Zespół marfana
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Zespół Marfana jest dziedziczną chorobą tkanki łącznej o częstości 1:3000-5000, spowodowaną mutacjami w genie FBN1 na chromosomie 15q21.1, kodującym fibryllinę-1 – kluczowy składnik mikrofibryli macierzy pozakomórkowej. Mutacje te prowadzą do zaburzeń strukturalnych mikrofibryli, fragmentacji włókien elastycznych i zwyrodnienia torbielowatego błony środkowej aorty, co skutkuje poszerzeniem aorty i ryzykiem rozwarstwienia. Patogeneza obejmuje również deregulację sygnalizacji TGF-β, wynikającą z upośledzonej sekwestracji latentnego TGF-β przez fibrylinę-1, co prowadzi do nadaktywacji kaskad sygnałowych TGF-β (zarówno kanonicznej przez SMAD2/3, jak i niekanonicznej, np. ERK1/2). Nadmierna aktywność TGF-β indukuje stan zapalny, zwłóknienie oraz nadekspresję metaloproteinaz macierzy (MMP-2 i MMP-9), które degradują włókna elastyczne i nasilają przebudowę ściany aorty. Fenotyp kliniczny obejmuje zmiany oczne (przemieszczenie soczewki), deformacje szkieletowe oraz poważne powikłania sercowo-naczyniowe, w tym tętniaki i rozwarstwienia aorty.

Diagnostyka genetyczna wykazuje, że około 82-83% pacjentów spełniających kryteria Ghent ma mutacje w FBN1, które dzielą się na haploinsuficyjne (ok. 1/3) i dominujące negatywne (2/3). Mechanizm dominacji negatywnej wiąże się z polimeryzacją fibryliny-1 i zaburzeniem struktury mikrofibryli. Terapia standardowa obejmuje beta-blokery, które spowalniają progresję poszerzenia aorty, natomiast blokery receptora angiotensyny II (ARB), zwłaszcza losartan, wykazują dodatkowe korzyści poprzez hamowanie sygnalizacji TGF-β i redukcję ciśnienia tętniczego. Badania na modelach mysich potwierdzają skuteczność losartanu oraz przeciwciał neutralizujących TGF-β w zmniejszaniu szybkości progresji choroby. Obecne badania koncentrują się na dalszym poznaniu mechanizmów molekularnych, w tym roli szlaków mechanosygnałowych AngII/AT1R oraz stresu oksydacyjnego, co może prowadzić do nowych celów terapeutycznych w leczeniu sercowo-naczyniowych powikłań zespołu Marfana.

Patomechanizmy zespołu Marfana

Zespół Marfana jest chorobą tkanki łącznej dziedziczoną w sposób autosomalny dominujący o zmiennej penetracji, występującą z częstością 1 na 3000-5000 osób. Głównym genem odpowiedzialnym za rozwój tego schorzenia jest gen FBN1 zlokalizowany na chromosomie 15q21.1, kodujący fibryllinę-1 – glikoproteinę będącą kluczowym elementem macierzy pozakomórkowej.123 W ostatnich dekadach badania naukowe nie tylko zidentyfikowały locus genetyczny odpowiedzialny za tę chorobę, ale także zaczęły odkrywać molekularne mechanizmy patogenezy, co umożliwiło opracowanie racjonalnych strategii terapeutycznych dla osób dotkniętych tym schorzeniem.45

Fibrylina-1 – struktura i funkcja

Fibrylina-1 jest kluczowym elementem mikrofibryli w tkance łącznej. Strukturalnie każdy monomer fibryliny-1 zawiera liczne motywy podobne do naskórkowego czynnika wzrostu (EGF), które są ułożone w orientacji tandemowej.6 Monomery fibryliny mają zdolność do samoorganizacji w makroagregaty, które tworzą podstawową strukturę, na której syntetyzowane są dojrzałe włókna elastynowe.7 Fibrylina-1 jest niezbędna do prawidłowego formowania macierzy pozakomórkowej, w tym biogenezy i utrzymania włókien elastycznych.8

Białka fibryliny tworzą główną część tkanki łącznej, zapewniając wsparcie strukturalne i elastyczność naczyniom krwionośnym, skórze i kościom.910 Nieprawidłowości w fibrylinie mogą prowadzić do różnych objawów, w tym nieprawidłowości aorty (zwyrodnienie torbielowate błony środkowej), przemieszczenia soczewki (osłabienie strukturalne więzadeł soczewki) oraz deformacji szkieletowych.1112

Rola TGF-β w patogenezie

Oprócz kierowania elastogenezą i zapewniania integralności strukturalnej blaszek elastycznych, domeny 8-cys/TB fibryliny są zaangażowane w sekwestrację latentnego transformującego czynnika wzrostu beta (TGF-β).13 Gdy Dietz i współpracownicy zlokalizowali liczne mutacje w genie FBN1 w miejscach związanych z sekwestracją LLC (dużego kompleksu latentnego), wysunęli hipotezę, że nieprawidłowości fibryliny-1 obserwowane w zespole Marfana mogą prowadzić do zaburzeń sekwestracji latentnych kompleksów TGF-β i nasilonej sygnalizacji TGF-β.14

Fibrylina-1 bezpośrednio wiąże latentną formę TGF-β, utrzymując ją w stanie nieaktywnym i uniemożliwiając wywieranie jej aktywności biologicznej. Najprostszy model sugeruje, że zmniejszone poziomy fibryliny-1 pozwalają na wzrost poziomów TGF-β z powodu niewystarczającej sekwestracji.15 Badania na modelach mysich zespołu Marfana wykazały, że zmutowane fibryliny-1 interferują z lokalną sygnalizacją TGF-β, dodatkowo upośledzając integralność tkanek.16

Po dalszym działaniu proteolitycznym, LTBP (białko wiążące latentny TGF-β) uwalnia związany SLC (mały kompleks latentny), który następnie uwalnia aktywowane homodimery TGF-β, zdolne do wiązania i aktywacji szlaku sygnałowego TGF-β.17 Mutacje typu missense zidentyfikowane w genie FBN1 zmieniają interakcję między FBN1 a kompleksem TGF-β-LLC, powodując nieprawidłową sekwestrację latentnego TGF-β.18

Mechanizmy molekularne i szlaki sygnałowe

Patofizjologia poszerzenia aorty w zespole Marfana jest złożonym procesem. Fibrylina-1 reguluje biodostępność TGF-β, prowadząc do stanu zapalnego, zwłóknienia i aktywacji specyficznych metaloproteinaz macierzy (MMP), szczególnie MMP-2 i MMP-9.19 Osłabienie ściany aorty wynika ze zwiększonego uwalniania MMP, cytokin, chemokin, pochodnych prostaglandyn i fragmentów degradacji elastyny.20 Zespół Marfana jest więc spowodowany przebudową naczyniową w wyniku kombinacji zmian strukturalnych mikrofibryli, nadmiernej aktywności TGF-β i nadekspresji MMP-2 i MMP-9.21

Aktywowany TGFBR1 przekazuje sygnały poprzez promowanie fosforylacji motywu C-terminalnego Ser-Ser-X-Ser (SSXS) białka SMAD2/3.22 Nieprawidłowości FBN1 prowadzą do braku równowagi w aktywacji i transdukcji sygnału TGF-β.23 Ten wolny i aktywny TGF-β oddziałuje z receptorem TGF-β 2 na powierzchni komórki, który aktywuje receptor TGF-β 1 poprzez transfosforylację.24

Kanoniczna ścieżka sygnalizacji TGF-β przebiega przez receptor angiotensyny-1.25 Dalsze badania skupiające się na roli zwiększonego TGF-β koncentrują się zarówno na kanonicznej ścieżce sygnalizacyjnej (przez kaskadę SMAD2/3), jak i niekanonicznej (nie-SMAD) ścieżce (obejmującej ERK1/2 i inne mediatory).26

Zmiany patologiczne w tkankach

Początkowo uważano, że zespół Marfana jest spowodowany utratą integralności tkanki łącznej wtórnie do mutacji w FBN1, które prowadzą do nieprawidłowości w strukturze i funkcji mikrofibryli w macierzy pozakomórkowej.27 Mutacje w FBN1 zwiększają podatność fibryliny-1 na proteolizę, prowadząc do fragmentacji mikrofibryli, a tym samym dezorganizacji włókien elastycznych w błonie środkowej aorty, co jest histologicznym markerem zespołu Marfana znanym jako zwyrodnienie błony środkowej.28

To zwyrodnienie zwiększa sztywność aorty i zmniejsza elastyczność i rozszerzalność ściany aorty, zmiany które sprzyjają poszerzeniu aorty i rozwarstwieniu.29 Utrata mikrofibryli fibryliny-1 prowadzi do zmian fenotypowych w komórkach mięśni gładkich, które zmieniają się ze stanu spoczynkowego, kurczliwego do stanu proliferacyjnego z powodu zmian w ich programowaniu morfologicznym i syntetycznym.30

