Psychoza poporodowa
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Psychoza poporodowa (PP) to poważne zaburzenie psychiczne występujące u około 1-2 kobiet na 1000 porodów, zwykle w ciągu pierwszych kilku tygodni po porodzie. Patofizjologia PP jest wieloczynnikowa i obejmuje nagły spadek poziomu estrogenów, dysfunkcję układu odpornościowego z nadmierną aktywnością zapalną oraz genetyczne predyspozycje, w tym polimorfizmy w genie transportera serotoniny (SERT) i deficyt enzymu sulfatazy steroidowej (STS). Zaburzenia rytmu dobowego i brak snu, szczególnie u kobiet z zaburzeniem dwubiegunowym, stanowią dodatkowe czynniki ryzyka. Mechanizmy neurobiologiczne obejmują dysregulację układów serotoninergicznego, dopaminergicznego i GABA, co tłumaczy skuteczność leczenia przeciwpsychotycznego. Czynniki ryzyka to m.in. osobista lub rodzinna historia zaburzeń afektywnych, zwłaszcza zaburzenia dwubiegunowego, oraz przerwanie farmakoterapii w ciąży.

Patogeneza i mechanizm psychozy poporodowej

Psychoza poporodowa (PP) jest poważnym zaburzeniem psychicznym, które dotyka około 1-2 kobiet na 1000 porodów, zwykle w ciągu pierwszych kilku tygodni po porodzie. Mimo że jest to stosunkowo rzadkie zaburzenie, stanowi ono nagły przypadek psychiatryczny wymagający natychmiastowej interwencji medycznej. Pomimo prowadzonych od lat badań, mechanizmy patofizjologiczne leżące u podstaw tego schorzenia pozostają wciąż bardzo słabo zdefiniowane.12

Czasowa bliskość wystąpienia psychozy poporodowej w stosunku do porodu, jej wysoki wskaźnik nawrotów oraz względnie stabilna częstość występowania i charakter w różnych społeczeństwach i kulturach wskazują, że ryzyko tego schorzenia może być w znacznym stopniu uwarunkowane czynnikami biologicznymi.34

Czynniki hormonalne

Organizm matki przechodzi ekstremalne zmiany fizjologiczne w okresie poporodowym, zwłaszcza znaczny spadek krążących estrogenów po wydaleniu łożyska. Sugeruje się, że nieprawidłowa wrażliwość na to zaburzenie endokrynologiczne może powodować podatność na PP u niektórych kobiet. Ideę tę wspiera fakt, że suplementacja estrogenów może być korzystna dla niektórych pacjentek.56

Oś hormonów steroidowych była wielokrotnie wskazywana w patogenezie PP ze względu na nagły spadek poziomu estrogenu u matki po porodzie oraz podejrzewane ochronne działanie estrogenów przeciwko psychozie. Istnieje dobrze ustanowiony związek między poziomem estrogenu a funkcją serotoninergiczną.78

Hipoteza ochronnego działania estrogenu sugeruje, że estradiol wywołuje działanie przeciwpsychotyczne w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym poprzez różne mechanizmy, które nie są w pełni zrozumiane. Wcześniejsze hipotezy zakładały, że leczenie estradiolem może być korzystne jako leczenie wspomagające dla kobiet z psychozą w schizofrenii.910

Czynniki immunologiczne

Coraz więcej literatury wskazuje na dysfunkcję układu odpornościowego w zaburzeniach psychotycznych w ogóle, a w PP w szczególności, podczas gdy nieprawidłowości układu tarczycowego i inne choroby autoimmunologiczne były zgłaszane w niektórych przypadkach PP.11

Dysfunkcja immunologiczna jest możliwym wyzwalaczem psychozy poporodowej. Neurostan zapalny wpływa na szlaki serotoniny i melatoniny poprzez przekierowanie konwersji tryptofanu do kynureniny zamiast do serotoniny, co może zwiększyć ryzyko poporodowych zaburzeń nastroju.12

Dowody wskazujące, że ryzyko psychozy poporodowej zwiększa się przy pierwszej ciąży, w połączeniu z faktem, że sama ciąża wiąże się ze znacznymi i wysoce modulowanymi zmianami w funkcjonowaniu immunologicznym, sugerują, że psychoza poporodowa może być częściowo wyjaśniona przez dysfunkcję lub dysregulację systemów immunologicznych.13

Wyniki wielu ostatnich badań sugerowały, że u osób z PP ta końcowa faza zapalna jest przesadzona – potencjalnie częściowo w wyniku zmienionej aktywności lub liczby immunosupresyjnych regulatorowych komórek T (Tregs). Zwiększona immunoreaktywność może częściowo wyjaśniać związki między zakażeniem COVID-19 a oczywistą podatnością na psychozę w całym okresie życia, w tym w okresie poporodowym.14

Czynniki genetyczne

Silne dowody wskazują również na czynniki genetyczne w patofizjologii psychozy poporodowej. Zaburzenia nastroju (zarówno związane z porodem, jak i niezwiązane) wykazują silne powiązania genetyczne.1516

