur during late adolescence. However, persons with ADHD developmentally mature later than the average population. Inattentive symptoms do not appear to have a similar developmental advantage and tend to remain constant into adulthood.

• #23 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/ADHD-Epidemiology.aspx

  According to the DSM-V diagnostic criteria, ADHD involves the presentation of several inattentive or hyper-impulsive symptoms before the age of 12. Therefore, the age of onset is in childhood and the symptoms may persist or fade after this point. […] Approximately 1 in 6 children with ADHD will maintain the full diagnosis with persistent symptoms into adulthood, and most children will continue to experience residual symptoms. […] ADHD is 3-5 times more common in young boys than girls. However, the sex ratio tends to approach equilibrium in adulthood as the symptoms of more boys than girls usually improve. Girls with ADHD are typically more affected by the inattention type of the condition.

• #24 ADHD in Kids: Symptoms, Types, and Tests for ADHD in Children

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/adhd-children

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children is a difference in brain development that can affect their ability to focus and self-control. It’s one of the most common brain disorders in children, affecting nearly 10% of kids in the U.S. While it’s most often diagnosed in children, ADHD can last into adulthood. […] About 1 in 10 children in the U.S. have been diagnosed with ADHD. […] Boys are more than twice as likely as girls to be diagnosed. Some researchers think girls may be underdiagnosed because they’re more likely to have the inattentive type of ADHD rather than the more visible hyperactive or impulsive type. […] Scientists are also studying whether these things are linked to higher chances of ADHD in children: Alcohol or tobacco use during pregnancy, premature birth, brain injury, exposure during pregnancy to certain environmental risks (like lead), low birth weight.

• #25 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  An estimated 8.4% of children and 2.5% of adults have ADHD (Danielson, 2018; Simon, et al., 2009). ADHD is often first identified in school-aged children when it leads to disruption in the classroom or problems with schoolwork. It is more commonly diagnosed among boys than girls given differences in how the symptoms present. However, this does not mean that boys are more likely to have ADHD. Boys tend to present with hyperactivity and other externalizing symptoms whereas girls tend to have inactivity. […] Many children may have difficulties sitting still, waiting their turn, paying attention, being fidgety, and acting impulsively. However, children who meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD, differ in that their symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, organization, and/or inattention are noticeably greater than expected for their age or developmental level. These symptoms lead to significant suffering and cause problems at home, at school or work, and in relationships. The observed symptoms are not the result of an individual being defiant or not being able to understand tasks or instructions.

• #26 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, risk factors and evaluation in youth – Cabral – Translational Pediatrics

  https://tp.amegroups.org/article/view/30808/28327

  There are some gender differences to consider when diagnosing ADHD with more males being diagnosed than females (ratio 2:1). Males are more likely to manifest with hyperactive/impulsive symptoms, while females are more likely to have inattentive symptoms. […] Racial/ethnic disparities exist in children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD. The prevalence observed in the 20-year period identified 12.8% of non-Hispanic black, 12% of non-Hispanic white, and 6.1% of Hispanic youth diagnosed with ADHD. […] Variability of ADHD prevalence estimates could be due to methodological differences. A 2014 meta-regression analysis found no evidence to support the increasing number of children diagnosed with ADHD when standardized diagnostic procedures are followed. […] Most epidemiological studies to date focus on younger children with ADHD, with a lack of emphasis on studies in adolescents and adults. Further studies in these populations can help determine how often ADHD persists into adolescence and adulthood.

• #27 Products – Data Briefs – Number 499 – March 2024

  https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db499.htm

  During 20202022, the prevalence of ever diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was 11.3% in children ages 517 years, with boys (14.5%) having a higher prevalence than girls (8.0%). […] Children ages 511 years were less likely than children ages 1217 years to have ADHD. […] White non-Hispanic children ages 517 years were more likely to have ADHD (13.4%) than Black non-Hispanic (10.8%) and Hispanic (8.9%) children. […] The prevalence of ADHD decreased as the level of family income increased. […] Children with public (14.4%) or private (9.7%) health insurance were more likely to have ADHD than children without insurance (6.3%). […] Overall, 11.3% of children ages 517 years had ever been diagnosed with ADHD. The prevalence was higher in children ages 1217 years than in children ages 511 years, and the same pattern was seen across nearly all subgroups of sociodemographic characteristics presented, including sex, race and Hispanic origin, and family income.

• #28 The pooled prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307173

  The odds of ADHD were 2.19 times (OR: 2.19, 95%CI: 1.54; 3.12) higher among male children and adolescents as compared to female children and adolescents. […] The likelihood of ADHD was 3.67 times (OR: 3.67, 95% CI: 1.98; 6.83) higher among children and adolescents whose ages are 6-11 years as compared to children and adolescents whose ages are greater than 11 years. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.45 times (OR: 3.45, 95% CI: 2.17; 5.47) higher among children and adolescents who are from low socio-economic status family members as compared to their counterparts. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.29 times (OR: 3.29, 95% CI: 1.97; 5.51) higher among children and adolescents who had maternal complications during pregnancy as compared to their counterparts. […] The likelihood of having ADHD was 3.83 times (OR: 3.83, 95% CI: 2.17; 6.77) higher among children and adolescents who have a family history of mental illness as compared with those who didn’t have a family history of mental illness.

• #29 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  An estimated 8.4% of children and 2.5% of adults have ADHD (Danielson, 2018; Simon, et al., 2009). ADHD is often first identified in school-aged children when it leads to disruption in the classroom or problems with schoolwork. It is more commonly diagnosed among boys than girls given differences in how the symptoms present. However, this does not mean that boys are more likely to have ADHD. Boys tend to present with hyperactivity and other externalizing symptoms whereas girls tend to have inactivity. […] Many children may have difficulties sitting still, waiting their turn, paying attention, being fidgety, and acting impulsively. However, children who meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD, differ in that their symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, organization, and/or inattention are noticeably greater than expected for their age or developmental level. These symptoms lead to significant suffering and cause problems at home, at school or work, and in relationships. The observed symptoms are not the result of an individual being defiant or not being able to understand tasks or instructions.

• #30 Epidemiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Annals of General Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://annals-general-psychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12991-020-00271-w

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood and adolescence, affecting 2.2 to 17.8% of all school-aged children and adolescents. […] Our systematic review suggested a higher prevalence of ADHD (7.47%) in children and adolescents in Africa, indicating that ADHD is a serious public health problem in children and adolescents in Africa. The prevalence of ADHD was considerably greater in males than in females. […] The pooled prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents in Africa was 7.47% (95% CI 609.26). […] The prevalence of ADHD was apparently greater in boys (10.60%) than in girls (5.28%) with a male:female ratio of 2.01:1. […] The predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I) was found to be the most common subtype of ADHD, followed by hyperactiveimpulsive type (ADHD-HI) and the combined type (ADHD-C) with the prevalence of 2.95%, 2.77%, and 2.44% respectively.

• #31 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in elementary school students | NDT

  https://www.dovepress.com/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-elementary-school-students-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT

  The rate of ADHD-H decreased with age, whereas that of ADHD-I remained at the highest levels in all age groups, suggesting that symptoms in the inattention domain are the most persistent and refractory. […] The overall prevalence of ADHD in the whole sample was 5.91%. […] Of the 175 ADHD students, the respective constituent ratios of ADHD-I, ADHD-C, and ADHD-H were 67.43, 24.57, and 8.00%, respectively. […] The prevalence estimate of 5.91% according to DSM-5 is in the range of ADHD prevalence rates reported in previous studies by other Chinese investigators, but is lower than that of Hong Kong children, suggesting a significant effect of Chinese culture. […] The profile of prevalence change over age indicates a spontaneous disappearance of some ADHD symptoms and suggests an amplifying effect of mental pressure on the symptoms of ADHD.

• #32 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in elementary school students | NDT

  https://www.dovepress.com/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-elementary-school-students-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT

  Of the diagnosed ADHD students, the overall constituent ratios of ADHD-I, ADHD-C, and ADHD-H subtypes were 67.43, 24.57, and 8.00%, respectively, but the rate of ADHD-H decreased with age, whereas that of ADHD-I remained at the highest levels in the six age groups, suggesting that symptoms in the inattention domain are the most persistent and refractory in ADHD patients.