Te fenotypowo zmienione komórki mięśni gładkich zaczynają wydzielać różne składniki macierzy pozakomórkowej (kolagen, proteoglikany i elastynę), a także mediatory elastolizy, w tym metaloproteinazę (MMP)-2 i MMP-9.31 Degradacja fibryliny-1 i wynikające z tego pogorszenie stanu wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych warstw elastycznych ściany aorty sprzyjają chemotaksji makrofagów, z infiltracją komórek zapalnych do błony środkowej i zwiększoną lokalną aktywnością enzymów proteolitycznych, które intensyfikują elastolizę.32

Rola mutacji genetycznych

Zespół Marfana jest spowodowany mutacjami w genie FBN1 na chromosomie 15, który koduje fibryllinę-1, glikoproteinowy składnik macierzy pozakomórkowej.33 Genetycznie zespół Marfana jest dziedziczony w sposób autosomalny dominujący, co oznacza, że ​​osoby dotknięte chorobą mają 50% szans na przekazanie powodującej mutacji (a tym samym choroby) swoim dzieciom, niezależnie od płci.34

Warianty patogenne w FBN1 występują u około 82-83% pacjentów, którzy spełniają zrewidowane w 2010 roku kryteria Ghent dotyczące zespołu Marfana.35 Mutacje te można podzielić na dwie grupy: pierwsza obejmuje mutacje niedoboru haploinsuficjencji FBN1 (HI), które stanowią około jedną trzecią mutacji FBN1.36

Druga grupa obejmuje pozostałe dwie trzecie możliwych mutacji, które są dominujące i negatywne (DN), a mianowicie mutacje missense, mutacje miejsca splicingowego lub małe duplikacje/delecje prowadzące do zdarzeń odczytywania w ramce.37 Jednak efekt konkretnej mutacji można jedynie przewidzieć.38

Mechanizmy dominacji negatywnej i haploinsuficjencji

Mechanizm dominacji negatywnej w patologii zespołu Marfana jest atrakcyjną hipotezą w świetle polimeryzującej natury cząsteczek fibryliny-1 w mikrofibryle.39 Dziedziczenie dominujące tego zaburzenia sugeruje mechanizmy patogenezy molekularnej.40 Defekty fibryliny-1 są uważane za manifestujące się w dwóch ścieżkach: nieprawidłowa konstrukcja mikrofibryli bezpośrednio powodująca chorobę oraz zmieniona sygnalizacja cytokinowa wynikająca z deregulacji mikrofibryli tych cząsteczek.41

Poparcie dla hipotezy haploinsuficjencji jako mechanizmu w patogenezie zespołu Marfana pochodzi z odkrycia delecji FBN1 u pacjenta z wieloma cechami marfanoidalnymi.42 Dane te są najbardziej zgodne z modelem patogenetycznym, który zakłada zmniejszoną dawkę białka WT (wild-type), a nie obecność zmutowanego białka jako podstawę zaburzonego składania mikrofibrylowego.43

W badaniach na transgenicznych myszach z pojedynczą kopią zmutowanej fibryliny-1, podobną do tej znalezionej w ludzkim genie, ten szczep mysi odtwarza wiele cech choroby u ludzi i obiecuje dostarczyć wgląd w patogenezę choroby.44 Zmniejszenie poziomu normalnej fibryliny-1 powoduje chorobę związaną z zespołem Marfana u myszy.45

Mutacje w innych genach

Identyfikacja mutacji w TGFBR1 i TGFBR2 związanych z chorobami fenotypowo podobnymi do zespołu Marfana jest dalszym dowodem na udział nadmiernej aktywacji szlaku sygnałowego TGF-β w patogenezie zespołu Marfana.46 Znaczenie szlaku TGF-β zostało potwierdzone odkryciem podobnego zespołu Loeysa-Dietza obejmującego gen TGFBR2 na chromosomie 3, kodujący białko receptorowe TGF-β.47

Identyfikacja mutacji w TGFR2 u pacjentów z zespołem Marfana typu 2 (MFS2 mapowane w 3p24.2-p25) dostarczyła bezpośrednich dowodów na nieprawidłową sygnalizację TGF w patogenezie zespołu Marfana.48 Nieprawidłowości w TGFR1 i TGFR2 były również zgłaszane jako powodujące nowy zespół dominujący podobny do MFS1; był on związany z tętniakiem aorty i wrodzonymi anomaliami, w tym zespołem Loeysa-Dietza (LDS).49

Implikacje terapeutyczne

Zrozumienie roli TGF-β w patogenezie zespołu Marfana doprowadziło do rozwoju nowych strategii terapeutycznych. Stosowanie beta-blokerów jako terapii pierwszego rzutu u pacjentów z zespołem Marfana było uważane za standard opieki i oferowane wszystkim pacjentom z poszerzeniem korzenia aorty.50 Propranolol wykazano jako skuteczny w ochronie aorty przed pęknięciem również u myszy blotchy.51

Habashi i współpracownicy wypróbowali inną klasę leków przeciwnadciśnieniowych – blokery receptora angiotensyny-II (ARB), szczególnie losartan.52 Ważne odkrycia doprowadziły Habashi i wsp. do hipotezy, że leczenie myszy z zespołem Marfana losartanem może być korzystne zarówno ze względu na jego zdolność do obniżania ciśnienia krwi, jak i zdolność do tłumienia sygnalizacji TGF-β.53

Rola TGF-β w patofizjologii zespołu Marfana została utrwalona przez zastosowanie terapeutycznych inhibitorów konwertazy angiotensyny i blokerów receptora angiotensyny 2 (ARB), które jak udowodniono, zmniejszają aktywność TGF-β.54 Wczesne badania na mysim modelu zespołu Marfana wykazały przydatność przeciwciała neutralizującego TGF-β lub ARB losartanu w leczeniu choroby.55

Losartan wydaje się redukować szybkość poszerzania korzenia aorty (AoDR) w małej retrospektywnej kohorcie pacjentów pediatrycznych z ciężkim fenotypem MF oraz u dorosłych pacjentów z zespołem MF.56 Losartan, blokując AT1R, zmniejsza produkcję TGF-β i ciśnienie krwi, a także zwiększa odpowiedzi prozapalne, różnicowanie miofibroblastów i produkcję reaktywnych form tlenu (wszystkie procesy destrukcyjne pośredniczone przez AngII w ścianie aorty).57

Nowe kierunki terapeutyczne

Obecne hipotezy dotyczące patogenezy tętniaka aorty w zespole Marfana przywołują szlaki zależne od mechanosygnalizacji, takie jak AngII/AT1R, sprzężone z sygnalizacją dalszą TGF-β jako główny czynnik odpowiedzialny za progresję choroby.58 Niedawne dowody wskazują, że sygnalizacja tlenku azotu (NO) odgrywa ważną rolę w patofizjologii aorty w zespole Marfana.59

Dane z modeli mysich, jak i z kliniki wykazały, że stan zapalny i stres oksydacyjny odgrywają ważną rolę w patofizjologii zespołu Marfana.60 Pomimo kilku niepowodzeń, poszukiwanie nowych celów terapeutycznych w celu wyleczenia lub złagodzenia objawów sercowo-naczyniowych w zespole Marfana trwa.61

Kluczową rolą szlaku sygnałowego TGF-β w rozwoju fenotypu naczyniowego zespołu Marfana może wykazywać potencjalne geny docelowe wpływające na geny efektorowe dalszego szlaku, takie jak metaloproteinazy macierzy (MMP) i ich inhibitory (TIMP).62 Główną przyczyną powstawania tętniaków aorty w zespole Marfana jest degradacja włókien elastycznych i nadmierne wydzielanie metaloproteina-macierzy (MMP).63

Podsumowanie patogenezy

Klasyczne objawy oczne, szkieletowe, neurologiczne i sercowo-naczyniowe zespołu Marfana wynikają z kombinacji zarówno strukturalnej słabości fibryliny-1, jak i nieprawidłowej sygnalizacji TGF-β, co prowadzi do zróżnicowanych zmian w zależności od lokalnego środowiska i etapu rozwoju tkanek.64 Wyniki badań pośrednio wskazują na wzmożoną sygnalizację TGF-β jako podstawowy mechanizm leżący u podstaw mutacji FBN1.65

Fragmentacja i dezorganizacja włókien elastycznych, zwłóknienie z produkcją kolagenu, nagromadzenie bezpostaciowych składników macierzy i utrata jąder komórkowych łącznie przyczyniają się do powstania zwyrodnienia torbielowatego błony środkowej.66 Biologiczna rola pełniona przez mikrofibryle fibryliny jest zależna od tkanki i ma na celu nie tylko organizację architektury i naprawę tkanki, ale także sekwestrację różnych czynników wzrostu.67

W warunkach fizjologicznych zapalne enzymy proteolityczne i określone bodźce fizjologiczne mogą prowadzić do degradacji mikrofibryli, która jest odpowiedzialna za lokalną aktywację TGF-β.68 Przeciwnie, zmutowana fibrylina-1 w zespole Marfana powoduje fragmentację mikrofibryli odpowiedzialną za masowe uwalnianie TGF-β i późniejszą nadaktywację jego kaskad sygnałowych, co stanowi istotę patogenezy zespołu Marfana.69