Badania nad genem kodującym transporter serotoniny dały dwie możliwości. Pierwsza to polimorfizm w intronie 2, który wpływa na podatność na psychozę poporodową u kobiet z co najmniej jednym wcześniejszym epizodem tego zespołu. Druga to związek psychozy poporodowej z allelem 10 5-HTTVNTR genu transportera serotoniny (SERT).17

Jeden z genów, gen STS kodujący enzym sulfatazę steroidową, został niedawno zaproponowany jako mechanizm psychozy poporodowej. Kodowany przez niego enzym bierze udział w rozszczepianiu grup siarczanowych ze steroidów, co pozwala na ich wykorzystanie jako prekursorów estrogenów i androgenów.18

U pacjentek z PP mechanizm rozszczepiania STS wydaje się być niewystarczający, co prowadzi do wielu efektów, w tym ryzyka stanu przedrzucawkowego, hiperaktywacji układu odpornościowego i nieprawidłowej odpowiedzi na stres związanej z osią podwzgórze-przysadka-nadnercza lub podwzgórze-przysadka-tarczyca.19

Mimo że ekspozycja na niekorzystne wydarzenia życiowe była tradycyjnie bardziej silnie powiązana z ryzykiem depresji poporodowej niż z ryzykiem PP, pojawiają się dowody sugerujące, że poważne maltretowanie w dzieciństwie, narażenie na częstsze stresujące wydarzenia życiowe oraz podwyższone poziomy związanych ze stresem cząsteczek kortyzolu i białka C-reaktywnego w późnej ciąży mogą przewidywać epizody PP u kobiet z grupy ryzyka.20

Zaburzenia rytmu dobowego

Zaburzenie rytmu dobowego zostało postulowane jako czynnik ryzyka, biorąc pod uwagę, jak psychoza i mania mogą być wywołane przez zaburzenia snu, które są powszechne u nowych matek.21

Brak snu i wahania hormonalne po porodzie, szczególnie szybko spadający poziom estrogenu, mogą również stanowić ryzyko. W jednym badaniu przeprowadzonym na kobietach z zaburzeniem dwubiegunowym, które rodziły, utrata snu wywołująca epizody manii była uważana za istotny marker do określenia predyspozycji do rozwoju psychozy poporodowej.2223

Zaburzenie snu w psychozie poporodowej jest potencjalnym czynnikiem etiologicznym, biorąc pod uwagę związek między hormonami płciowymi a rytmami dobowymi. Nie wiadomo, czy bezsenność poprzedza, czy następuje po wystąpieniu psychozy poporodowej. Utrata snu została zaproponowana jako końcowa wspólna ścieżka wielu czynników przyczynowych u podatnej kobiety w okresie poporodowym.24

Nieprawidłowości neuroprzekaźnictwa

Fakt, że PP często reaguje na leczenie przeciwpsychotyczne, wskazuje, że nieprawidłowa funkcja serotoninergiczna i/lub dopaminergiczna może odgrywać rolę w jej patogenezie.2526

Badania wykorzystujące biochemię kliniczną w dużej mierze badały poziomy aminokwasu tryptofanu i jego produktów metabolicznych (które działają jako prekursory w biosyntezie neuroprzekaźnika serotoniny).27

Inhibitory prolaktyny (agoniści receptora dopaminowego D2) mogą być również zaangażowane jako wyzwalacze psychozy poporodowej. Ta dysregulacja obwodów GABA może prowadzić do dysregulacji monoaminergicznej, która jest związana z psychozą.28

Badacze odkryli, że jednostka receptora GABA ulegała zauważalnym wahaniom podczas ciąży i po porodzie w mózgach samic myszy, co sugeruje, że może mieć kluczowe efekty behawioralne. „Nieprawidłowe funkcjonowanie podjednostki mogłoby upośledzić zdolność systemu GABA do adaptacji do wahań hormonalnych w okresie bardzo wrażliwym po porodzie” – wyjaśnia Maguire. „Celowanie w tę podjednostkę może być obiecującą strategią w opracowywaniu nowych metod leczenia depresji poporodowej.”29

Czynniki ryzyka psychozy poporodowej

Psychoza poporodowa ma złożone wieloczynnikowe pochodzenie. Czynniki ryzyka obejmują:3031

  • Historię zaburzenia dwubiegunowego
  • Historię psychozy poporodowej w poprzedniej ciąży
  • Rodzinną historię psychozy lub zaburzenia dwubiegunowego
  • Historię zaburzenia schizoafektywnego lub schizofrenii
  • Przerwanie stosowania leków psychiatrycznych podczas ciąży

32

Ogólna częstość występowania jest wyższa u pacjentek cierpiących na zaburzenia afektywne, takie jak zaburzenie dwubiegunowe I i II, a pierwsza ciąża z wcześniejszą rodzinną lub osobistą historią zaburzenia dwubiegunowego I jest uważana za pojedynczy najważniejszy czynnik ryzyka.33

Najsilniejszym pojedynczym czynnikiem ryzyka PP jest osobista historia zaburzeń dwubiegunowych, przy czym 20-30% położnic ze znanym zaburzeniem dwubiegunowym doświadcza PP.34