• #33 Products – Data Briefs – Number 499 – March 2024

  https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db499.htm

  During 20202022, the prevalence of ever diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was 11.3% in children ages 517 years, with boys (14.5%) having a higher prevalence than girls (8.0%). […] Children ages 511 years were less likely than children ages 1217 years to have ADHD. […] White non-Hispanic children ages 517 years were more likely to have ADHD (13.4%) than Black non-Hispanic (10.8%) and Hispanic (8.9%) children. […] The prevalence of ADHD decreased as the level of family income increased. […] Children with public (14.4%) or private (9.7%) health insurance were more likely to have ADHD than children without insurance (6.3%). […] Overall, 11.3% of children ages 517 years had ever been diagnosed with ADHD. The prevalence was higher in children ages 1217 years than in children ages 511 years, and the same pattern was seen across nearly all subgroups of sociodemographic characteristics presented, including sex, race and Hispanic origin, and family income.

• #34 The pooled prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307173

  The odds of ADHD were 2.19 times (OR: 2.19, 95%CI: 1.54; 3.12) higher among male children and adolescents as compared to female children and adolescents. […] The likelihood of ADHD was 3.67 times (OR: 3.67, 95% CI: 1.98; 6.83) higher among children and adolescents whose ages are 6-11 years as compared to children and adolescents whose ages are greater than 11 years. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.45 times (OR: 3.45, 95% CI: 2.17; 5.47) higher among children and adolescents who are from low socio-economic status family members as compared to their counterparts. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.29 times (OR: 3.29, 95% CI: 1.97; 5.51) higher among children and adolescents who had maternal complications during pregnancy as compared to their counterparts. […] The likelihood of having ADHD was 3.83 times (OR: 3.83, 95% CI: 2.17; 6.77) higher among children and adolescents who have a family history of mental illness as compared with those who didn’t have a family history of mental illness.

• #35 Products – Data Briefs – Number 499 – March 2024

  https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db499.htm

  During 20202022, the prevalence of ever diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was 11.3% in children ages 517 years, with boys (14.5%) having a higher prevalence than girls (8.0%). […] Children ages 511 years were less likely than children ages 1217 years to have ADHD. […] White non-Hispanic children ages 517 years were more likely to have ADHD (13.4%) than Black non-Hispanic (10.8%) and Hispanic (8.9%) children. […] The prevalence of ADHD decreased as the level of family income increased. […] Children with public (14.4%) or private (9.7%) health insurance were more likely to have ADHD than children without insurance (6.3%). […] Overall, 11.3% of children ages 517 years had ever been diagnosed with ADHD. The prevalence was higher in children ages 1217 years than in children ages 511 years, and the same pattern was seen across nearly all subgroups of sociodemographic characteristics presented, including sex, race and Hispanic origin, and family income.

• #36 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #37 Products – Data Briefs – Number 499 – March 2024

  https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db499.htm

  During 20202022, the prevalence of ever diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was 11.3% in children ages 517 years, with boys (14.5%) having a higher prevalence than girls (8.0%). […] Children ages 511 years were less likely than children ages 1217 years to have ADHD. […] White non-Hispanic children ages 517 years were more likely to have ADHD (13.4%) than Black non-Hispanic (10.8%) and Hispanic (8.9%) children. […] The prevalence of ADHD decreased as the level of family income increased. […] Children with public (14.4%) or private (9.7%) health insurance were more likely to have ADHD than children without insurance (6.3%). […] Overall, 11.3% of children ages 517 years had ever been diagnosed with ADHD. The prevalence was higher in children ages 1217 years than in children ages 511 years, and the same pattern was seen across nearly all subgroups of sociodemographic characteristics presented, including sex, race and Hispanic origin, and family income.

• #38 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  CDC uses datasets from parent surveys and healthcare claims to understand diagnosis and treatment patterns for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD.

• #39 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  Overall, non-Hispanic children (12%) were diagnosed with ADHD more often than Hispanic children (10%). […] About 6 in 10 children had moderate or severe ADHD. […] Children with both ADHD and another co-occurring condition, such as behavioral or conduct problems, learning disorders, anxiety, or depression, more often had severe ADHD than children with ADHD without other co-occurring conditions. […] National estimates among U.S. children aged 3-17 years who have ever been diagnosed with ADHD vary from 6% to 16% across states. […] Estimates for receiving any ADHD treatment among children with current ADHD vary from 58% to 92% across states. […] According to a national 2022 parent survey, nearly 78% of children with ADHD had at least one other co-occurring condition: […] Almost half of the children with ADHD had a behavior or conduct problem.

• #40 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Objective: To provide updated national prevalence estimates of diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), ADHD severity, co-occurring disorders, and receipt of ADHD medication and behavioral treatment among U.S. children and adolescents by demographic and clinical subgroups using data from the 2022 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH). […] Results: Approximately 1 in 9 U.S. children have ever received an ADHD diagnosis (11.4%, 7.1 million children) and 10.5% (6.5 million) had current ADHD. Among children with current ADHD, 58.1% had moderate or severe ADHD, 77.9% had at least one co-occurring disorder, approximately half of children with current ADHD (53.6%) received ADHD medication, and 44.4% had received behavioral treatment for ADHD in the past year; nearly one third (30.1%) did not receive any ADHD-specific treatment.

• #41 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  Overall, non-Hispanic children (12%) were diagnosed with ADHD more often than Hispanic children (10%). […] About 6 in 10 children had moderate or severe ADHD. […] Children with both ADHD and another co-occurring condition, such as behavioral or conduct problems, learning disorders, anxiety, or depression, more often had severe ADHD than children with ADHD without other co-occurring conditions. […] National estimates among U.S. children aged 3-17 years who have ever been diagnosed with ADHD vary from 6% to 16% across states. […] Estimates for receiving any ADHD treatment among children with current ADHD vary from 58% to 92% across states. […] According to a national 2022 parent survey, nearly 78% of children with ADHD had at least one other co-occurring condition: […] Almost half of the children with ADHD had a behavior or conduct problem.

• #42 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #43 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Children’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/learning-and-developmental-disorders/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  About 20 to 60% of children with ADHD have learning disabilities affecting reading, math, or written language, and most have academic problems such as poor grades due to disorganization or incomplete homework (executive skills). […] The diagnosis of ADHD is based on the number, frequency, and severity of signs. […] Signs must also be more pronounced than would be expected for the childs developmental level and must be present for 6 months or more. […] An increasing number of children are diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] Treatment recommendations for children with ADHD vary by age. […] The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide free and appropriate education to children and adolescents with ADHD. […] Importantly, the vast majority of children with ADHD become creative and productive adults, and people who have ADHD may adjust better to work than to school situations. […] However, if the disorder is untreated in childhood, the risk of alcohol or substance abuse or suicide may increase.

• #44 Hyperactivity and inattention (ADHD): Epidemiology, comorbidity, assessment | Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development

  https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/hyperactivity-and-inattention-adhd/according-experts/children-attention-deficit-hyperactivity

  Half to two thirds of school children identified with ADHD also have concurrent psychiatric and developmental disorders, including oppositional and aggressive behaviours, anxiety, low self esteem, tic disorders, motor problems, and learning or language disabilities. Global impairment in children with ADHD increases with increasing numbers of concurrent disorders. […] Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder usually begins before children enter school. However in the preschool age group ADHD is characterized not only by impairment in attention span, excessive impulsivity and over-activity but also is frequently accompanied by severe temper tantrums, demanding, uncooperative behaviour and aggressiveness that can interfere with attendance at daycare or preschool, avoidance of family gatherings, and high family burden of care and distress. […] The formal diagnosis of ADHD reflects pervasive and detrimental levels of inattention, distractibility, overactivity and impulsiveness. The child’s symptoms must be developmentally excessive and cause impaired functioning, most often in academic or social skills, peer or family relationships.

• #45 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) syndrome across ages in: Developments in Health Sciences Volume 6 Issue 2 (2023)

  https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2066/6/2/article-p34.xml

  The worldwide prevalence of ADHD is estimated to be between 5% and 11% among children, and between 5% and 7.2% among adults. […] Comorbidity is more the norm than the exception, occurring in two-thirds of cases from adolescence and typically involving an average of three comorbid conditions. […] The economic burden associated with ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults is considerable. Specific studies in North America estimate that the annual costs of individuals diagnosed with ADHD, including children, adolescents, and adults, range between $1,028.06 and $18,158.09. […] If national data for Hungary concerning the economic impact of ADHD in children and adolescents were available, they would probably align with current trends. […] The goal of the present article is to emphasise that ADHD is a lifelong disorder that imposes a significant economic burden. The article underscores the importance of early diagnosis and effective treatment strategies.