Zespół Marfana jest więc spowodowany przez przebudowę naczyniową wynikającą z kombinacji zmian strukturalnych mikrofibryli, nadmiernej aktywności TGF-β i nadekspresji MMP-2 i MMP-9.70 Dalsza wiedza na temat patogenezy zespołu Marfana, szczególnie u ludzi, niewątpliwie doprowadzi do bardziej skutecznych metod leczenia medycznego w przyszłości.71

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  1. 10.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a systemic connective tissue disorder that is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with variable penetrance. […] In the past 30 years, research efforts have not only identified the genetic locus responsible but have begun to elucidate the molecular pathogenesis underlying this disorder, allowing for the development of seemingly rational therapeutic strategies for treating affected individuals. […] The primary gene defect in MFS lies on chromosome 15q21.1, within the coding region of the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1). […] Structurally, each Fibrillin-1 monomer contains multiple epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like motifs that are arranged in tandem orientation. […] Fibrillin monomers self-assemble into macroaggregates that form the basic structure on which mature elastin fibers are synthesized from tropoelastin subunits.
  • #2 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    One of the most common inherited disorders affecting connective tissue, Marfan syndrome (MFS), is an autosomal dominant condition with a reported incidence of 1 in 3000 to 5000 individuals. […] The defect is in the FBN1 gene of chromosome 15, which produces fibrillin, a connective tissue protein. […] The pathophysiology of aortic dilatation in MFS is a complicated process. Fibrillin-1 regulates TGF-beta bioavailability, leading to inflammation, fibrosis, and activation of specific matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), particularly MMP-2 and MMP-9. […] Aortic wall weakening is due to increased release of MMP, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandin derivatives, and elastic degradation fragments. […] MFS is, therefore, caused by vascular remodeling due to a combination of structural microfibril changes, excess TGF-beta, and overexpression of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
  • #3 Genetics of Marfan Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/946315-overview
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is an inherited connective tissue disorder noteworthy for its worldwide distribution, relatively high prevalence, and clinical variability. This autosomal dominant syndrome has pleiotropic manifestations involving primarily the ocular, cardiovascular, and skeletal systems. […] Classic MFS (MFS type 1, MFS1) has been considered a condition caused by the deficiency of a structural extracellular matrix protein, fibrillin-1; however, studies of Marfan mouse models and Marfan-related conditions have expanded our current understanding to a pathogenic model that involves dysregulation of cytokine-transforming growth factor beta (TGF) signaling. […] Marfan syndrome (MFS) results from heterozygous mutations in the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1; OMIM #134797), located on chromosome 15 at band q21.1 (15q21.1), which encodes for the glycoprotein fibrillin.
  • #4
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a systemic connective tissue disorder that is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with variable penetrance. […] In the past 30 years, research efforts have not only identified the genetic locus responsible but have begun to elucidate the molecular pathogenesis underlying this disorder, allowing for the development of seemingly rational therapeutic strategies for treating affected individuals. […] The primary gene defect in MFS lies on chromosome 15q21.1, within the coding region of the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1). […] Structurally, each Fibrillin-1 monomer contains multiple epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like motifs that are arranged in tandem orientation. […] Fibrillin monomers self-assemble into macroaggregates that form the basic structure on which mature elastin fibers are synthesized from tropoelastin subunits.
  • #5 Pathophysiology and Pathogenesis of Marfan Syndrome | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-80614-9_8
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a systemic connective tissue disorder that is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with variable penetrance. […] In the past 30 years, research efforts have not only identified the genetic locus responsible but have begun to elucidate the molecular pathogenesis underlying this disorder, allowing for the development of seemingly rational therapeutic strategies for treating affected individuals. […] In spite of these advancements, the cardiovascular complications still remain as the most life-threatening clinical manifestations. […] The present chapter will focus on the pathophysiology and clinical treatment of Marfan syndrome, providing an updated overview of the recent advancements in molecular genetics research and clinical trials, with an emphasis on how this information can focus future efforts toward finding better ways to detect, diagnose, and treat this devastating condition.
  • #6
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a systemic connective tissue disorder that is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with variable penetrance. […] In the past 30 years, research efforts have not only identified the genetic locus responsible but have begun to elucidate the molecular pathogenesis underlying this disorder, allowing for the development of seemingly rational therapeutic strategies for treating affected individuals. […] The primary gene defect in MFS lies on chromosome 15q21.1, within the coding region of the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1). […] Structurally, each Fibrillin-1 monomer contains multiple epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like motifs that are arranged in tandem orientation. […] Fibrillin monomers self-assemble into macroaggregates that form the basic structure on which mature elastin fibers are synthesized from tropoelastin subunits.
  • #7
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a systemic connective tissue disorder that is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with variable penetrance. […] In the past 30 years, research efforts have not only identified the genetic locus responsible but have begun to elucidate the molecular pathogenesis underlying this disorder, allowing for the development of seemingly rational therapeutic strategies for treating affected individuals. […] The primary gene defect in MFS lies on chromosome 15q21.1, within the coding region of the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1). […] Structurally, each Fibrillin-1 monomer contains multiple epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like motifs that are arranged in tandem orientation. […] Fibrillin monomers self-assemble into macroaggregates that form the basic structure on which mature elastin fibers are synthesized from tropoelastin subunits.
  • #8 Marfan syndrome – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marfan_syndrome
    Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin 1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Fibrillin-1 is essential for the proper formation of the extracellular matrix, including the biogenesis and maintenance of elastic fibers. The extracellular matrix is critical for both the structural integrity of connective tissue, but also serves as a reservoir for growth factors. […] A transgenic mouse has been created carrying a single copy of a mutant fibrillin-1, a mutation similar to that found in the human gene known to cause MFS. This mouse strain recapitulates many of the features of the human disease and promises to provide insights into the pathogenesis of the disease. Reducing the level of normal fibrillin 1 causes a Marfan-related disease in mice.
  • #9
    https://step1.medbullets.com/msk/113055/marfan-syndrome
    fibrillins form a major part of connective tissues and provide structural support and elasticity to blood vessels, skin, and bones […] abnormalities in fibrillin can result in […] aortic abnormalities (cystic medial necrosis) […] ectopic lens (structural weakness in ligaments of the lens) […] skeletal deformities
  • #10
    https://step2.medbullets.com/orthopedics/120522/marfan-syndrome
    fibrillins form a major part of connective tissues and provide structural support and elasticity to blood vessels, skin, and bones […] abnormalities in fibrillin can result in […] aortic abnormalities (cystic medial necrosis) […] ectopic lens (structural weakness in ligaments of the lens) […] skeletal deformities […] FBN1 gene is on chromosome 15 and encodes fibrillin-1, a glycoprotein that forms a protective sheath around elastin […] elastin is found in multiple parts of the body, including large arteries, skin, lungs, and ligaments.
  • #11
    https://step1.medbullets.com/msk/113055/marfan-syndrome
    fibrillins form a major part of connective tissues and provide structural support and elasticity to blood vessels, skin, and bones […] abnormalities in fibrillin can result in […] aortic abnormalities (cystic medial necrosis) […] ectopic lens (structural weakness in ligaments of the lens) […] skeletal deformities
  • #12
    https://step2.medbullets.com/orthopedics/120522/marfan-syndrome
    fibrillins form a major part of connective tissues and provide structural support and elasticity to blood vessels, skin, and bones […] abnormalities in fibrillin can result in […] aortic abnormalities (cystic medial necrosis) […] ectopic lens (structural weakness in ligaments of the lens) […] skeletal deformities […] FBN1 gene is on chromosome 15 and encodes fibrillin-1, a glycoprotein that forms a protective sheath around elastin […] elastin is found in multiple parts of the body, including large arteries, skin, lungs, and ligaments.
  • #13
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    In the aorta, it was suggested that this gave rise to a weakened vascular wall, prone to dilation and dissection; commonly observed in patients with MFS. […] In addition to directing elastogenesis and providing structural integrity to the elastic lamellae, the 8-cys/TB domains of fibrillin are involved in the sequestration of latent transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-). […] As a result, when Dietz and coworkers localized multiple mutations within the FBN1 gene to sites that were associated with sequestering the LLC, they hypothesized that fibrillin-1-dependent abnormalities observed in MFS may lead to impaired sequestration of latent TGF- complexes and enhanced TGF- signaling. […] Taken together, the missense mutations identified in the FBN1 gene, have been shown to alter the interaction between FBN1 and the TGF–LLC, resulting in aberrant sequestration of latent TGF-.
  • #14