Związek między zaburzeniem dwubiegunowym a ryzykiem PP wydaje się niezwykle silny i stosunkowo specyficzny, ponieważ osobista historia dla innych zaburzeń ze spektrum nastroju-psychotycznego (np. schizofrenia, zaburzenie schizoafektywne) wydaje się zwiększać ryzyko PP u danej osoby jedynie nieznacznie (10-15% osób z zaburzeniami podobnymi do schizofrenii rozwija PP).35

Nowe kierunki badań

Proponowany został interesujący model ryzyka psychozy poporodowej, który obejmuje deficyt matczynego enzymu sulfatazy steroidowej i nadekspresję rodziny genów CCN, oparty na danych z niedawno opracowanego mysiego modelu zwierzęcego. Identyfikacja i charakterystyka biomarkerów predykcyjnych dla ryzyka psychozy poporodowej pomoże zapewnić szybką interwencję kliniczną, jeśli będzie to konieczne.36

Rodzina genów CCN koduje szereg wydzielanych białek związanych z macierzą pozakomórkową, które są wysoce eksprymowane w mózgu; upośledzona funkcja macierzy pozakomórkowej i późniejsze nieprawidłowe interakcje komórka-komórka ostatnio zwróciły uwagę jako możliwy mechanizm patofizjologiczny w wielu zaburzeniach nastroju.37

Zaproponowano, że wadliwe procesy (re)mielinizacji występujące w okresie okołoporodowym mogą leżeć u podstaw objawów PP i być związane z nieprawidłowym wydzielaniem białka czynnika 3 sieci komunikacji komórkowej przez Tregs.38

Nasze główne odkrycie to fakt, że kobiety zagrożone PP wykazują zmienioną statyczną i dynamiczną łączność w sieciach mózgowych związanych z zachowaniem ukierunkowanym na cel, w porównaniu do zdrowych kobiet. Znaleźliśmy również dowody na zaburzoną regulację emocji u kobiet zagrożonych PP, na co wskazuje ich zmniejszona modulacja zależna od emocji łączności funkcjonalnej sieci wykonawczej.39

Znaczenie kliniczne

Zrozumienie czynników biologicznych, które warunkują ryzyko PP, będzie ważne dla identyfikacji i charakterystyki nowych celów lekowych dla bardziej skutecznej, mniej toksycznej farmakoterapii.4041

Bardziej naglącym celem po zidentyfikowaniu biologicznych szlaków ryzyka będzie opisanie biomarkerów predykcyjnych, które mogą być używane do klasyfikowania osób zagrożonych tym schorzeniem we wczesnym okresie ciąży.42

Psychoza poporodowa zwykle ma nagły początek, ale jest krótką i ograniczoną chorobą, która szybko reaguje na leczenie. Po wykluczeniu przyczyn organicznych można rozpocząć podawanie leków kontrolujących ostrą psychozę. Obejmują one stabilizatory nastroju, atypowe leki przeciwpsychotyczne i leki przeciwpadaczkowe.4344

Elektrowstrząsy (ECT) są uznawane za środek leczenia o ogromnych korzyściach u pacjentów z psychozą związaną ze schizofrenią i zaburzeniem schizoafektywnym opornym na farmakoterapię przeciwpsychotyczną.4546

Dla kobiet z wcześniejszą historią psychozy poporodowej zaleca się profilaktykę litem o wysokim poziomie terapeutycznym (0,8 do 1 mmol/litr), aby zapobiec przyszłym epizodom.47

Pacjentki z historią zaburzenia dwubiegunowego stabilne na lekach stabilizujących nastrój przed ciążą, które przerywają przyjmowanie leków podczas ciąży, mają podwyższone ryzyko rozwoju nawrotu w okresie okołoporodowym lub poporodowym.48

Rokowanie

Psychoza poporodowa jest poważnym kryzysem psychicznym, który wymaga natychmiastowej pomocy medycznej. Chociaż uważana jest za nagły przypadek psychiatryczny, większość pacjentek reaguje na leczenie i wykazuje szybkie wyleczenie i remisję.49

Najbardziej nasilone objawy zwykle trwają od 2 do 12 tygodni, a całkowite wyleczenie może zająć od 6 do 12 miesięcy lub więcej.50

Przebycie jednego epizodu psychozy poporodowej predysponuje pacjentkę do kolejnego epizodu przy przyszłej ciąży. Chociaż istnieje około 1 na 2 szans, że będziesz miała kolejny epizod po przyszłej ciąży, powinna być w stanie szybko uzyskać pomoc przy odpowiedniej opiece, a ryzyko można zmniejszyć dzięki odpowiednim interwencjom.51