• #46 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  CDC uses datasets from parent surveys and healthcare claims to understand diagnosis and treatment patterns for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD.

• #47 Burden of ADHD | ADHD Institute

  https://adhd-institute.com/burden-of-adhd

  ADHD can have a significant social impact on affected individuals lives, causing disruption at school, work, and in relationships. […] Consequently, the quality of life of individuals with ADHD may be impaired, although some positive aspects of ADHD have been reported. […] ADHD can also be associated with substantial economic burden for the individual, their family and societal healthcare services.

• #48 Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): systematic review and meta-analysis | European Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/prevalence-of-attentiondeficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis/CBC560705C72C55848087632C13DBD37

  The estimates of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) prevalence across various studies are significantly variable, contributing to uncertainty in ADHD prevalence estimation. […] Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most widespread psychiatric diseases worldwide, especially in children and adolescents. […] According to the study of Doshi et al., total annual costs in the United States have been estimated to range from US$143 billion to $266 billion, including health care and educational services for children and loss of income and productivity for adults. […] In 2022, Barican et al. published a systematic review and meta-analysis that included 14 studies in 11 high-income countries with a pooled sample of 61,545 children aged 4-18 years. […] The total prevalence of ADHD varies between 11% and 25.8% in preschool children, between 3.17% and 17.3% in school-aged children, and between 3.9% and 25.1% in adults.

• #49 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) syndrome across ages in: Developments in Health Sciences Volume 6 Issue 2 (2023)

  https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2066/6/2/article-p34.xml

  The worldwide prevalence of ADHD is estimated to be between 5% and 11% among children, and between 5% and 7.2% among adults. […] Comorbidity is more the norm than the exception, occurring in two-thirds of cases from adolescence and typically involving an average of three comorbid conditions. […] The economic burden associated with ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults is considerable. Specific studies in North America estimate that the annual costs of individuals diagnosed with ADHD, including children, adolescents, and adults, range between $1,028.06 and $18,158.09. […] If national data for Hungary concerning the economic impact of ADHD in children and adolescents were available, they would probably align with current trends. […] The goal of the present article is to emphasise that ADHD is a lifelong disorder that imposes a significant economic burden. The article underscores the importance of early diagnosis and effective treatment strategies.

• #50 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4784-attention-deficithyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Millions of children in the U.S. have an ADHD diagnosis (around 1 in 10 kids age 3 to 17). […] There are four types of ADHD that healthcare providers diagnose in children and adults: Inattentive ADHD, Hyperactive-impulsive ADHD, Combined presentation, Unspecified presentation. […] ADHD symptoms fall into two big groups: Inattention symptoms and Hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms. […] ADHD is genetic. This means your child is born with certain gene changes that cause differences in their brain development (neurodivergence). […] Experts believe that some people have genes that predispose them to ADHD. […] ADHD can affect how your child feels about themselves and how they engage with the world around them. Without proper treatment, your child may have low self-esteem, poor grades and an inability to reach their full potential, difficulty in social situations, an increased risk of developing substance use disorders when theyre older, frequent driving accidents and injuries, trouble getting and keeping a job when theyre older.

• #51 ADHD in Kids: Symptoms, Types, and Tests for ADHD in Children

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/adhd-children

  Research doesn’t always agree on which racial and ethnic groups are most likely to have childhood ADHD. The CDC says that roughly 17% of Black children, 15% of White children, and 14% of Hispanic children have been diagnosed with ADHD or a learning disorder. But other research has found that Black children are less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than White children. There’s evidence that Black and Hispanic children with ADHD are less likely to get treatment, too. […] ADHD that goes untreated can lead to lifelong complications. These include substance use disorder, trouble getting and holding a job, eating disorders, other mental health issues such as depression or anxiety, unstable relationships, poor academic performance, risky behaviors that could led to automobile accidents or legal problems, sleep issues.

• #52 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4784-attention-deficithyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  ADHD stands for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Its a neurodevelopmental disorder, which means it affects how your brain develops. Symptoms begin before age 12 and include fidgeting, difficulty paying attention and losing things. ADHD is treatable with medications and therapies that manage symptoms and make daily life easier. […] ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) is a condition that affects how your brain works. Despite its name, ADHD doesnt mean that you lack attention. It means that its harder for you to control your attention or direct it to certain tasks. ADHD causes symptoms like difficulty focusing, trouble sitting still and impulsive behaviors. But it also allows you to get in the zone and hyperfocus on things you really enjoy. […] ADHD symptoms begin in childhood (commonly between ages 3 and 6) and may continue into adulthood. But some people dont get a diagnosis until theyre adults. Theres no cure for ADHD, but treatments like medications and behavioral therapies can help manage symptoms.

• #53 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and into adulthood. Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity (over-activity). […] Based on parent-report data from National Survey of Childrens Health (NSCH), Figure 1 shows the trends in prevalence of U.S. children aged 4-17 ever diagnosed with ADHD by a health care provider. The prevalence of children ever diagnosed with ADHD increased by 42% between 2003 (7.8%) and 2011 (11.0%). Males had a consistently higher prevalence of ADHD than females from 2003 to 2011. […] Based on data from the NSCH, the median age of onset for children with current ADHD was 6 years. More severe cases of ADHD in children, as described by parents, were diagnosed earlier. The median age of diagnosis for severe ADHD was 4 years. The median age of diagnosis for moderate ADHD was 6 years. The median age of diagnosis for mild ADHD was 7 years. Approximately one-third of children diagnosed with ADHD retain the diagnosis into adulthood.

• #54 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and into adulthood. Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity (over-activity). […] Based on parent-report data from National Survey of Childrens Health (NSCH), Figure 1 shows the trends in prevalence of U.S. children aged 4-17 ever diagnosed with ADHD by a health care provider. The prevalence of children ever diagnosed with ADHD increased by 42% between 2003 (7.8%) and 2011 (11.0%). Males had a consistently higher prevalence of ADHD than females from 2003 to 2011. […] Based on data from the NSCH, the median age of onset for children with current ADHD was 6 years. More severe cases of ADHD in children, as described by parents, were diagnosed earlier. The median age of diagnosis for severe ADHD was 4 years. The median age of diagnosis for moderate ADHD was 6 years. The median age of diagnosis for mild ADHD was 7 years. Approximately one-third of children diagnosed with ADHD retain the diagnosis into adulthood.

• #55 Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912633-overview

  ADHD is more frequently diagnosed in boys than in girls. Most estimates of the male-to-female ratio range between 3:1 and 4:1 in clinic populations. However, many community-based samples produce a ratio of 2:1. Recognition of ADHD has improved over the last decade, and the male-to-female ratio has been decreasing; this may be the result of the increased recognition of inattentive ADHD. […] Data concerning the likelihood that a child with ADHD will also have the disorder as an adult are conflicting. As definitions of ADHD subtypes improve, some subtypes that cause more adult dysfunction than others will likely be found. […] Approximately 3080% of children with ADHD have the disorder as adults. Most experts believe that the rate is well above 50%. […] Hyperactive symptoms may decrease with age because of developmental trends toward self-control and changes in brain composition (ie, pruning of abundant neural connections) that occur during late adolescence. However, persons with ADHD developmentally mature later than the average population. Inattentive symptoms do not appear to have a similar developmental advantage and tend to remain constant into adulthood.

• #56 Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912633-overview

  ADHD is more frequently diagnosed in boys than in girls. Most estimates of the male-to-female ratio range between 3:1 and 4:1 in clinic populations. However, many community-based samples produce a ratio of 2:1. Recognition of ADHD has improved over the last decade, and the male-to-female ratio has been decreasing; this may be the result of the increased recognition of inattentive ADHD. […] Data concerning the likelihood that a child with ADHD will also have the disorder as an adult are conflicting. As definitions of ADHD subtypes improve, some subtypes that cause more adult dysfunction than others will likely be found. […] Approximately 3080% of children with ADHD have the disorder as adults. Most experts believe that the rate is well above 50%. […] Hyperactive symptoms may decrease with age because of developmental trends toward self-control and changes in brain composition (ie, pruning of abundant neural connections) that occur during late adolescence. However, persons with ADHD developmentally mature later than the average population. Inattentive symptoms do not appear to have a similar developmental advantage and tend to remain constant into adulthood.