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    In the aorta, it was suggested that this gave rise to a weakened vascular wall, prone to dilation and dissection; commonly observed in patients with MFS. […] In addition to directing elastogenesis and providing structural integrity to the elastic lamellae, the 8-cys/TB domains of fibrillin are involved in the sequestration of latent transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-). […] As a result, when Dietz and coworkers localized multiple mutations within the FBN1 gene to sites that were associated with sequestering the LLC, they hypothesized that fibrillin-1-dependent abnormalities observed in MFS may lead to impaired sequestration of latent TGF- complexes and enhanced TGF- signaling. […] Taken together, the missense mutations identified in the FBN1 gene, have been shown to alter the interaction between FBN1 and the TGF–LLC, resulting in aberrant sequestration of latent TGF-.
  • #15 Pathogenesis of Marfan Syndrome and its Diagnosis
    https://www.jcmedu.org/jcmedu-articles/pathogenesis-of-marfan-syndrome-and-its-diagnosis-95892.html
    Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin 1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Fibrillin-1 is essential for the proper formation of the extracellular matrix, including the biogenesis and maintenance of elastic fibers. […] Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) plays an important role in Marfan syndrome. Fibrillin-1 directly binds the latent form of TGF-β, keeping it sequestered and unable to exert its biological activity. The simplest model suggests that decreased levels of fibrillin-1 allow increased levels of TGF-β due to insufficient sequestration. […] The importance of the TGF-β pathway was confirmed by the discovery of a similar Loeys–Dietz syndrome involving the TGFβR2 gene on chromosome 3, a TGF-β receptor protein. Marfan syndrome has often been confused with Loeys-Dietz syndrome due to the considerable clinical overlap between the two pathologies.
  • #16 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    Marfan syndrome is an autosomal dominant connective tissue disease with an estimated incidence of 1 in 5000 individuals. In 90% of cases it is caused by mutations in the gene for fibrillin-1, the main constituent of extracellular microfibrils. […] Studies on animal models of Marfan syndrome have revealed that fibrillin-1 mutations interfere with local TGF- signaling, in addition to impairing tissue integrity. […] It was initially thought that MFS was caused by a loss of integrity of connective tissue secondary to mutations in FBN1 that lead to abnormalities in the structure and function of microfibrils in the extracellular matrix. […] Mutations in FBN1 increase the susceptibility of fibrillin-1 to proteolysis, leading to microfibril fragmentation and hence disorganization of elastic fibers in the tunica media of the aorta, a histological marker of MFS known as medial degeneration.
  • #17
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Upon further proteolytic action, LTBP releases the bound SLC, which subsequently releases activated homodimers of TGF- that are capable of binding and activating the TGF- signaling pathway. […] The use of -blockers as a first line therapy for MFS patients was considered standard of care and offered to all patients with aortic root dilatation. […] With this in mind, Habashi and coworkers tried another class antihypertensives; the angiotensin-II receptor blockers (ARBs), specifically losartan. […] These important discoveries led Habashi et al. to hypothesize that treating MFS mice with losartan may be advantageous both for its ability to lower systemic blood pressure and its ability to attenuate TGF- signaling. […] These results indirectly implicated enhanced TGF- signaling as the primary mechanism underlying FBN1 mutations. […] The classic ocular, skeletal, neurologic, and cardiovascular manifestations result from a combination of both fibrillin-1 structural weakness and abnormal TGF- signaling, which leads to pleiomorphic changes depending on the local environment and the stage of tissue development.
  • #18
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    In the aorta, it was suggested that this gave rise to a weakened vascular wall, prone to dilation and dissection; commonly observed in patients with MFS. […] In addition to directing elastogenesis and providing structural integrity to the elastic lamellae, the 8-cys/TB domains of fibrillin are involved in the sequestration of latent transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-). […] As a result, when Dietz and coworkers localized multiple mutations within the FBN1 gene to sites that were associated with sequestering the LLC, they hypothesized that fibrillin-1-dependent abnormalities observed in MFS may lead to impaired sequestration of latent TGF- complexes and enhanced TGF- signaling. […] Taken together, the missense mutations identified in the FBN1 gene, have been shown to alter the interaction between FBN1 and the TGF–LLC, resulting in aberrant sequestration of latent TGF-.
  • #19 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    One of the most common inherited disorders affecting connective tissue, Marfan syndrome (MFS), is an autosomal dominant condition with a reported incidence of 1 in 3000 to 5000 individuals. […] The defect is in the FBN1 gene of chromosome 15, which produces fibrillin, a connective tissue protein. […] The pathophysiology of aortic dilatation in MFS is a complicated process. Fibrillin-1 regulates TGF-beta bioavailability, leading to inflammation, fibrosis, and activation of specific matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), particularly MMP-2 and MMP-9. […] Aortic wall weakening is due to increased release of MMP, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandin derivatives, and elastic degradation fragments. […] MFS is, therefore, caused by vascular remodeling due to a combination of structural microfibril changes, excess TGF-beta, and overexpression of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
  • #20 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    One of the most common inherited disorders affecting connective tissue, Marfan syndrome (MFS), is an autosomal dominant condition with a reported incidence of 1 in 3000 to 5000 individuals. […] The defect is in the FBN1 gene of chromosome 15, which produces fibrillin, a connective tissue protein. […] The pathophysiology of aortic dilatation in MFS is a complicated process. Fibrillin-1 regulates TGF-beta bioavailability, leading to inflammation, fibrosis, and activation of specific matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), particularly MMP-2 and MMP-9. […] Aortic wall weakening is due to increased release of MMP, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandin derivatives, and elastic degradation fragments. […] MFS is, therefore, caused by vascular remodeling due to a combination of structural microfibril changes, excess TGF-beta, and overexpression of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
  • #21 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    One of the most common inherited disorders affecting connective tissue, Marfan syndrome (MFS), is an autosomal dominant condition with a reported incidence of 1 in 3000 to 5000 individuals. […] The defect is in the FBN1 gene of chromosome 15, which produces fibrillin, a connective tissue protein. […] The pathophysiology of aortic dilatation in MFS is a complicated process. Fibrillin-1 regulates TGF-beta bioavailability, leading to inflammation, fibrosis, and activation of specific matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), particularly MMP-2 and MMP-9. […] Aortic wall weakening is due to increased release of MMP, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandin derivatives, and elastic degradation fragments. […] MFS is, therefore, caused by vascular remodeling due to a combination of structural microfibril changes, excess TGF-beta, and overexpression of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
  • #22 The Molecular Genetics of Marfan Syndrome
    https://www.medsci.org/v18p2752.htm
    The activated TGFBR1 transmits signals through promoting the phosphorylation of a C-terminal Ser-Ser-X-Ser (SSXS) motif of SMAD2/3. […] Abnormalities of FBN1 lead to an imbalance in activation and signal transduction of TGF-. […] It is initially hypothesized that upregulation of the TGF- pathway promotes the occurrence of TAA in patients with MFS. […] The complex TGF- signaling induces a mixed synthetic-contractile phenotype in SMCs, hence altering the normal physiological structure of the aorta. […] Abnormalities of the TGF- pathway signaling is another important pathological mechanism by which aneurysms develop in patients with MFS. […] The up- and down-regulation of TGF- pathway signaling are both related to MFS, canonical and non-canonical signaling exert antagonistic effects and co-adjust the mechanism of development of aneurysms in MFS.
  • #23 The Molecular Genetics of Marfan Syndrome
    https://www.medsci.org/v18p2752.htm
    The activated TGFBR1 transmits signals through promoting the phosphorylation of a C-terminal Ser-Ser-X-Ser (SSXS) motif of SMAD2/3. […] Abnormalities of FBN1 lead to an imbalance in activation and signal transduction of TGF-. […] It is initially hypothesized that upregulation of the TGF- pathway promotes the occurrence of TAA in patients with MFS. […] The complex TGF- signaling induces a mixed synthetic-contractile phenotype in SMCs, hence altering the normal physiological structure of the aorta. […] Abnormalities of the TGF- pathway signaling is another important pathological mechanism by which aneurysms develop in patients with MFS. […] The up- and down-regulation of TGF- pathway signaling are both related to MFS, canonical and non-canonical signaling exert antagonistic effects and co-adjust the mechanism of development of aneurysms in MFS.
  • #24 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    Recent studies in animal models of MFS have shown that microfibrils have other physiological functions beyond their structural role, particularly in modulating transforming growth factor beta (TGF-) signaling. […] Mutations in FBN1 can lead to failure of matrix sequestration of the LLC and hence to activation of TGF-. […] This free and active TGF- interacts with TGF- receptor 2 on the cell surface, which activates TGF- receptor 1 by transphosphorylation. […] Identification of mutations in TGFBR1 and TGFBR2 associated with diseases that are phenotypically similar to MFS is further evidence of the contribution of excess activation of the TGF- signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of MFS.
  • #25 Etiology and pathogenesis of the Marfan syndrome: current understanding – Pyeritz- Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery
    https://www.annalscts.com/article/view/16414/16579
    The canonical pathway of TGF- signaling is through the angiotensin-1 receptor. […] Further studies focusing on the role of increased TGF- have focused on both the canonical signaling pathway (through the SMAD2/3 cascade) and noncanonical (non-SMAD) pathway (involving ERK1/2 and other mediators). […] Further understanding of the pathogenesis of MFS, especially in the human, will undoubtedly lead to more effective medical treatments in the future.