Kolejne rozdziały

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  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5491479/
    Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition which affects 1-2 of every 1000 mothers shortly after childbirth. […] the pathophysiological mechanisms remain extremely poorly defined. […] The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying risk for the condition are extremely poorly-defined, but may include perturbed immune function, altered tryptophan metabolism and serotonergic dysfunction. […] The maternal body undergoes extreme physiological changes in the postpartum period, notably a massive drop in circulating oestrogens upon expulsion of the placenta. […] The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function.
  • #2 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition which affects 1-2 of every 1000 mothers shortly after childbirth. […] Whilst there is convincing evidence that the condition is precipitated by a complex combination of biological and environmental factors, as yet the pathophysiological mechanisms remain extremely poorly defined. […] The temporal proximity of PP onset to childbirth, its high relapse rate, and its relatively stable prevalence and nature across societies and cultures, indicates that risk for the condition may be substantially influenced by biological factors. […] The maternal body undergoes extreme physiological changes in the postpartum period, notably a massive drop in circulating oestrogens upon expulsion of the placenta. […] It has been suggested that abnormal sensitivity to this endocrinological disturbance may confer vulnerability to PP in some women, an idea supported by the fact that oestrogen supplementation may be beneficial to some patients.
  • #3 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5491479/
    An increasing body of literature has implicated immune system dysfunction in psychotic disorders in general and in PP specifically. […] Although the epidemiology, risk/protective factors, and comorbid phenotypes associated with PP have been systematically investigated and several have been consistently replicated, the molecular, cellular and neural pathophysiology of the condition is currently very poorly understood. […] Understanding the biological factors that confer PP risk will be important for identifying and characterising novel drug targets for more efficacious, less toxic, pharmacotherapy. […] The temporal proximity of PP onset to childbirth, its high relapse rate, and its relatively stable prevalence and nature across societies and cultures, indicates that risk for the condition may be substantially influenced by biological factors.
  • #4 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition which affects 1-2 of every 1000 mothers shortly after childbirth. […] Whilst there is convincing evidence that the condition is precipitated by a complex combination of biological and environmental factors, as yet the pathophysiological mechanisms remain extremely poorly defined. […] The temporal proximity of PP onset to childbirth, its high relapse rate, and its relatively stable prevalence and nature across societies and cultures, indicates that risk for the condition may be substantially influenced by biological factors. […] The maternal body undergoes extreme physiological changes in the postpartum period, notably a massive drop in circulating oestrogens upon expulsion of the placenta. […] It has been suggested that abnormal sensitivity to this endocrinological disturbance may confer vulnerability to PP in some women, an idea supported by the fact that oestrogen supplementation may be beneficial to some patients.
  • #5 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5491479/
    Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition which affects 1-2 of every 1000 mothers shortly after childbirth. […] the pathophysiological mechanisms remain extremely poorly defined. […] The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying risk for the condition are extremely poorly-defined, but may include perturbed immune function, altered tryptophan metabolism and serotonergic dysfunction. […] The maternal body undergoes extreme physiological changes in the postpartum period, notably a massive drop in circulating oestrogens upon expulsion of the placenta. […] The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function.
  • #6 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition which affects 1-2 of every 1000 mothers shortly after childbirth. […] Whilst there is convincing evidence that the condition is precipitated by a complex combination of biological and environmental factors, as yet the pathophysiological mechanisms remain extremely poorly defined. […] The temporal proximity of PP onset to childbirth, its high relapse rate, and its relatively stable prevalence and nature across societies and cultures, indicates that risk for the condition may be substantially influenced by biological factors. […] The maternal body undergoes extreme physiological changes in the postpartum period, notably a massive drop in circulating oestrogens upon expulsion of the placenta. […] It has been suggested that abnormal sensitivity to this endocrinological disturbance may confer vulnerability to PP in some women, an idea supported by the fact that oestrogen supplementation may be beneficial to some patients.
  • #7 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5491479/
    The steroid hormone axis has repeatedly been implicated in the pathogenesis of PP given the sudden drop in circulating oestrogen levels in the mother following birth, and the suspected protective effects of oestrogens against psychosis. […] The new mouse model described above indicates, on the basis of analyses agnostic to gene function, that dysregulation of the CCN gene family arising downstream of dysfunction of the STS axis may be implicated in PP risk.
  • #8 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function. […] An increasing body of literature has implicated immune system dysfunction in psychotic disorders in general and in PP specifically, whilst thyroid system abnormalities and other autoimmune conditions have been reported in some cases of PP. […] Although the epidemiology, risk/protective factors, and comorbid phenotypes associated with PP have been systematically investigated and several have been consistently replicated, the molecular, cellular and neural pathophysiology of the condition is currently very poorly understood. […] Understanding the biological factors that confer PP risk will be important for identifying and characterising novel drug targets for more efficacious, less toxic, pharmacotherapy.