• #57 Hyperactivity and inattention (ADHD): Epidemiology, comorbidity, assessment | Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development

  https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/hyperactivity-and-inattention-adhd/according-experts/children-attention-deficit-hyperactivity

  ADHD is an important public health concern, not only for the long-term impairments facing individuals and families but also for the heavy burden on educational, health and criminal justice systems. […] Population studies identify that childhood inattention and hyperactivity are more common in single parent families, with low parent education attainment, parent unemployment, and low family income. Evidence from family studies identify that symptoms of ADHD are highly heritable, however, early environmental factors contribute as well. History of prenatal maternal smoking and drinking, low birth weight, and developmental problems are associated with high levels of inattention and hyperactivity. […] Clinical identification and treatment of ADHD in North America can vary geographically, apparently reflecting differences in community practices or access to services. Treatment with stimulant medications for inattentive and hyperactive symptoms increased in the early to mid 1990s, and likely reflects longer periods of use with treatment extended into adolescent years as well as an increased number of girls identified and treated. Stimulant medications remain the first line pharmacological intervention for addressing symptoms of ADHD. However, combining medications with behavioural and other non-pharmacological interventions is recommended.

• #58 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #59 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: AAP Updates Guideline for Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2020/0701/p58.html

  Most children diagnosed with ADHD also meet criteria for another behavioral health disorder. […] Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is diagnosed in 7% to 8% of children. It affects academic achievement and socioemotional well-being. […] ADHD should be considered in children four years or older with academic or behavioral concerns and symptoms of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, or impulsivity. […] Most children with ADHD also meet criteria for another behavioral disorder. ADHD symptoms can mask language and learning disorders as well as overlap with mood disorders. […] Because ADHD affects school performance, supportive services are essential to student achievement. Most students with ADHD are eligible for government-mandated accommodations, and some qualify for additional learning services. […] Almost one-fourth of children diagnosed with ADHD receive no treatment, most commonly Latino and Black children.

• #60 ADHD in Kids: Symptoms, Types, and Tests for ADHD in Children

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/adhd-children

  Research doesn’t always agree on which racial and ethnic groups are most likely to have childhood ADHD. The CDC says that roughly 17% of Black children, 15% of White children, and 14% of Hispanic children have been diagnosed with ADHD or a learning disorder. But other research has found that Black children are less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than White children. There’s evidence that Black and Hispanic children with ADHD are less likely to get treatment, too. […] ADHD that goes untreated can lead to lifelong complications. These include substance use disorder, trouble getting and holding a job, eating disorders, other mental health issues such as depression or anxiety, unstable relationships, poor academic performance, risky behaviors that could led to automobile accidents or legal problems, sleep issues.

• #61 Analysis of maternal risk factors and potential biomarkers for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder – Bubiak – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/7961/html

  The occurrence of ADHD symptoms is notably more common in offspring of individuals with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in a manner that is independent of androgen levels. This suggests that factors such as obesity or hyperinsulinemia associated with PCOS may impact fetal development. Additionally, research has shown a correlation between ADHD diagnosis and maternal anxiety, as demonstrated by increased levels of placental C-reactive protein of ADHD births. […] The discovery of potential biomarkers is crucial for the prevention and early detection of ADHD. Despite a limited number of biomarkers, several candidates have shown positive correlations between changes in maternal blood levels of circulating micronutrients, metals and cytokines and the development of ADHD. […] ADHD prevention must consider both risk and protective factors associated with the disease. The interaction between genetic factors and environmental exposure plays an important role in the onset of ADHD. Primary care interventions are typically applied during early prenatal care to prevent hazardous exposure, identify the disorder in children at early stages and propose family-centered strategies to minimize progression and clinical complications of ADHD. The early identification of maternal risk factor can significantly improve early diagnosis and long-term outcomes for children with ADHD. Furthermore, it is essential to take into account the influence of socioeconomic status on preventive care to support effective interventions.

• #62 Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/1001/p456.html

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common behavioral disorder in children, and the prevalence is increasing. […] Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common behavioral disorder in childhood. The prevalence increased by an estimated 3% annually between 1997 and 2006. Recent national data show that up to 11% of four- to 17-year-olds have had an ADHD diagnosis, 8.8% currently have the diagnosis, and 6.1% are receiving a medication for ADHD. […] Children four years and older and adolescents with poor attention, distractibility, hyperactivity, impulsiveness, poor academic performance, or behavioral problems at home or at school should be evaluated for ADHD. […] Adolescents with ADHD have higher rates of motor vehicle crashes, substance abuse, and school drop out. Medication is effective for treating ADHD symptoms, and studies suggest that earlier identification and treatment may improve longer-term educational, work, and social outcomes.

• #63 Burden of ADHD | ADHD Institute

  https://adhd-institute.com/burden-of-adhd

  ADHD is a diverse disorder with complex epidemiology and aetiology, which can have a significant impact on affected individuals lives. […] Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or hyperkinetic disorder (HKD), is a diverse neurodevelopmental condition characterised by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, and can have a significant impact on affected individuals lives. […] ADHD prevalence rates vary between children, adolescents and adults, and by gender and symptom presentation. […] The majority of adults with ADHD have a diagnosed or undiagnosed psychiatric comorbidity, which can complicate the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. […] The aetiology of ADHD is complex and is thought to have a neurobiological component, an underlying genetic component and be associated with several environmental risk factors, which may increase the likelihood of some ADHD symptoms.

• #64 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350889

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, also called ADHD, is a long-term condition that affects millions of children. It often continues into adulthood. ADHD includes a mix of ongoing problems. These can include having a hard time paying attention, being hyperactive and being impulsive. […] ADHD occurs more often in boys than in girls. Behaviors can be different in boys and girls. For example, boys may be more hyperactive and girls may tend to quietly not pay attention. […] While the exact cause of ADHD is not clear, research efforts continue. Factors that may be involved in the development of ADHD include genetics, the environment or central nervous system conditions at key moments in development. […] Risk factors for ADHD may include having a blood relative, such as a parent or sibling, with ADHD or another mental health condition. […] ADHD can make life hard for children. Children with ADHD often have trouble in the classroom, which can lead to failing grades and being judged by other children and adults.

• #65 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #66 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #67 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #68 ADHD in Kids: Symptoms, Types, and Tests for ADHD in Children

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/adhd-children

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children is a difference in brain development that can affect their ability to focus and self-control. It’s one of the most common brain disorders in children, affecting nearly 10% of kids in the U.S. While it’s most often diagnosed in children, ADHD can last into adulthood. […] About 1 in 10 children in the U.S. have been diagnosed with ADHD. […] Boys are more than twice as likely as girls to be diagnosed. Some researchers think girls may be underdiagnosed because they’re more likely to have the inattentive type of ADHD rather than the more visible hyperactive or impulsive type. […] Scientists are also studying whether these things are linked to higher chances of ADHD in children: Alcohol or tobacco use during pregnancy, premature birth, brain injury, exposure during pregnancy to certain environmental risks (like lead), low birth weight.

• #69 Analysis of maternal risk factors and potential biomarkers for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder – Bubiak – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/7961/html

  Studies have demonstrated a clear correlation between ADHD and maternal health, including changes in maternal immune response, exposure to toxicants, and nutritional deficiencies. Additionally, the family history of psychiatric disorders and socioeconomic status has been linked to the onset and more severe symptoms of ADHD. […] Nicotine, alcohol, and heavy metals are widely recognized as risk factors for ADHD. Recent findings show a connection between prenatal exposure to flame retardants and organophosphates with thyroid endocrine disruption, which has been observed in individuals with ADHD. Lead exposure has been identified as a significant risk factor for hyperactivity and impulsivity scores in individuals with ADHD. Additionally, higher levels of lead have been associated with a suggestive grade of evidence in ADHD.