  • #26 Etiology and pathogenesis of the Marfan syndrome: current understanding – Pyeritz- Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery
    https://www.annalscts.com/article/view/16414/16579
    The canonical pathway of TGF- signaling is through the angiotensin-1 receptor. […] Further studies focusing on the role of increased TGF- have focused on both the canonical signaling pathway (through the SMAD2/3 cascade) and noncanonical (non-SMAD) pathway (involving ERK1/2 and other mediators). […] Further understanding of the pathogenesis of MFS, especially in the human, will undoubtedly lead to more effective medical treatments in the future.
  • #27 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    Marfan syndrome is an autosomal dominant connective tissue disease with an estimated incidence of 1 in 5000 individuals. In 90% of cases it is caused by mutations in the gene for fibrillin-1, the main constituent of extracellular microfibrils. […] Studies on animal models of Marfan syndrome have revealed that fibrillin-1 mutations interfere with local TGF- signaling, in addition to impairing tissue integrity. […] It was initially thought that MFS was caused by a loss of integrity of connective tissue secondary to mutations in FBN1 that lead to abnormalities in the structure and function of microfibrils in the extracellular matrix. […] Mutations in FBN1 increase the susceptibility of fibrillin-1 to proteolysis, leading to microfibril fragmentation and hence disorganization of elastic fibers in the tunica media of the aorta, a histological marker of MFS known as medial degeneration.
  • #28 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    Marfan syndrome is an autosomal dominant connective tissue disease with an estimated incidence of 1 in 5000 individuals. In 90% of cases it is caused by mutations in the gene for fibrillin-1, the main constituent of extracellular microfibrils. […] Studies on animal models of Marfan syndrome have revealed that fibrillin-1 mutations interfere with local TGF- signaling, in addition to impairing tissue integrity. […] It was initially thought that MFS was caused by a loss of integrity of connective tissue secondary to mutations in FBN1 that lead to abnormalities in the structure and function of microfibrils in the extracellular matrix. […] Mutations in FBN1 increase the susceptibility of fibrillin-1 to proteolysis, leading to microfibril fragmentation and hence disorganization of elastic fibers in the tunica media of the aorta, a histological marker of MFS known as medial degeneration.
  • #29 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    This degeneration increases aortic stiffness and reduces the elasticity and distensibility of the aortic wall, alterations that promote aortic dilatation and dissection. […] The loss of fibrillin-1 microfibrils leads to phenotypic alterations in smooth muscle cells, which change from a quiescent, contractile state to a proliferative state due to changes in their morphological and synthetic programming. […] These phentotypically altered smooth muscle cells begin to secrete various components of the extracellular matrix (collagen, proteoglycans and elastin) as well as mediators of elastolysis, including metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. […] The degradation of fibrillin-1 and resulting deterioration in the internal and external elastic layers of the aortic wall promote macrophage chemotaxis, with infiltration of inflammatory cells into the tunica media and heightened local activity of proteolytic enzymes that intensify elastolysis.
  • #30 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    This degeneration increases aortic stiffness and reduces the elasticity and distensibility of the aortic wall, alterations that promote aortic dilatation and dissection. […] The loss of fibrillin-1 microfibrils leads to phenotypic alterations in smooth muscle cells, which change from a quiescent, contractile state to a proliferative state due to changes in their morphological and synthetic programming. […] These phentotypically altered smooth muscle cells begin to secrete various components of the extracellular matrix (collagen, proteoglycans and elastin) as well as mediators of elastolysis, including metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. […] The degradation of fibrillin-1 and resulting deterioration in the internal and external elastic layers of the aortic wall promote macrophage chemotaxis, with infiltration of inflammatory cells into the tunica media and heightened local activity of proteolytic enzymes that intensify elastolysis.
  • #31 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    This degeneration increases aortic stiffness and reduces the elasticity and distensibility of the aortic wall, alterations that promote aortic dilatation and dissection. […] The loss of fibrillin-1 microfibrils leads to phenotypic alterations in smooth muscle cells, which change from a quiescent, contractile state to a proliferative state due to changes in their morphological and synthetic programming. […] These phentotypically altered smooth muscle cells begin to secrete various components of the extracellular matrix (collagen, proteoglycans and elastin) as well as mediators of elastolysis, including metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. […] The degradation of fibrillin-1 and resulting deterioration in the internal and external elastic layers of the aortic wall promote macrophage chemotaxis, with infiltration of inflammatory cells into the tunica media and heightened local activity of proteolytic enzymes that intensify elastolysis.
  • #32 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    This degeneration increases aortic stiffness and reduces the elasticity and distensibility of the aortic wall, alterations that promote aortic dilatation and dissection. […] The loss of fibrillin-1 microfibrils leads to phenotypic alterations in smooth muscle cells, which change from a quiescent, contractile state to a proliferative state due to changes in their morphological and synthetic programming. […] These phentotypically altered smooth muscle cells begin to secrete various components of the extracellular matrix (collagen, proteoglycans and elastin) as well as mediators of elastolysis, including metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. […] The degradation of fibrillin-1 and resulting deterioration in the internal and external elastic layers of the aortic wall promote macrophage chemotaxis, with infiltration of inflammatory cells into the tunica media and heightened local activity of proteolytic enzymes that intensify elastolysis.
  • #33 Marfan syndrome – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marfan_syndrome
    Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin 1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Fibrillin-1 is essential for the proper formation of the extracellular matrix, including the biogenesis and maintenance of elastic fibers. The extracellular matrix is critical for both the structural integrity of connective tissue, but also serves as a reservoir for growth factors. […] A transgenic mouse has been created carrying a single copy of a mutant fibrillin-1, a mutation similar to that found in the human gene known to cause MFS. This mouse strain recapitulates many of the features of the human disease and promises to provide insights into the pathogenesis of the disease. Reducing the level of normal fibrillin 1 causes a Marfan-related disease in mice.
  • #34 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a rare inherited autosomic disorder, which encompasses a variety of systemic manifestations caused by mutations in the Fibrillin-1 encoding gene (FBN1). […] The aim of this review is to summarize the latest MFS evidence regarding the definition, differences and similarities with other connective tissue pathologies with severe systemic phenotypes […] MFS is inherited in an autosomal dominant way; this means that affected individuals have a 50% chance of transmitting the causing mutation (and thus the disease) to their children, regardless of gender. […] Pathogenic variants in FBN1 are expected in about 82–83% of patients who meet the 2010 Ghent revised criteria for MFS. […] These mutations can be classified into two groups: the first one includes FBN1 haploinsufficiency mutations (HI), which represent about one-third of the FBN1 mutations
  • #35 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a rare inherited autosomic disorder, which encompasses a variety of systemic manifestations caused by mutations in the Fibrillin-1 encoding gene (FBN1). […] The aim of this review is to summarize the latest MFS evidence regarding the definition, differences and similarities with other connective tissue pathologies with severe systemic phenotypes […] MFS is inherited in an autosomal dominant way; this means that affected individuals have a 50% chance of transmitting the causing mutation (and thus the disease) to their children, regardless of gender. […] Pathogenic variants in FBN1 are expected in about 82–83% of patients who meet the 2010 Ghent revised criteria for MFS. […] These mutations can be classified into two groups: the first one includes FBN1 haploinsufficiency mutations (HI), which represent about one-third of the FBN1 mutations
  • #36 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a rare inherited autosomic disorder, which encompasses a variety of systemic manifestations caused by mutations in the Fibrillin-1 encoding gene (FBN1). […] The aim of this review is to summarize the latest MFS evidence regarding the definition, differences and similarities with other connective tissue pathologies with severe systemic phenotypes […] MFS is inherited in an autosomal dominant way; this means that affected individuals have a 50% chance of transmitting the causing mutation (and thus the disease) to their children, regardless of gender. […] Pathogenic variants in FBN1 are expected in about 82–83% of patients who meet the 2010 Ghent revised criteria for MFS. […] These mutations can be classified into two groups: the first one includes FBN1 haploinsufficiency mutations (HI), which represent about one-third of the FBN1 mutations
  • #37 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    The second group includes the other two-thirds of possible mutations, which are dominant and negative (DN), namely, missense mutations, splice site mutations, or small duplications/deletions leading to in-frame reading events. […] However, the effect of a specific mutation can only be predicted. […] The fragmentation and disorganization of elastic fibers, fibrosis with collagen production, accumulation of amorphus matrix components, and loss of cell nuclei collectively contribute to the onset of medial cystic necrosis. […] In the frame of studies on new biological targets potentially involved in the detrimental processes leading to the MFS aortic phenotype, we have recently shown a significant correlation between the expression levels of the extracellular matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inducer (EMMPRIN) and MFS thoracic aortic disease severity.