  • #9 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    Postpartum psychosis is an acute illness of multifactorial origin and is considered a psychiatric emergency. […] Postpartum psychosis has a complex multifactorial origin. Risk factors include a history of bipolar disorder, history of postpartum psychosis in a previous pregnancy, family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder, history of schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia, and discontinuation of psychiatric medications during pregnancy. […] Lack of sleep and hormonal fluctuations after birth, especially the rapidly falling levels of estrogen, may also pose a risk; previous postulations proposed that treatment with estradiol may be beneficial as an adjunctive treatment for women with psychosis in schizophrenia. […] In one study conducted on parous women with bipolar disorder, sleep loss triggering episodes of mania was considered to be an essential marker to determine predisposition to developing postpartum psychosis.
  • #10 Risk factors-related first episode postpartum psychosis among Egyptian women: the role of psychosocial and the biological factors | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text
    https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-023-00653-3
    The risks associated with postpartum psychosis (PP) are poorly recognized in Egyptian women. […] Young age, primiparity, low birth weight, cesarean delivery, a rapid drop in the estrogen level and thyroid dysfunction all could contribute to the occurrence of PP. […] Psychosocial stress and the biological stress system are well-established contributors to the pathogenesis of affective and non-affective psychoses that are unrelated to childbirth. […] It has long been hypothesized, although never proven, that hormones play an important role in the onset of PP. […] The estrogen-protection hypothesis proposes that estradiol mediates antipsychotic effects in the central nervous system through a different set of mechanisms that are not fully understood. […] Clinical thyroid dysfunction (transient) has also been identified in females suffering from PP, suggesting that it is an epiphenomenon of the normal physiological postpartum process in these women.
  • #11 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function. […] An increasing body of literature has implicated immune system dysfunction in psychotic disorders in general and in PP specifically, whilst thyroid system abnormalities and other autoimmune conditions have been reported in some cases of PP. […] Although the epidemiology, risk/protective factors, and comorbid phenotypes associated with PP have been systematically investigated and several have been consistently replicated, the molecular, cellular and neural pathophysiology of the condition is currently very poorly understood. […] Understanding the biological factors that confer PP risk will be important for identifying and characterising novel drug targets for more efficacious, less toxic, pharmacotherapy.
  • #12 Postpartum Psychosis – A Comprehensive Review
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/postpartum-psychosis-review/
    Immune dysregulation is a possible trigger of postpartum psychosis. […] Neuroinflammation affects serotonin and melatonin pathways by diverting the conversion of tryptophan to kynurenine rather than serotonin which can increase the risk of postpartum mood disorders. […] Mood disorders (both childbirth and non-childbirth related) have been shown to have a strong genetic association. […] The strongest single risk factor for PPP is a personal history of bipolar disorder, with 20-30% of parous women with known bipolar disorder experiencing PPP.
  • #13 Phenomenology, Epidemiology and Aetiology of Postpartum Psychosis: A Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/1/47
    The rapid onset of postpartum psychosis following parturition suggests that hormonal factors are potentially involved in the aetiology of this disorder. […] Evidence to indicate that risk of postpartum psychosis is increased with first pregnancy, combined with the fact that pregnancy itself is associated with considerable and highly modulated changes in immunological functioning suggests that postpartum psychosis may, in part, be explained by dysfunction or dysregulation of immunological systems. […] Strong evidence also implicates genetic factors in the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis. […] The likelihood of these individual studies representing true positives is low, demonstrating the need for genomewide association studies (GWAS) in this area.
  • #14 An Update on the Presentation, Nosology, and Causes of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/an-update-on-the-presentation-nosology-and-causes-of-postpartum-psychosis
    The results of multiple recent studies have suggested that in individuals with PP, this final inflammatory phase is exaggeratedpotentially, in part, as a consequence of altered activity, or number, of immunosuppressive regulatory T-cells (Tregs). […] Heightened immunoreactivity may partially explain links between COVID-19 infection and apparent vulnerability to psychosis across the lifespan, including in the postpartum period. […] The immediate postpartum period sees precipitous drops in circulating estrogen and progesterone levels in the new mother following expulsion of the placenta. […] It has been proposed that at-risk mothers are somehow especially biologically sensitive to estrogen and/or progesterone depletion. […] We have proposed that defective (re)myelination processes occurring in the perinatal period may underlie PP symptoms and be related to abnormal secretion of the cellular communication network factor 3 protein by Tregs.
  • #15 Postpartum Psychosis – A Comprehensive Review
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/postpartum-psychosis-review/
    Immune dysregulation is a possible trigger of postpartum psychosis. […] Neuroinflammation affects serotonin and melatonin pathways by diverting the conversion of tryptophan to kynurenine rather than serotonin which can increase the risk of postpartum mood disorders. […] Mood disorders (both childbirth and non-childbirth related) have been shown to have a strong genetic association. […] The strongest single risk factor for PPP is a personal history of bipolar disorder, with 20-30% of parous women with known bipolar disorder experiencing PPP.
  • #16 Phenomenology, Epidemiology and Aetiology of Postpartum Psychosis: A Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/1/47
    The rapid onset of postpartum psychosis following parturition suggests that hormonal factors are potentially involved in the aetiology of this disorder. […] Evidence to indicate that risk of postpartum psychosis is increased with first pregnancy, combined with the fact that pregnancy itself is associated with considerable and highly modulated changes in immunological functioning suggests that postpartum psychosis may, in part, be explained by dysfunction or dysregulation of immunological systems. […] Strong evidence also implicates genetic factors in the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis. […] The likelihood of these individual studies representing true positives is low, demonstrating the need for genomewide association studies (GWAS) in this area.