• #70 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #71 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #72 Analysis of maternal risk factors and potential biomarkers for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder – Bubiak – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/7961/html

  Studies have demonstrated a clear correlation between ADHD and maternal health, including changes in maternal immune response, exposure to toxicants, and nutritional deficiencies. Additionally, the family history of psychiatric disorders and socioeconomic status has been linked to the onset and more severe symptoms of ADHD. […] Nicotine, alcohol, and heavy metals are widely recognized as risk factors for ADHD. Recent findings show a connection between prenatal exposure to flame retardants and organophosphates with thyroid endocrine disruption, which has been observed in individuals with ADHD. Lead exposure has been identified as a significant risk factor for hyperactivity and impulsivity scores in individuals with ADHD. Additionally, higher levels of lead have been associated with a suggestive grade of evidence in ADHD.

• #73 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #74 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #75 The pooled prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307173

  The odds of ADHD were 2.19 times (OR: 2.19, 95%CI: 1.54; 3.12) higher among male children and adolescents as compared to female children and adolescents. […] The likelihood of ADHD was 3.67 times (OR: 3.67, 95% CI: 1.98; 6.83) higher among children and adolescents whose ages are 6-11 years as compared to children and adolescents whose ages are greater than 11 years. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.45 times (OR: 3.45, 95% CI: 2.17; 5.47) higher among children and adolescents who are from low socio-economic status family members as compared to their counterparts. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.29 times (OR: 3.29, 95% CI: 1.97; 5.51) higher among children and adolescents who had maternal complications during pregnancy as compared to their counterparts. […] The likelihood of having ADHD was 3.83 times (OR: 3.83, 95% CI: 2.17; 6.77) higher among children and adolescents who have a family history of mental illness as compared with those who didn’t have a family history of mental illness.

• #76 The pooled prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307173

  The odds of ADHD were 2.19 times (OR: 2.19, 95%CI: 1.54; 3.12) higher among male children and adolescents as compared to female children and adolescents. […] The likelihood of ADHD was 3.67 times (OR: 3.67, 95% CI: 1.98; 6.83) higher among children and adolescents whose ages are 6-11 years as compared to children and adolescents whose ages are greater than 11 years. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.45 times (OR: 3.45, 95% CI: 2.17; 5.47) higher among children and adolescents who are from low socio-economic status family members as compared to their counterparts. […] The odds of having ADHD were 3.29 times (OR: 3.29, 95% CI: 1.97; 5.51) higher among children and adolescents who had maternal complications during pregnancy as compared to their counterparts. […] The likelihood of having ADHD was 3.83 times (OR: 3.83, 95% CI: 2.17; 6.77) higher among children and adolescents who have a family history of mental illness as compared with those who didn’t have a family history of mental illness.

• #77 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #78 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  ADHD usually occurs more in boys than in girls. The male-to-female ratio ranges between 3:1 and 4:1. Diagnosis of ADHD has improved in recent years, with decreasing male-to-female ratio. […] It is a well-known fact that abnormalities in the frontal-striatal circuits and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) affect attention and hyperactivity. Furthermore, neurohormonal aberrations are implicated as triggers of ADHD. […] A higher incidence of ADHD among first-degree family members of ADHD has been reported. ADHD inheritance is estimated at 0.76, which makes it one of the most genetic psychiatric disorders. […] It is worth noting that concordance rate of 33% in dizygotic twins, points to environmental risk factors incurred during the prenatal course. Environmental factors usually implicated in ADHD include maternal smoking during pregnancy, emotional distress or family adversity during pregnancy and early in life, birth weight 1500 g, lead exposure, hypoxemia, encephalitis, trauma, and brain injury from some metabolic disorders.

• #79 Epidemiology of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48896

  Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized with attention deficits, hyperactivity, or impulsiveness. The prevalence of ADHD varies from country to country and from various cultural and geographical zones. The pattern and distribution of ADHD also vary with gender and age. It has also been noted that some factors are associated with ADHD. For instance, some central nervous system anomalies had been associated with ADHD. Genetic and environmental risk factors have also been implicated. Some conduct and learning disorders have also been associated with ADHD. Of recent, some cardiac anomalies and behavioral disorders such as enuresis and encopresis have all been associated with children with ADHD. […] ADHD affects children and adolescents in various ways and extents; however, the effects of the condition usually impact greatly on patients and their families and relations. When not treated, ADHD is frequently associated with underachievement in school, increased rates of criminality and accidents, and development of comorbid psychiatric symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and substance use and misuse.

• #80 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #81 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Conclusions: Pediatric ADHD remains an ongoing and expanding public health concern, as approximately 1 million more children had ever received an ADHD diagnosis in 2022 than in 2016. Estimates from the 2022 NSCH provide information on pediatric ADHD during the last full year of the COVID-19 pandemic and can be used by policymakers, government agencies, health care systems, public health practitioners, and other partners to plan for needs of children with ADHD.

• #82 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  CDC uses datasets from parent surveys and healthcare claims to understand diagnosis and treatment patterns for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). […] An estimated 7 million (11.4%) U.S. children aged 3-17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, according to a national survey of parents using data from 2022. […] In 2022, an additional 1 million U.S. children aged 3-17 years had ever received an ADHD diagnosis compared to 2016. […] Boys (15%) were more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (8%). […] Black children and White children were more often diagnosed with ADHD (both 12%) than Asian children (4%). American Indian/Alaska Native children (10%) were also more often diagnosed with ADHD than Asian children. […] Approximately 6% of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander children were diagnosed with ADHD.

• #83 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and into adulthood. Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity (over-activity). […] Based on parent-report data from National Survey of Childrens Health (NSCH), Figure 1 shows the trends in prevalence of U.S. children aged 4-17 ever diagnosed with ADHD by a health care provider. The prevalence of children ever diagnosed with ADHD increased by 42% between 2003 (7.8%) and 2011 (11.0%). Males had a consistently higher prevalence of ADHD than females from 2003 to 2011. […] Based on data from the NSCH, the median age of onset for children with current ADHD was 6 years. More severe cases of ADHD in children, as described by parents, were diagnosed earlier. The median age of diagnosis for severe ADHD was 4 years. The median age of diagnosis for moderate ADHD was 6 years. The median age of diagnosis for mild ADHD was 7 years. Approximately one-third of children diagnosed with ADHD retain the diagnosis into adulthood.

• #84 ADHD: Why Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is Rising  | Brown University Health

  https://www.lifespan.org/be-well/adhd-why-diagnosis-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-rising

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a common condition that has steadily been on the increase in both children and adults. […] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is typically marked by a lack of focus and difficulty paying attention, overactivity, and impulsivity. […] Data from the National Survey of Childrens Health reports that ADHD currently affects nearly six million children in the United States more than one in 11 children. The National Health Interview Study estimated the prevalence in children ages four to 17 was about six percent in the 1990s. By 2016, that figure rose to 10 percent and continues to climb. […] Regardless of age, ADHD is being diagnosed more than ever before. However, that does not mean the condition itself is more common.

• #85 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Medication can be used to effectively treat ADHD symptoms of impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity, and is the single most effective treatment for reducing ADHD symptoms. An estimated 69.3% of children with a current diagnosis of ADHD received medication for ADHD. Medication use increased 4% overall from 2007 to 2011, particularly among male teens. […] Based on diagnostic interview data from National Comorbidity SurveyAdolescent Supplement (NCS-A), Figure 3 shows the lifetime prevalence of ADHD among U.S. adolescents aged 13 to 18 years. The lifetime prevalence of ADHD was 8.7%. Nearly half of all cases showed severe impairment (4.2%). ADHD affected three times as many males (13.0%) as females (4.2%). […] Based on diagnostic interview data from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R), Figure 4 shows the estimated prevalence of adults aged 18 to 44 years with a current diagnosis of ADHD. The overall prevalence of current adult ADHD is 4.4%. Prevalence was higher for males (5.4%) versus females (3.2%). The non-Hispanic white group (5.4%) had a higher prevalence than all other race/ethnicity groups. The estimated lifetime prevalence of ADHD in U.S. adults aged 18 to 44 years was 8.1%.