  • #38 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    The second group includes the other two-thirds of possible mutations, which are dominant and negative (DN), namely, missense mutations, splice site mutations, or small duplications/deletions leading to in-frame reading events. […] However, the effect of a specific mutation can only be predicted. […] The fragmentation and disorganization of elastic fibers, fibrosis with collagen production, accumulation of amorphus matrix components, and loss of cell nuclei collectively contribute to the onset of medial cystic necrosis. […] In the frame of studies on new biological targets potentially involved in the detrimental processes leading to the MFS aortic phenotype, we have recently shown a significant correlation between the expression levels of the extracellular matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inducer (EMMPRIN) and MFS thoracic aortic disease severity.
  • #39 Recent progress in genetics of Marfan syndrome and Marfan-associated disorders | Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg20071
    Marfan syndrome (MFS, OMIM #154700) is a hereditary connective tissue disorder, clinically presenting with cardinal features of skeletal, ocular, and cardiovascular systems. […] Recent studies manipulating mouse Fbn1 have provided new insights into the molecular pathogenesis of MFS. Dysregulation of transforming growth factor beta (TGF) signaling in lung, mitral valve and aortic tissues has been implicated in mouse models of MFS. […] This review focuses on the recent advances in the genetics of MFS and its associated conditions, including LoeysDietz syndrome, non-syndromic thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections, and ShprintzenGoldberg craniosynostosis syndrome. Abnormal transforming growth factor beta (TGF) signaling will be discussed as the core pathogenesis of MFS. […] The dominantnegative mechanism of mutant fibrillin-1 in MFS pathology is an attractive hypothesis in the light of the polymerizing nature of fibrillin-1 molecules into microfibrils.
  • #40 Marfan’s syndrome pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Marfan%27s_syndrome_pathophysiology
    The dominant negative inheritance of the disorder suggests mechanisms for molecular pathogenesis. […] Fibrillin-1 defects are thought to manifest in two pathways, abnormal construction of microfibrils directly causing disease and altered cytokine signaling resulting from microfibrilar misregulation of these molecules. […] Increased TGF- signaling is reflected by higher concentrations of the cytokine in both Marfan syndrome patients (6 fold increase in concentration) and mice with FBN1 mutations. […] Current efforts aim at identifying molecular events occurring downstream of TGF- signaling as possible therapeutic targets.
  • #41 Marfan’s syndrome pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Marfan%27s_syndrome_pathophysiology
    The dominant negative inheritance of the disorder suggests mechanisms for molecular pathogenesis. […] Fibrillin-1 defects are thought to manifest in two pathways, abnormal construction of microfibrils directly causing disease and altered cytokine signaling resulting from microfibrilar misregulation of these molecules. […] Increased TGF- signaling is reflected by higher concentrations of the cytokine in both Marfan syndrome patients (6 fold increase in concentration) and mice with FBN1 mutations. […] Current efforts aim at identifying molecular events occurring downstream of TGF- signaling as possible therapeutic targets.
  • #42 Recent progress in genetics of Marfan syndrome and Marfan-associated disorders | Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg20071
    Support for the haploinsufficiency hypothesis as a mechanism in MFS pathogenesis comes from the finding of an FBN1 deletion in a patient with a number of marfanoid characteristics. […] Recent genetic studies of MFS, both in mice and humans, revealed that TGF signaling is involved in the pathogenesis of MFS and related disorders. FBN1 abnormalities appear to be the major genetic cause of MFS, but not the only cause. […] Interaction between the affected structural ECM components and aberrant TGF signaling may coordinately determine MFS phenotypes.
  • #43
    https://www.jci.org/articles/view/20641
    Marfan syndrome is a connective tissue disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding fibrillin-1 (FBN1). A dominant-negative mechanism has been inferred based upon dominant inheritance, multimerization of monomers to form microfibrils, and the dramatic paucity of matrix-incorporated fibrillin-1 seen in heterozygous patient samples. […] These data are consistent with a model that invokes haploinsufficiency for WT fibrillin-1, rather than production of mutant protein, as the primary determinant of failed microfibrillar assembly. […] Taken together, these data are most consistent with a pathogenetic model that invokes reduced dosage of WT protein (rather than the presence of mutant protein) as the basis for impaired microfibrillar assembly. […] The current data suggest that in the presence of a normal complement of WT protein, the production of cysteine-substituted fibrillin-1 becomes less relevant or even irrelevant to the pathogenesis of disease. […] The novel insight that haploinsufficiency for WT protein can be a significant factor should prompt consideration of additional therapeutic strategies aimed at boosting protein expression.
  • #44 Marfan syndrome – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marfan_syndrome
    Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin 1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Fibrillin-1 is essential for the proper formation of the extracellular matrix, including the biogenesis and maintenance of elastic fibers. The extracellular matrix is critical for both the structural integrity of connective tissue, but also serves as a reservoir for growth factors. […] A transgenic mouse has been created carrying a single copy of a mutant fibrillin-1, a mutation similar to that found in the human gene known to cause MFS. This mouse strain recapitulates many of the features of the human disease and promises to provide insights into the pathogenesis of the disease. Reducing the level of normal fibrillin 1 causes a Marfan-related disease in mice.
  • #45 Marfan syndrome – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marfan_syndrome
    Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin 1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Fibrillin-1 is essential for the proper formation of the extracellular matrix, including the biogenesis and maintenance of elastic fibers. The extracellular matrix is critical for both the structural integrity of connective tissue, but also serves as a reservoir for growth factors. […] A transgenic mouse has been created carrying a single copy of a mutant fibrillin-1, a mutation similar to that found in the human gene known to cause MFS. This mouse strain recapitulates many of the features of the human disease and promises to provide insights into the pathogenesis of the disease. Reducing the level of normal fibrillin 1 causes a Marfan-related disease in mice.
  • #46 Marfan syndrome revisited: From genetics to clinical practice | Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia (English edition)
    https://revportcardiol.org/en-marfan-syndrome-revisited-from-genetics-avance-S217420492030115X
    Recent studies in animal models of MFS have shown that microfibrils have other physiological functions beyond their structural role, particularly in modulating transforming growth factor beta (TGF-) signaling. […] Mutations in FBN1 can lead to failure of matrix sequestration of the LLC and hence to activation of TGF-. […] This free and active TGF- interacts with TGF- receptor 2 on the cell surface, which activates TGF- receptor 1 by transphosphorylation. […] Identification of mutations in TGFBR1 and TGFBR2 associated with diseases that are phenotypically similar to MFS is further evidence of the contribution of excess activation of the TGF- signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of MFS.
  • #47 Pathogenesis of Marfan Syndrome and its Diagnosis
    https://www.jcmedu.org/jcmedu-articles/pathogenesis-of-marfan-syndrome-and-its-diagnosis-95892.html
    Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin 1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Fibrillin-1 is essential for the proper formation of the extracellular matrix, including the biogenesis and maintenance of elastic fibers. […] Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) plays an important role in Marfan syndrome. Fibrillin-1 directly binds the latent form of TGF-β, keeping it sequestered and unable to exert its biological activity. The simplest model suggests that decreased levels of fibrillin-1 allow increased levels of TGF-β due to insufficient sequestration. […] The importance of the TGF-β pathway was confirmed by the discovery of a similar Loeys–Dietz syndrome involving the TGFβR2 gene on chromosome 3, a TGF-β receptor protein. Marfan syndrome has often been confused with Loeys-Dietz syndrome due to the considerable clinical overlap between the two pathologies.
  • #48 Genetics of Marfan Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/946315-overview
    Abnormalities involving microfibrils weaken the aortic wall. Progressive aortic dilatation and eventual aortic dissection occur due to the tension caused by left ventricular ejection impulses. […] Studies have suggested that abnormalities in the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF)-signaling pathway may represent a common pathway for the development of the Marfan phenotype. […] The identification of mutations in TGFR2 in patients with MFS type 2 (MFS2 mapped at 3p24.2-p25) provided direct evidence of abnormal TGF signaling in the pathogenesis of MFS. […] Abnormalities in TGFR1 and TGFR2 were also reported to cause a new dominant syndrome similar to MFS1; it was associated with aortic aneurysm and congenital anomalies, including Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS). […] These results define a new group of Marfan syndromerelated connective tissue disorders, namely, TGF signalopathies, and include LDS1 and LDS2 (TGFR1 and TGFR2) and the SMAD3 and TGF2 disorders, with the latter two being classified as Loeys-Dietz-like (or as LDS3 and LDS4).
  • #49 Genetics of Marfan Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/946315-overview
    Abnormalities involving microfibrils weaken the aortic wall. Progressive aortic dilatation and eventual aortic dissection occur due to the tension caused by left ventricular ejection impulses. […] Studies have suggested that abnormalities in the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF)-signaling pathway may represent a common pathway for the development of the Marfan phenotype. […] The identification of mutations in TGFR2 in patients with MFS type 2 (MFS2 mapped at 3p24.2-p25) provided direct evidence of abnormal TGF signaling in the pathogenesis of MFS. […] Abnormalities in TGFR1 and TGFR2 were also reported to cause a new dominant syndrome similar to MFS1; it was associated with aortic aneurysm and congenital anomalies, including Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS). […] These results define a new group of Marfan syndromerelated connective tissue disorders, namely, TGF signalopathies, and include LDS1 and LDS2 (TGFR1 and TGFR2) and the SMAD3 and TGF2 disorders, with the latter two being classified as Loeys-Dietz-like (or as LDS3 and LDS4).