  • #17 Postpartum Psychosis: Updates and Clinical Issues
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/postpartum-psychosis-updates-and-clinical-issues
    Plausible candidate genes of interest include those for estrogen and progesterone receptors, dopamine and serotonin receptors, and enzymes involved in pathways of synthesis and catabolism of monoamines. […] The study of the gene that encodes the serotonin transporter has yielded 2 possibilities. The first is that polymorphism in intron 2 influences susceptibility to postpartum psychosis in women with at least one prior episode of the syndrome. The second is the association of postpartum psychosis with allele 10 of 5-HTTVNTR of the serotonin transporter (SERT) gene. […] Sleep disruption in postpartum psychosis is a potential etiological factor, given the relationship between gonadal steroids and circadian rhythms. It is unknown if insomnia precedes or follows the onset of postpartum psychosis. Sleep loss has been proposed as the final common pathway of multiple causal factors in a susceptible postpartum woman. […] Other recently reported potential etiologies include autoimmune thyroid dysfunction and immune system dysregulation.
  • #18 Identifying the Pathophysiology of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.mghp3.org/post/new-research-identifying-the-pathophysiology-of-postpartum-psychosis
    While the etiology of postpartum psychosis is still in question, efforts are underway to identify biological factors that contribute to risk for or the onset of the disorder. […] The results of these efforts have helped to uncover potential risk factors and propose pathophysiological mechanisms for PP, but there are drawbacks to each method, and none of the results have been able to definitively determine the cause of PP. […] Studies employing clinical biochemistry have largely looked at the levels of an amino acid, tryptophan, and its metabolic products (which act as precursors in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin). […] One gene, the STS gene encoding the enzyme steroid sulfatase, has recently been proposed as a mechanism for postpartum psychosis. The enzyme it encodes is involved in cleaving sulfate groups from steroids which allows them to be used as oestrogen and androgen precursors.
  • #19 Identifying the Pathophysiology of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.mghp3.org/post/new-research-identifying-the-pathophysiology-of-postpartum-psychosis
    In patients with PP, the cleaving mechanism of STS seems to be lacking which leads to multiple downstream effects including pre-eclampsia risk, immune system hyperactivation, and abnormal stress response related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal or hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axes. […] The implications of abnormal or mis-expression of the STS gene are still being investigated, but it does show promise as a candidate genetic risk factor.
  • #20 An Update on the Presentation, Nosology, and Causes of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/an-update-on-the-presentation-nosology-and-causes-of-postpartum-psychosis
    Additionally, in individuals with schizophrenia, PP manifests differently than it does in individuals with bipolar disorder. […] It is also noteworthy that, for around half of all cases of PP, the affected individual has no psychiatric history; the latest analysis indicates that in such women, psychotic experiences appear to be largely limited to the postpartum period, although around one-third of previously healthy women may subsequently exhibit recurrent symptoms consistent with a bipolar disorder spectrum condition. […] Numerous medical conditions may arise, or be exacerbated, in the perinatal period. […] Preeclampsia and autoimmune thyroid disorders frequently cooccur with postpartum psychiatric symptoms, including PP. […] Although exposure to adverse life events has traditionally been more strongly associated with postpartum depression risk than with PP risk, evidence is emerging to suggest that severe childhood maltreatment, exposure to more frequent stressful life events, and elevated levels of the stress-related molecules cortisol and C-reactive protein in late pregnancy may predict PP episodes in at-risk women.
  • #21 Postpartum Psychosis | Article | GLOWM
    https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-7–maternal-mental-health-in-pregnancy–postpartum-psychosis/id/411363
    An interesting hypothesis is that such changes, experienced by all women, may only lead to the development of postpartum psychosis in those who are genetically vulnerable. […] The strongest clinical risk factors are a history of bipolar disorder or previous postpartum psychosis. […] Circadian rhythm disruption has been postulated as a risk factor given how psychosis and mania can be triggered by sleep disruption, which is common in new mothers. […] Pregnancy and childbirth are associated with very large variations in the production and circulation of a number of hormones. […] It has been postulated that rather than abnormal levels of reproductive hormones, vulnerable women have an abnormal response to the variations in the levels of these hormones. […] Pregnancy and the postpartum are also characterized by a major immunological response, hence it has also been postulated that immune mechanisms may be linked to postpartum psychosis etiology.
  • #22 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    Postpartum psychosis is an acute illness of multifactorial origin and is considered a psychiatric emergency. […] Postpartum psychosis has a complex multifactorial origin. Risk factors include a history of bipolar disorder, history of postpartum psychosis in a previous pregnancy, family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder, history of schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia, and discontinuation of psychiatric medications during pregnancy. […] Lack of sleep and hormonal fluctuations after birth, especially the rapidly falling levels of estrogen, may also pose a risk; previous postulations proposed that treatment with estradiol may be beneficial as an adjunctive treatment for women with psychosis in schizophrenia. […] In one study conducted on parous women with bipolar disorder, sleep loss triggering episodes of mania was considered to be an essential marker to determine predisposition to developing postpartum psychosis.