• #86 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #87 Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): systematic review and meta-analysis | European Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/prevalence-of-attentiondeficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis/CBC560705C72C55848087632C13DBD37

  The prevalence estimates of ADHD in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were 6.5%, 6.4%, and 4.2%, respectively, with a pooled estimate of 6.3%. […] The worldwide-pooled prevalence in subjects 18 years of age or younger from the general population or schools was 5.29%, and the prevalence estimate was associated with significant variability. […] The prevalence of ADHD was investigated across different age categories (children, adolescents, and adults). […] The results of this systematic review show that the overall prevalence of ADHD in register studies was 1.6%, in survey studies was 5.0%, in one-stage clinical studies was 4.2%, and in two-stage clinical studies was 4.8%. […] The register studies exhibit the lowest estimate for ADHD prevalence, mostly because of inclusion of the entire population (e.g., children under 2 years old), while the other three types of studies show similar estimates.

• #88 Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): systematic review and meta-analysis | European Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/prevalence-of-attentiondeficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis/CBC560705C72C55848087632C13DBD37

  The prevalence estimates of ADHD in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were 6.5%, 6.4%, and 4.2%, respectively, with a pooled estimate of 6.3%. […] The worldwide-pooled prevalence in subjects 18 years of age or younger from the general population or schools was 5.29%, and the prevalence estimate was associated with significant variability. […] The prevalence of ADHD was investigated across different age categories (children, adolescents, and adults). […] The results of this systematic review show that the overall prevalence of ADHD in register studies was 1.6%, in survey studies was 5.0%, in one-stage clinical studies was 4.2%, and in two-stage clinical studies was 4.8%. […] The register studies exhibit the lowest estimate for ADHD prevalence, mostly because of inclusion of the entire population (e.g., children under 2 years old), while the other three types of studies show similar estimates.

• #89 Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): systematic review and meta-analysis | European Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/prevalence-of-attentiondeficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis/CBC560705C72C55848087632C13DBD37

  The prevalence estimates of ADHD in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were 6.5%, 6.4%, and 4.2%, respectively, with a pooled estimate of 6.3%. […] The worldwide-pooled prevalence in subjects 18 years of age or younger from the general population or schools was 5.29%, and the prevalence estimate was associated with significant variability. […] The prevalence of ADHD was investigated across different age categories (children, adolescents, and adults). […] The results of this systematic review show that the overall prevalence of ADHD in register studies was 1.6%, in survey studies was 5.0%, in one-stage clinical studies was 4.2%, and in two-stage clinical studies was 4.8%. […] The register studies exhibit the lowest estimate for ADHD prevalence, mostly because of inclusion of the entire population (e.g., children under 2 years old), while the other three types of studies show similar estimates.

• #90 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  Studies from multiple countries have reported that children born closer to the start of the school year are more frequently diagnosed with and medicated for ADHD than their older classmates. […] Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s. […] Despite showing a higher frequency of symptoms associated with ADHD, non-White children in the US are less likely than White children to be diagnosed or treated for ADHD, a finding that is often explained by bias among health professionals, as well as parents who may be reluctant to acknowledge that their child has ADHD. […] A 2024 study in CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report reports around 15.5 million U.S. adults have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with many facing challenges in accessing treatment.

• #91 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  Studies from multiple countries have reported that children born closer to the start of the school year are more frequently diagnosed with and medicated for ADHD than their older classmates. […] Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s. […] Despite showing a higher frequency of symptoms associated with ADHD, non-White children in the US are less likely than White children to be diagnosed or treated for ADHD, a finding that is often explained by bias among health professionals, as well as parents who may be reluctant to acknowledge that their child has ADHD. […] A 2024 study in CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report reports around 15.5 million U.S. adults have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with many facing challenges in accessing treatment.

• #92 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Conclusions: Pediatric ADHD remains an ongoing and expanding public health concern, as approximately 1 million more children had ever received an ADHD diagnosis in 2022 than in 2016. Estimates from the 2022 NSCH provide information on pediatric ADHD during the last full year of the COVID-19 pandemic and can be used by policymakers, government agencies, health care systems, public health practitioners, and other partners to plan for needs of children with ADHD.

• #93 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Conclusions: Pediatric ADHD remains an ongoing and expanding public health concern, as approximately 1 million more children had ever received an ADHD diagnosis in 2022 than in 2016. Estimates from the 2022 NSCH provide information on pediatric ADHD during the last full year of the COVID-19 pandemic and can be used by policymakers, government agencies, health care systems, public health practitioners, and other partners to plan for needs of children with ADHD.

• #94 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment. […] Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in African American children: what can be concluded from the past ten years? […] Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis by kindergarten entry. […] The impact of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on children’s health-related quality of life: a systematic review and meta-analysis. […] The management of ADHD in children and adolescents: bringing evidence to the clinic: perspective from the European ADHD Guidelines Group (EAGG). […] The adult ADHD quality measures initiative. […] The effects of temporally secondary co-morbid mental disorders on the associations of DSM-IV ADHD with adverse outcomes in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).

• #95 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  It is essential to know how the comparative accuracy of these diagnostic tools varies by clinical setting, including primary care or specialty clinic, and/or patient subgroup, including age, sex, socioeconomic status, racial or ethnic group, comorbid illnesses, or other risk factors associated with ADHD. The accuracy of an ADHD diagnosis is especially poor in preschool-aged children, for whom hyperactivity, general rambunctiousness, and difficulties with impulse control are often relatively normative and difficult to distinguish from ADHD-related behaviors. Preschool youth also typically do not have the same classroom expectations for behavioral self-regulation that children in elementary school are expected to have, further obscuring the distinction between ADHD and neurotypical early childhood behaviors.

• #96 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Conclusions: Pediatric ADHD remains an ongoing and expanding public health concern, as approximately 1 million more children had ever received an ADHD diagnosis in 2022 than in 2016. Estimates from the 2022 NSCH provide information on pediatric ADHD during the last full year of the COVID-19 pandemic and can be used by policymakers, government agencies, health care systems, public health practitioners, and other partners to plan for needs of children with ADHD.

• #97 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  For instance, determining whether a child has ADHD is a complex process that involves several steps. There is no single test that can be used to diagnose ADHD, and other health problems, such as depression, anxiety and some learning disorders, may present with similar symptoms. […] Although pharmacological treatment seems effective, especially in combination with psychological interventions, clinical trials and meta-analyses reflect some uncertainty as to which are the most suitable therapeutic modalities based on outcome measures that are important to patients and families. […] In addition, ADHD may present in association with other physical or mental disorders (multimorbidity). However, most trials are conducted in samples of patients with very specific and fairly homogeneous characteristics, which limits our knowledge on the effects of treatment in patients with ADHD and multiple comorbidities.

• #98 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  For instance, determining whether a child has ADHD is a complex process that involves several steps. There is no single test that can be used to diagnose ADHD, and other health problems, such as depression, anxiety and some learning disorders, may present with similar symptoms. […] Although pharmacological treatment seems effective, especially in combination with psychological interventions, clinical trials and meta-analyses reflect some uncertainty as to which are the most suitable therapeutic modalities based on outcome measures that are important to patients and families. […] In addition, ADHD may present in association with other physical or mental disorders (multimorbidity). However, most trials are conducted in samples of patients with very specific and fairly homogeneous characteristics, which limits our knowledge on the effects of treatment in patients with ADHD and multiple comorbidities.

• #99 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  ADHD diagnosis is normally based on an assessment to determine whether the patient meets the criteria described in the DSM-5. Rating scales, which can be completed by parents, teachers, and/or patients, are used to evaluate the frequency and severity of each of the 18 symptoms in DSM-5 (9 symptoms related to inattention, and 9 symptoms related to hyperactivity/impulsivity), as well as the degree of symptom-related impairment across settings (e.g., home, school, work). Rating scale data are integrated with a clinical interview to determine the onset, course, duration, and impairment associated with symptoms. In addition, screening and clinical evaluation of potential comorbid psychiatric conditions is a key part of the diagnostic process. Important questions remain about the accuracy of this approach in primary care settings. A particular challenge is separating ADHD from other conditions that may appear similar (e.g., anxiety, conduct disorders, speech or language delay, other developmental disorders) and determining whether another condition may better explain ADHD symptoms or is present as a comorbid diagnosis.

• #100 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  It is essential to know how the comparative accuracy of these diagnostic tools varies by clinical setting, including primary care or specialty clinic, and/or patient subgroup, including age, sex, socioeconomic status, racial or ethnic group, comorbid illnesses, or other risk factors associated with ADHD. The accuracy of an ADHD diagnosis is especially poor in preschool-aged children, for whom hyperactivity, general rambunctiousness, and difficulties with impulse control are often relatively normative and difficult to distinguish from ADHD-related behaviors. Preschool youth also typically do not have the same classroom expectations for behavioral self-regulation that children in elementary school are expected to have, further obscuring the distinction between ADHD and neurotypical early childhood behaviors.