  • #50
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Upon further proteolytic action, LTBP releases the bound SLC, which subsequently releases activated homodimers of TGF- that are capable of binding and activating the TGF- signaling pathway. […] The use of -blockers as a first line therapy for MFS patients was considered standard of care and offered to all patients with aortic root dilatation. […] With this in mind, Habashi and coworkers tried another class antihypertensives; the angiotensin-II receptor blockers (ARBs), specifically losartan. […] These important discoveries led Habashi et al. to hypothesize that treating MFS mice with losartan may be advantageous both for its ability to lower systemic blood pressure and its ability to attenuate TGF- signaling. […] These results indirectly implicated enhanced TGF- signaling as the primary mechanism underlying FBN1 mutations. […] The classic ocular, skeletal, neurologic, and cardiovascular manifestations result from a combination of both fibrillin-1 structural weakness and abnormal TGF- signaling, which leads to pleiomorphic changes depending on the local environment and the stage of tissue development.
  • #51 Etiology and pathogenesis of the Marfan syndrome: current understanding – Pyeritz- Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery
    https://www.annalscts.com/article/view/16414/16579
    Much has changed regarding Marfan syndrome (MFS) over the past few decades. […] MFS is now one of a number of conditions recognized to be a disorder of abnormal signalling in the TGF- pathway. […] The so-called cystic medial necrosis of the dilated aortic wall was assumed to represent the on-going damage and the bodys attempt at repair. […] Eventually, the term medial degeneration emerged, even if the underlying injury-repair process remained accepted. […] Since hypertension was then a well-accepted association with acute aortic dissection in the general population, it made sense to control the blood pressure of people with MFS. […] Propranolol was shown to protect the aorta from rupture in the blotchy mouse as well. […] Fast forward to 1991 when a pediatric cardiology fellow, Hal Dietz, collaborated with me and other colleagues at Hopkins first, to precisely map the chromosomal locus of the Marfan gene, and second, to determine that the product of that gene (FBN1) was fibrillin-1, an intrinsic component of the extracellular microfibril, which, in turn, was present in all elastic fibers, was mutated.
  • #52
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Upon further proteolytic action, LTBP releases the bound SLC, which subsequently releases activated homodimers of TGF- that are capable of binding and activating the TGF- signaling pathway. […] The use of -blockers as a first line therapy for MFS patients was considered standard of care and offered to all patients with aortic root dilatation. […] With this in mind, Habashi and coworkers tried another class antihypertensives; the angiotensin-II receptor blockers (ARBs), specifically losartan. […] These important discoveries led Habashi et al. to hypothesize that treating MFS mice with losartan may be advantageous both for its ability to lower systemic blood pressure and its ability to attenuate TGF- signaling. […] These results indirectly implicated enhanced TGF- signaling as the primary mechanism underlying FBN1 mutations. […] The classic ocular, skeletal, neurologic, and cardiovascular manifestations result from a combination of both fibrillin-1 structural weakness and abnormal TGF- signaling, which leads to pleiomorphic changes depending on the local environment and the stage of tissue development.
  • #53
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Upon further proteolytic action, LTBP releases the bound SLC, which subsequently releases activated homodimers of TGF- that are capable of binding and activating the TGF- signaling pathway. […] The use of -blockers as a first line therapy for MFS patients was considered standard of care and offered to all patients with aortic root dilatation. […] With this in mind, Habashi and coworkers tried another class antihypertensives; the angiotensin-II receptor blockers (ARBs), specifically losartan. […] These important discoveries led Habashi et al. to hypothesize that treating MFS mice with losartan may be advantageous both for its ability to lower systemic blood pressure and its ability to attenuate TGF- signaling. […] These results indirectly implicated enhanced TGF- signaling as the primary mechanism underlying FBN1 mutations. […] The classic ocular, skeletal, neurologic, and cardiovascular manifestations result from a combination of both fibrillin-1 structural weakness and abnormal TGF- signaling, which leads to pleiomorphic changes depending on the local environment and the stage of tissue development.
  • #54 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    The role of TGF-beta in the pathophysiology of MFS has been solidified by the use of the therapeutic angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin 2 receptor blockers (ARBs), both proven to decrease TGF-beta activity. […] Early studies in a mouse model of MFS have shown the utility of a TGF-beta-neutralizing antibody or ARB losartan in treating the disease. […] Various conditions with pronounced clinical overlap with MFS are caused by primary mutations in genes encoding direct effectors or regulators of TGF-beta signaling, including Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) and Shprintzen-Goldberg syndrome (SGS).
  • #55 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    The role of TGF-beta in the pathophysiology of MFS has been solidified by the use of the therapeutic angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin 2 receptor blockers (ARBs), both proven to decrease TGF-beta activity. […] Early studies in a mouse model of MFS have shown the utility of a TGF-beta-neutralizing antibody or ARB losartan in treating the disease. […] Various conditions with pronounced clinical overlap with MFS are caused by primary mutations in genes encoding direct effectors or regulators of TGF-beta signaling, including Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) and Shprintzen-Goldberg syndrome (SGS).
  • #56 Marfan syndrome: current perspectives | TACG
    https://www.dovepress.com/marfan-syndrome-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TACG
    An ARB seems to lower the excessive activation of TGF- signaling in mice. […] Losartan seems to reduce aortic root dilatation rate (AoDR) in a small retrospective cohort of pediatric patients with a severe MF phenotype and in adult patients with MF syndrome. […] An explanation of this important difference may be the fact that a dominant negative FBN1 mutation (qualitative defect) may alter functions or foldings of the protein, affecting interactions with fibrillin 1 and/or other proteins, leading to a disorganized ECM. […] Noteworthy, plasma levels of TGF- turned out to be increased in MFS and related to TAADs. […] A recent article, based on analysis using new techniques, demonstrates that dominant negative FBN1 mutations among different fibrillinopathies, MFS, SSS, and acromelic dysplasias act through different mechanisms.
  • #57 Marfan syndrome: current perspectives | TACG
    https://www.dovepress.com/marfan-syndrome-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TACG
    A possible explanation is that the aortic wall, being thinner because of the decreased fibrillin matrix, may suffer from hypertension, which as a consequence, alone or with aortic stretch, may directly damage the aorta by activating angiotensin II (AngII) receptor type 1 (AT1R), which responds to the damage by producing TGF-. […] Local AngII has been associated with aneurysm formation. […] Losartan, by blocking AT1R, decreases TGF- production and blood pressure, as well as increases proinflammatory responses, myofibroblast differentiation, and production of reactive oxygen species (all AngII-mediated detrimental processes in the aortic wall). […] Current hypotheses on the pathogenesis of aortic aneurysm in MFS invoke mechanosignaling-dependent pathways, such as AngII/AT1R, coupled to downstream TGF- signaling as a major factor responsible for disease progression.
  • #58 Marfan syndrome: current perspectives | TACG
    https://www.dovepress.com/marfan-syndrome-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TACG
    A possible explanation is that the aortic wall, being thinner because of the decreased fibrillin matrix, may suffer from hypertension, which as a consequence, alone or with aortic stretch, may directly damage the aorta by activating angiotensin II (AngII) receptor type 1 (AT1R), which responds to the damage by producing TGF-. […] Local AngII has been associated with aneurysm formation. […] Losartan, by blocking AT1R, decreases TGF- production and blood pressure, as well as increases proinflammatory responses, myofibroblast differentiation, and production of reactive oxygen species (all AngII-mediated detrimental processes in the aortic wall). […] Current hypotheses on the pathogenesis of aortic aneurysm in MFS invoke mechanosignaling-dependent pathways, such as AngII/AT1R, coupled to downstream TGF- signaling as a major factor responsible for disease progression.
  • #59 Drug treatment strategies for Marfan syndrome | JEP
    https://www.dovepress.com/an-overview-of-investigational-and-experimental-drug-treatment-strateg-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JEP
    Based on these new insights, it has been proposed that the aortic aneurysm development in MFS is caused by altered regulation of TGF- signaling as a result of impaired sequestration by mutant fibrillin-1. […] Substantial evidence from both preclinical and clinical studies revealed the involvement of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in aortic aneurysm pathogenesis. […] Several lines of evidence have shown that aortic aneurysm development in MFS is correlated with increased expression of MMPs in the vascular wall. […] Recent evidence has emerged to implicate nitric oxide (NO) signaling in MFS aortic pathophysiology. […] Data from mouse models as well as from the clinic have shown that inflammation and oxidative stress play an important role in the pathophysiology of MFS. […] Despite several setbacks, the search for novel treatment targets to cure or to ameliorate cardiovascular manifestations in MFS continues.
  • #60 Drug treatment strategies for Marfan syndrome | JEP
    https://www.dovepress.com/an-overview-of-investigational-and-experimental-drug-treatment-strateg-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JEP