  • #23 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    In one study conducted on parous women with bipolar disorder, sleep loss triggering episodes of mania was considered to be an essential marker to determine predisposition to developing postpartum psychosis. The conclusion was that women who reported sleep deprivation leading to manic episodes were twice as likely to have experienced an episode of postpartum psychosis at some point in their lives. […] Postpartum psychosis usually has a sudden onset but is a brief and limited illness that responds rapidly to treatment. […] Once organic causes have been ruled out, medications to control acute psychosis may be started. These include mood stabilizers, atypical antipsychotics, and antiepileptic drugs. […] Although prophylactic treatment for women with bipolar disorder throughout pregnancy is a recommendation for women at high risk of relapse, benefits and risks merit careful discussion.
  • #24 Postpartum Psychosis: Updates and Clinical Issues
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/postpartum-psychosis-updates-and-clinical-issues
    Plausible candidate genes of interest include those for estrogen and progesterone receptors, dopamine and serotonin receptors, and enzymes involved in pathways of synthesis and catabolism of monoamines. […] The study of the gene that encodes the serotonin transporter has yielded 2 possibilities. The first is that polymorphism in intron 2 influences susceptibility to postpartum psychosis in women with at least one prior episode of the syndrome. The second is the association of postpartum psychosis with allele 10 of 5-HTTVNTR of the serotonin transporter (SERT) gene. […] Sleep disruption in postpartum psychosis is a potential etiological factor, given the relationship between gonadal steroids and circadian rhythms. It is unknown if insomnia precedes or follows the onset of postpartum psychosis. Sleep loss has been proposed as the final common pathway of multiple causal factors in a susceptible postpartum woman. […] Other recently reported potential etiologies include autoimmune thyroid dysfunction and immune system dysregulation.
  • #25 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5491479/
    Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition which affects 1-2 of every 1000 mothers shortly after childbirth. […] the pathophysiological mechanisms remain extremely poorly defined. […] The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying risk for the condition are extremely poorly-defined, but may include perturbed immune function, altered tryptophan metabolism and serotonergic dysfunction. […] The maternal body undergoes extreme physiological changes in the postpartum period, notably a massive drop in circulating oestrogens upon expulsion of the placenta. […] The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function.
  • #26 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function. […] An increasing body of literature has implicated immune system dysfunction in psychotic disorders in general and in PP specifically, whilst thyroid system abnormalities and other autoimmune conditions have been reported in some cases of PP. […] Although the epidemiology, risk/protective factors, and comorbid phenotypes associated with PP have been systematically investigated and several have been consistently replicated, the molecular, cellular and neural pathophysiology of the condition is currently very poorly understood. […] Understanding the biological factors that confer PP risk will be important for identifying and characterising novel drug targets for more efficacious, less toxic, pharmacotherapy.
  • #27 Identifying the Pathophysiology of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.mghp3.org/post/new-research-identifying-the-pathophysiology-of-postpartum-psychosis
    While the etiology of postpartum psychosis is still in question, efforts are underway to identify biological factors that contribute to risk for or the onset of the disorder. […] The results of these efforts have helped to uncover potential risk factors and propose pathophysiological mechanisms for PP, but there are drawbacks to each method, and none of the results have been able to definitively determine the cause of PP. […] Studies employing clinical biochemistry have largely looked at the levels of an amino acid, tryptophan, and its metabolic products (which act as precursors in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin). […] One gene, the STS gene encoding the enzyme steroid sulfatase, has recently been proposed as a mechanism for postpartum psychosis. The enzyme it encodes is involved in cleaving sulfate groups from steroids which allows them to be used as oestrogen and androgen precursors.
  • #28 Postpartum Psychosis – A Comprehensive Review
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/postpartum-psychosis-review/
    The exact mechanisms involved in postpartum psychosis remain poorly understood. […] So far, neurobiological factors such as hormones, immunological dysregulation, circadian rhythm disruption and genetics have all been implicated in the pathogenesis of PPP. […] The aetiology of postpartum psychosis is unique in that it takes place within a specific timeframe. This is invaluable in helping clinicians and researchers accurately predict the complex, yet specific biological, social and psychological triggers, preceding its onset. These triggers include: […] Hormonal Factors […] Prolactin inhibitors (dopamine D2 receptor agonists) may also be implicated as triggers for postpartum psychosis. […] This dysregulation of GABA circuits can lead to monoaminergic dysregulation, which is associated with psychosis.
  • #29 Mechanism For Postpartum Depression Found In Mice | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080730140613.htm
    Researchers have pinpointed a mechanism in the brains of mice that could explain why some human mothers become depressed following childbirth. […] The new research also points to a specific potential new target in the brain for medications to treat this disorder that affects 15 percent of women after they give birth. […] Evidence suggested that the hormones exert their effects on mood through the brain’s major inhibitory chemical messenger system, called GABA, which dampens neural activity, helping to regulate when a neuron fires. […] Mody and Maguire discovered that a GABA receptor subunit fluctuated conspicuously during pregnancy and postpartum in the brains of female mice, hinting that it might have pivotal behavioral effects. […] „Improper functioning of the subunit could impair the GABA system’s ability to adapt to hormone fluctuations during the highly vulnerable post partum period,” explained Maguire. „Targeting this subunit might be a promising strategy in developing new treatments for postpartum depression.”