• #101 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #102

  https://scholars.duke.edu/display/pub757759

  Despite the severity of impairment, only about a quarter of preschoolers with ADHD are referred for mental health evaluation or treatment. […] Preschool ADHD predicts future ADHD and persistent impairment. […] Preschoolers with ADHD look like older children with ADHD with similar symptom presentations, associated features, and prognosis. […] These findings suggest that DSM-IV-TR ADHD is a reliable and valid diagnosis for children aged 2 through 5 years.

• #103 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: AAP Updates Guideline for Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2020/0701/p58.html

  Most children diagnosed with ADHD also meet criteria for another behavioral health disorder. […] Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is diagnosed in 7% to 8% of children. It affects academic achievement and socioemotional well-being. […] ADHD should be considered in children four years or older with academic or behavioral concerns and symptoms of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, or impulsivity. […] Most children with ADHD also meet criteria for another behavioral disorder. ADHD symptoms can mask language and learning disorders as well as overlap with mood disorders. […] Because ADHD affects school performance, supportive services are essential to student achievement. Most students with ADHD are eligible for government-mandated accommodations, and some qualify for additional learning services. […] Almost one-fourth of children diagnosed with ADHD receive no treatment, most commonly Latino and Black children.

• #104 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #105 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  For instance, determining whether a child has ADHD is a complex process that involves several steps. There is no single test that can be used to diagnose ADHD, and other health problems, such as depression, anxiety and some learning disorders, may present with similar symptoms. […] Although pharmacological treatment seems effective, especially in combination with psychological interventions, clinical trials and meta-analyses reflect some uncertainty as to which are the most suitable therapeutic modalities based on outcome measures that are important to patients and families. […] In addition, ADHD may present in association with other physical or mental disorders (multimorbidity). However, most trials are conducted in samples of patients with very specific and fairly homogeneous characteristics, which limits our knowledge on the effects of treatment in patients with ADHD and multiple comorbidities.

• #106 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #107 Data and Statistics on ADHD | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/data/index.html

  About 4 in 10 of the children with ADHD had anxiety. […] Treatment for ADHD can include behavior therapy and medication. […] Nearly 2 million U.S. children with ADHD did not receive ADHD-specific treatment in 2022. […] About 30% of children with ADHD did not receive medication treatment or behavior treatment, compared with 23% of children 2-17 years of age with ADHD in 2016. […] About 32% children with ADHD received both medication treatment and behavior treatment. […] Many children received ADHD care from a primary care clinician, such as a pediatrician or family doctor. Almost half of children covered through private insurance and about 1 in 4 children with Medicaid received ADHD care from a pediatrician. […] Nurse practitioners and psychiatric nurses also play an important role in ADHD care for children, providing care for nearly 1 in 5 children with Medicaid. […] Children with Medicaid were less likely to receive ADHD care from a healthcare specialist, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.

• #108 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  We need further research on the epidemiology of health care, the use of health care resources and multimorbidity to inform clinical practice and public health policy. […] The article by Snchez Martnez and Guilln Prez published in this issue may contribute to the debate on the epidemiology of pharmacological treatment of ADHD in the Spanish national health care system. […] Based on data on dispensed prescriptions in the Region of Murcia, the authors found that the defined daily dose per 1000 inhabitants per day seemed to have increased in the child and adolescent population in the 2010-2014 period, although there were significant variations based on age (higher consumption in the 10-14 years group), sex (higher consumption in males) and geographical area (higher consumption in urban vs rural areas).

• #109 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #110 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  The first question patients, parents, teachers, and clinicians ask when considering ADHD is, Does this child truly have ADHD? Unfortunately, clinician judgement, especially by non-specialist clinicians in primary care, is poor in diagnosing ADHD. Accurately identifying youth who have ADHD has proved difficult at a population level, in part because diagnoses are often made using subjective clinical impressions and limited diagnostic tools. These tools include structured and semi-structured parent, youth, and teacher questionnaires. They represent an improvement over unsupported clinician judgement, but they are nevertheless highly subjective, prone to disagreement across reporters, and yield many false positive diagnoses. Again it is possible, and even likely, that many clinical diagnoses are made in youth who have clinically significant and impairing ADHD symptoms but who do not meet full formal diagnostic criteria, since increasing evidence suggests that ADHD symptoms are continuously distributed quantitative traits and therefore lie on a continuum of severity in the general population. More objective diagnostic tools have been proposed, including activity monitors, neuropsychological test measures, biomarkers such as genotyping, electrophysiological indices, and MRI measures, though their reliability and validity generally have not been assessed rigorously, and they are not yet established diagnostic tools.

• #111 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment in Children and Adolescents | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/protocol

  The first question patients, parents, teachers, and clinicians ask when considering ADHD is, Does this child truly have ADHD? Unfortunately, clinician judgement, especially by non-specialist clinicians in primary care, is poor in diagnosing ADHD. Accurately identifying youth who have ADHD has proved difficult at a population level, in part because diagnoses are often made using subjective clinical impressions and limited diagnostic tools. These tools include structured and semi-structured parent, youth, and teacher questionnaires. They represent an improvement over unsupported clinician judgement, but they are nevertheless highly subjective, prone to disagreement across reporters, and yield many false positive diagnoses. Again it is possible, and even likely, that many clinical diagnoses are made in youth who have clinically significant and impairing ADHD symptoms but who do not meet full formal diagnostic criteria, since increasing evidence suggests that ADHD symptoms are continuously distributed quantitative traits and therefore lie on a continuum of severity in the general population. More objective diagnostic tools have been proposed, including activity monitors, neuropsychological test measures, biomarkers such as genotyping, electrophysiological indices, and MRI measures, though their reliability and validity generally have not been assessed rigorously, and they are not yet established diagnostic tools.

• #112 Early identification of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | PLOS Digital Health

  https://journals.plos.org/digitalhealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pdig.0000620

  Our research goal was to develop a high-performing predictive model for identifying individuals with childhood ADHD in a four-year follow-up window by applying ML algorithms to population-level administrative health data cross-linked with EDI. […] The current findings set a stage for future follow-up studies to refine predictive modeling algorithms and explore potential real-world applications of big data and ML to inform heightened ADHD risks.

• #113 Early identification of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | PLOS Digital Health

  https://journals.plos.org/digitalhealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pdig.0000620

  Signs and symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are present at preschool ages and often not identified for early intervention. […] We aimed to use machine learning to detect ADHD early among kindergarten-aged children using population-level administrative health data and a childhood developmental vulnerability surveillance tool: Early Development Instrument (EDI). […] Our findings suggest that machine learning algorithms that use population-level surveillance data could be a valuable tool for early identification of ADHD. […] ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder) is characterized by developmentally inappropriate, persistent, and pervasive inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with daily functioning at home, school, or work. […] Based on a review of 175 studies up to the year 2013, the prevalence of ADHD in children aged 18 and under is estimated to be 7.2% and is increasing.

• #114 Analysis of maternal risk factors and potential biomarkers for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder – Bubiak – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/7961/html

  The occurrence of ADHD symptoms is notably more common in offspring of individuals with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in a manner that is independent of androgen levels. This suggests that factors such as obesity or hyperinsulinemia associated with PCOS may impact fetal development. Additionally, research has shown a correlation between ADHD diagnosis and maternal anxiety, as demonstrated by increased levels of placental C-reactive protein of ADHD births. […] The discovery of potential biomarkers is crucial for the prevention and early detection of ADHD. Despite a limited number of biomarkers, several candidates have shown positive correlations between changes in maternal blood levels of circulating micronutrients, metals and cytokines and the development of ADHD. […] ADHD prevention must consider both risk and protective factors associated with the disease. The interaction between genetic factors and environmental exposure plays an important role in the onset of ADHD. Primary care interventions are typically applied during early prenatal care to prevent hazardous exposure, identify the disorder in children at early stages and propose family-centered strategies to minimize progression and clinical complications of ADHD. The early identification of maternal risk factor can significantly improve early diagnosis and long-term outcomes for children with ADHD. Furthermore, it is essential to take into account the influence of socioeconomic status on preventive care to support effective interventions.