    Based on these new insights, it has been proposed that the aortic aneurysm development in MFS is caused by altered regulation of TGF- signaling as a result of impaired sequestration by mutant fibrillin-1. […] Substantial evidence from both preclinical and clinical studies revealed the involvement of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in aortic aneurysm pathogenesis. […] Several lines of evidence have shown that aortic aneurysm development in MFS is correlated with increased expression of MMPs in the vascular wall. […] Recent evidence has emerged to implicate nitric oxide (NO) signaling in MFS aortic pathophysiology. […] Data from mouse models as well as from the clinic have shown that inflammation and oxidative stress play an important role in the pathophysiology of MFS. […] Despite several setbacks, the search for novel treatment targets to cure or to ameliorate cardiovascular manifestations in MFS continues.
  • #61 Drug treatment strategies for Marfan syndrome | JEP
    https://www.dovepress.com/an-overview-of-investigational-and-experimental-drug-treatment-strateg-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JEP
    Based on these new insights, it has been proposed that the aortic aneurysm development in MFS is caused by altered regulation of TGF- signaling as a result of impaired sequestration by mutant fibrillin-1. […] Substantial evidence from both preclinical and clinical studies revealed the involvement of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in aortic aneurysm pathogenesis. […] Several lines of evidence have shown that aortic aneurysm development in MFS is correlated with increased expression of MMPs in the vascular wall. […] Recent evidence has emerged to implicate nitric oxide (NO) signaling in MFS aortic pathophysiology. […] Data from mouse models as well as from the clinic have shown that inflammation and oxidative stress play an important role in the pathophysiology of MFS. […] Despite several setbacks, the search for novel treatment targets to cure or to ameliorate cardiovascular manifestations in MFS continues.
  • #62 Translational Medicine: Towards Gene Therapy of Marfan Syndrome
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/14/3934
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is one of the most common inherited disorders of connective tissue caused by mutations of the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1). […] Gene therapy focuses on genetically modifying cells to produce a therapeutic effect and may be a promising treatment option for MFS. […] The TGF-β signalling pathway’s pivotal role in developing the MFS vascular phenotype may display potential target genes affecting downstream effector genes, such as Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (TIMPs). […] The leading cause of the formation of aortic aneurysms in Marfan syndrome is the degradation of elastic fibres and excessive secretion of matrix-metalloproteinases (MMPs). […] Targeting the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1) has previously been shown to offer a potential strategy for treating the vascular phenotype associated with Marfan syndrome.
  • #63 Translational Medicine: Towards Gene Therapy of Marfan Syndrome
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/14/3934
    Marfan syndrome (MFS) is one of the most common inherited disorders of connective tissue caused by mutations of the fibrillin-1 gene (FBN1). […] Gene therapy focuses on genetically modifying cells to produce a therapeutic effect and may be a promising treatment option for MFS. […] The TGF-β signalling pathway’s pivotal role in developing the MFS vascular phenotype may display potential target genes affecting downstream effector genes, such as Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (TIMPs). […] The leading cause of the formation of aortic aneurysms in Marfan syndrome is the degradation of elastic fibres and excessive secretion of matrix-metalloproteinases (MMPs). […] Targeting the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1) has previously been shown to offer a potential strategy for treating the vascular phenotype associated with Marfan syndrome.
  • #64
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Upon further proteolytic action, LTBP releases the bound SLC, which subsequently releases activated homodimers of TGF- that are capable of binding and activating the TGF- signaling pathway. […] The use of -blockers as a first line therapy for MFS patients was considered standard of care and offered to all patients with aortic root dilatation. […] With this in mind, Habashi and coworkers tried another class antihypertensives; the angiotensin-II receptor blockers (ARBs), specifically losartan. […] These important discoveries led Habashi et al. to hypothesize that treating MFS mice with losartan may be advantageous both for its ability to lower systemic blood pressure and its ability to attenuate TGF- signaling. […] These results indirectly implicated enhanced TGF- signaling as the primary mechanism underlying FBN1 mutations. […] The classic ocular, skeletal, neurologic, and cardiovascular manifestations result from a combination of both fibrillin-1 structural weakness and abnormal TGF- signaling, which leads to pleiomorphic changes depending on the local environment and the stage of tissue development.
  • #65
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8915437/
    Upon further proteolytic action, LTBP releases the bound SLC, which subsequently releases activated homodimers of TGF- that are capable of binding and activating the TGF- signaling pathway. […] The use of -blockers as a first line therapy for MFS patients was considered standard of care and offered to all patients with aortic root dilatation. […] With this in mind, Habashi and coworkers tried another class antihypertensives; the angiotensin-II receptor blockers (ARBs), specifically losartan. […] These important discoveries led Habashi et al. to hypothesize that treating MFS mice with losartan may be advantageous both for its ability to lower systemic blood pressure and its ability to attenuate TGF- signaling. […] These results indirectly implicated enhanced TGF- signaling as the primary mechanism underlying FBN1 mutations. […] The classic ocular, skeletal, neurologic, and cardiovascular manifestations result from a combination of both fibrillin-1 structural weakness and abnormal TGF- signaling, which leads to pleiomorphic changes depending on the local environment and the stage of tissue development.
  • #66 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    The second group includes the other two-thirds of possible mutations, which are dominant and negative (DN), namely, missense mutations, splice site mutations, or small duplications/deletions leading to in-frame reading events. […] However, the effect of a specific mutation can only be predicted. […] The fragmentation and disorganization of elastic fibers, fibrosis with collagen production, accumulation of amorphus matrix components, and loss of cell nuclei collectively contribute to the onset of medial cystic necrosis. […] In the frame of studies on new biological targets potentially involved in the detrimental processes leading to the MFS aortic phenotype, we have recently shown a significant correlation between the expression levels of the extracellular matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inducer (EMMPRIN) and MFS thoracic aortic disease severity.
  • #67 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    The biological role performed by fibrillin microfibrils is tissue-dependent and aims not only at tissue architecture organization and repair, but also at sequestering a variety of growth factors. […] Thus, fibrillin microfibrils are primary players as both ECM structural and biochemical regulators in physiological and pathological conditions. […] In physiological conditions, inflammatory proteolytic enzymes and the determined physiological stimuli can lead to microfibril degradation, which is responsible for local TGF-β activation. […] On the contrary, mutated Fibrillin-1 in MFS causes the fragmentation of microfibrils responsible for massive TGF-β release and the subsequent overactivation of its downstream signaling cascades, which represents the core of MFS pathogenesis.
  • #68 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    The biological role performed by fibrillin microfibrils is tissue-dependent and aims not only at tissue architecture organization and repair, but also at sequestering a variety of growth factors. […] Thus, fibrillin microfibrils are primary players as both ECM structural and biochemical regulators in physiological and pathological conditions. […] In physiological conditions, inflammatory proteolytic enzymes and the determined physiological stimuli can lead to microfibril degradation, which is responsible for local TGF-β activation. […] On the contrary, mutated Fibrillin-1 in MFS causes the fragmentation of microfibrils responsible for massive TGF-β release and the subsequent overactivation of its downstream signaling cascades, which represents the core of MFS pathogenesis.
  • #69 Marfan Syndrome: Enhanced Diagnostic Tools and Follow-up Management Strategies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/13/13/2284
    The biological role performed by fibrillin microfibrils is tissue-dependent and aims not only at tissue architecture organization and repair, but also at sequestering a variety of growth factors. […] Thus, fibrillin microfibrils are primary players as both ECM structural and biochemical regulators in physiological and pathological conditions. […] In physiological conditions, inflammatory proteolytic enzymes and the determined physiological stimuli can lead to microfibril degradation, which is responsible for local TGF-β activation. […] On the contrary, mutated Fibrillin-1 in MFS causes the fragmentation of microfibrils responsible for massive TGF-β release and the subsequent overactivation of its downstream signaling cascades, which represents the core of MFS pathogenesis.
  • #70 Marfan Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537339/
    One of the most common inherited disorders affecting connective tissue, Marfan syndrome (MFS), is an autosomal dominant condition with a reported incidence of 1 in 3000 to 5000 individuals. […] The defect is in the FBN1 gene of chromosome 15, which produces fibrillin, a connective tissue protein. […] The pathophysiology of aortic dilatation in MFS is a complicated process. Fibrillin-1 regulates TGF-beta bioavailability, leading to inflammation, fibrosis, and activation of specific matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), particularly MMP-2 and MMP-9. […] Aortic wall weakening is due to increased release of MMP, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandin derivatives, and elastic degradation fragments. […] MFS is, therefore, caused by vascular remodeling due to a combination of structural microfibril changes, excess TGF-beta, and overexpression of MMP-2 and MMP-9.
  • #71 Etiology and pathogenesis of the Marfan syndrome: current understanding – Pyeritz- Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery
    https://www.annalscts.com/article/view/16414/16579
    The canonical pathway of TGF- signaling is through the angiotensin-1 receptor. […] Further studies focusing on the role of increased TGF- have focused on both the canonical signaling pathway (through the SMAD2/3 cascade) and noncanonical (non-SMAD) pathway (involving ERK1/2 and other mediators). […] Further understanding of the pathogenesis of MFS, especially in the human, will undoubtedly lead to more effective medical treatments in the future.