• #115 Epidemiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Annals of General Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://annals-general-psychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12991-020-00271-w

  ADHD is more prevalent among males in all three subtypes of ADHD, such as the predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I), hyperactiveimpulsive type (ADHD-HI), and combined (ADHD-C) with the prevalence of 4.05%, 3.61%, and 3.62%, respectively, as compared to the corresponding prevalence in females of 2.21%, 1.5%, and 1.52%. […] The finding of the current meta-analysis (7.47%) was consistent with the 9.2% worldwide pooled prevalence estimate of ADHD reported by Ramtekkar et al. in 2010. […] The current systematic review and meta-analysis has several strengths: first, to minimize the possible reviewer bias, data extraction and quality assessment were performed by two independent reviewers and we used a predefined search strategy to identify the possible studies to include in the study. […] In summary, results from this systematic review and meta-analysis suggest that (1) the prevalence of ADHD (7.47%) was high; (2) the prevalence of ADHD was considerably greater in males than females with a male:female ratio of 2.01:1; (3) the predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I) is the most common subtype of ADHD followed by ADHD-impulsive type (ADHD-HI) and combined (ADHD-C); (4) ADHD is more prevalent among males in all three subtypes; (5) among the three types of ADHD, the prevalence of the predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I) was greater in both males and females; (6) future studies should assess the possible reasons for gender difference in epidemiology of ADHD as well as the low male:female ratio in Africa as compared to worldwide findings.

• #116 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment. […] Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in African American children: what can be concluded from the past ten years? […] Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis by kindergarten entry. […] The impact of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on children’s health-related quality of life: a systematic review and meta-analysis. […] The management of ADHD in children and adolescents: bringing evidence to the clinic: perspective from the European ADHD Guidelines Group (EAGG). […] The adult ADHD quality measures initiative. […] The effects of temporally secondary co-morbid mental disorders on the associations of DSM-IV ADHD with adverse outcomes in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).

• #117 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #118 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #119 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  Establishing what constitutes appropriate use of treatments (avoiding overuse but also underuse) seems to be no easy task when it comes to a disorder like ADHD. […] In fact, current labelling recommends against pharmacological treatment in patients with mild forms of the disorder (as it is not the first-line treatment). […] When ADHD is associated with several other disorders, its course becomes more complex and its management more challenging. […] In this regard, learning which disorders are associated with ADHD and the prevalence of comorbidity is important to better understand how ADHD may improve (or worsen), as well as to identify predictors that could guide the selection of the most effective treatments. […] In short, the management of ADHD unfolds in a complex system of health care delivery, with a host of causes of a highly diverse nature. We believe that further research and effort are required to find the way to offer individualised treatment approaches within the framework of the health care system, throughout the lifespan and at the key stages of the individual’s development (for instance, school age or the transition to adult care).

• #120 Hyperactivity and inattention (ADHD): Epidemiology, comorbidity, assessment | Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development

  https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/hyperactivity-and-inattention-adhd/according-experts/children-attention-deficit-hyperactivity

  Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), characterized by developmentally excessive levels of inattention, over-activity and impulsiveness, are most frequently identified and treated in primary school. Studies worldwide identify a prevalence rate for ADHD equivalent to 5.29% (95% Confidence Interval: 5.01-5.56) of children and adolescents. Rates are higher for boys than for girls, and for children under 12 years of age compared with adolescents. Prevalence estimates vary based on method of ascertainment, diagnostic criteria used, and whether functional impairment criteria are included. Overall, estimates are remarkably similar from country to country with the exception of African and Middle Eastern countries where rates are lower compared with North America and Europe.

• #121 Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912633-overview

  ADHD is more frequently diagnosed in boys than in girls. Most estimates of the male-to-female ratio range between 3:1 and 4:1 in clinic populations. However, many community-based samples produce a ratio of 2:1. Recognition of ADHD has improved over the last decade, and the male-to-female ratio has been decreasing; this may be the result of the increased recognition of inattentive ADHD. […] Data concerning the likelihood that a child with ADHD will also have the disorder as an adult are conflicting. As definitions of ADHD subtypes improve, some subtypes that cause more adult dysfunction than others will likely be found. […] Approximately 3080% of children with ADHD have the disorder as adults. Most experts believe that the rate is well above 50%. […] Hyperactive symptoms may decrease with age because of developmental trends toward self-control and changes in brain composition (ie, pruning of abundant neural connections) that occur during late adolescence. However, persons with ADHD developmentally mature later than the average population. Inattentive symptoms do not appear to have a similar developmental advantage and tend to remain constant into adulthood.

• #122 Hyperactivity and inattention (ADHD): Epidemiology, comorbidity, assessment | Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development

  https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/hyperactivity-and-inattention-adhd/according-experts/children-attention-deficit-hyperactivity

  Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), characterized by developmentally excessive levels of inattention, over-activity and impulsiveness, are most frequently identified and treated in primary school. Studies worldwide identify a prevalence rate for ADHD equivalent to 5.29% (95% Confidence Interval: 5.01-5.56) of children and adolescents. Rates are higher for boys than for girls, and for children under 12 years of age compared with adolescents. Prevalence estimates vary based on method of ascertainment, diagnostic criteria used, and whether functional impairment criteria are included. Overall, estimates are remarkably similar from country to country with the exception of African and Middle Eastern countries where rates are lower compared with North America and Europe.

• #123 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Conclusions: Pediatric ADHD remains an ongoing and expanding public health concern, as approximately 1 million more children had ever received an ADHD diagnosis in 2022 than in 2016. Estimates from the 2022 NSCH provide information on pediatric ADHD during the last full year of the COVID-19 pandemic and can be used by policymakers, government agencies, health care systems, public health practitioners, and other partners to plan for needs of children with ADHD.

• #124 ADHD Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents in 2022: Diagnosis, Severity, Co-Occurring Disorders, and Treatment – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38778436/

  Conclusions: Pediatric ADHD remains an ongoing and expanding public health concern, as approximately 1 million more children had ever received an ADHD diagnosis in 2022 than in 2016. Estimates from the 2022 NSCH provide information on pediatric ADHD during the last full year of the COVID-19 pandemic and can be used by policymakers, government agencies, health care systems, public health practitioners, and other partners to plan for needs of children with ADHD.

• #125 The treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, multimorbidity and integrated health services | Anales de Pediatría

  https://www.analesdepediatria.org/es-the-treatment-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-articulo-S2341287918300449

  For instance, determining whether a child has ADHD is a complex process that involves several steps. There is no single test that can be used to diagnose ADHD, and other health problems, such as depression, anxiety and some learning disorders, may present with similar symptoms. […] Although pharmacological treatment seems effective, especially in combination with psychological interventions, clinical trials and meta-analyses reflect some uncertainty as to which are the most suitable therapeutic modalities based on outcome measures that are important to patients and families. […] In addition, ADHD may present in association with other physical or mental disorders (multimorbidity). However, most trials are conducted in samples of patients with very specific and fairly homogeneous characteristics, which limits our knowledge on the effects of treatment in patients with ADHD and multiple comorbidities.

• #126 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #127 Analysis of maternal risk factors and potential biomarkers for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder – Bubiak – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/7961/html

  The occurrence of ADHD symptoms is notably more common in offspring of individuals with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in a manner that is independent of androgen levels. This suggests that factors such as obesity or hyperinsulinemia associated with PCOS may impact fetal development. Additionally, research has shown a correlation between ADHD diagnosis and maternal anxiety, as demonstrated by increased levels of placental C-reactive protein of ADHD births. […] The discovery of potential biomarkers is crucial for the prevention and early detection of ADHD. Despite a limited number of biomarkers, several candidates have shown positive correlations between changes in maternal blood levels of circulating micronutrients, metals and cytokines and the development of ADHD. […] ADHD prevention must consider both risk and protective factors associated with the disease. The interaction between genetic factors and environmental exposure plays an important role in the onset of ADHD. Primary care interventions are typically applied during early prenatal care to prevent hazardous exposure, identify the disorder in children at early stages and propose family-centered strategies to minimize progression and clinical complications of ADHD. The early identification of maternal risk factor can significantly improve early diagnosis and long-term outcomes for children with ADHD. Furthermore, it is essential to take into account the influence of socioeconomic status on preventive care to support effective interventions.

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