  • #30 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    Postpartum psychosis is an acute illness of multifactorial origin and is considered a psychiatric emergency. […] Postpartum psychosis has a complex multifactorial origin. Risk factors include a history of bipolar disorder, history of postpartum psychosis in a previous pregnancy, family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder, history of schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia, and discontinuation of psychiatric medications during pregnancy. […] Lack of sleep and hormonal fluctuations after birth, especially the rapidly falling levels of estrogen, may also pose a risk; previous postulations proposed that treatment with estradiol may be beneficial as an adjunctive treatment for women with psychosis in schizophrenia. […] In one study conducted on parous women with bipolar disorder, sleep loss triggering episodes of mania was considered to be an essential marker to determine predisposition to developing postpartum psychosis.
  • #31 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    Postpartum psychosis has a complex multifactorial origin. Risk factors include a history of bipolar disorder, history of postpartum psychosis in a previous pregnancy, family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder, history of schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia, and discontinuation of psychiatric medications during pregnancy. The overall prevalence is higher in patients suffering from affective disorders like bipolar one, two, and first-time pregnancy with a previous family or personal history of bipolar one disorder is considered the single most important risk factor. […] Lack of sleep and hormonal fluctuations after birth, especially the rapidly falling levels of estrogen, may also pose a risk; previous postulations proposed that treatment with estradiol may be beneficial as an adjunctive treatment for women with psychosis in schizophrenia.
  • #32 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    Postpartum psychosis is an acute illness of multifactorial origin and is considered a psychiatric emergency. […] Postpartum psychosis has a complex multifactorial origin. Risk factors include a history of bipolar disorder, history of postpartum psychosis in a previous pregnancy, family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder, history of schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia, and discontinuation of psychiatric medications during pregnancy. […] Lack of sleep and hormonal fluctuations after birth, especially the rapidly falling levels of estrogen, may also pose a risk; previous postulations proposed that treatment with estradiol may be beneficial as an adjunctive treatment for women with psychosis in schizophrenia. […] In one study conducted on parous women with bipolar disorder, sleep loss triggering episodes of mania was considered to be an essential marker to determine predisposition to developing postpartum psychosis.
  • #33 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    Postpartum psychosis has a complex multifactorial origin. Risk factors include a history of bipolar disorder, history of postpartum psychosis in a previous pregnancy, family history of psychosis or bipolar disorder, history of schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia, and discontinuation of psychiatric medications during pregnancy. The overall prevalence is higher in patients suffering from affective disorders like bipolar one, two, and first-time pregnancy with a previous family or personal history of bipolar one disorder is considered the single most important risk factor. […] Lack of sleep and hormonal fluctuations after birth, especially the rapidly falling levels of estrogen, may also pose a risk; previous postulations proposed that treatment with estradiol may be beneficial as an adjunctive treatment for women with psychosis in schizophrenia.
  • #34 Postpartum Psychosis – A Comprehensive Review
    https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/postpartum-psychosis-review/
    Immune dysregulation is a possible trigger of postpartum psychosis. […] Neuroinflammation affects serotonin and melatonin pathways by diverting the conversion of tryptophan to kynurenine rather than serotonin which can increase the risk of postpartum mood disorders. […] Mood disorders (both childbirth and non-childbirth related) have been shown to have a strong genetic association. […] The strongest single risk factor for PPP is a personal history of bipolar disorder, with 20-30% of parous women with known bipolar disorder experiencing PPP.
  • #35 An Update on the Presentation, Nosology, and Causes of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/an-update-on-the-presentation-nosology-and-causes-of-postpartum-psychosis
    The condition is regarded as a psychiatric emergency and is associated with an increased risk of maternal suicide and infanticide. […] However, with prompt medical intervention and enduring psychiatric and psychosocial support, the acute symptoms and long-term consequences associated with PP can generally be managed effectively. […] Pharmacotherapeutic options for PP include antipsychotic, mood stabilizer, or sedative administration; in more extreme cases, electroconvulsive therapy may be advisable. […] Some of the teratogenic effects of effective drugs, such as the mood stabilizer lithium, appear to be less insidious than previously suspected, particularly if treatment regimens are appropriately titrated. […] The relationship between bipolar disorder and PP risk appears remarkably strong and relatively specific, in that personal history for other mood-psychotic spectrum conditions (eg, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder) appears to raise an individual’s PP risk only modestly (10% to 15% of individuals with schizophrenia-like disorders develop PP).
  • #36 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/coretip/v7/i2/77.htm
    Core tip: Postpartum psychosis is a severe psychiatric condition affecting a small proportion of women shortly after childbirth. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying risk for the condition are extremely poorly-defined, but may include perturbed immune function, altered tryptophan metabolism and serotonergic dysfunction. Here, I critically review evidence underlying these assumptions, and discuss a novel model for postpartum psychosis risk, involving maternal deficiency for the enzyme steroid sulfatase, and overexpression of the CCN gene family, based upon emerging data from a recently-developed mouse animal model. Identifying and characterising predictive biomarkers for postpartum psychosis risk will help to ensure prompt clinical intervention if required.
  • #37 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    A more pressing aim once biological risk pathways have been identified will be to describe predictive biomarkers which may be used to classify individuals at risk of the condition early in their pregnancy. […] I have previously proposed, based upon numerous lines of clinical and basic scientific evidence, that maternal deficiency for the enzyme steroid sulfatase, encoded by the X-linked STS gene, may represent one candidate risk mechanism for PP. […] The steroid hormone axis has repeatedly been implicated in the pathogenesis of PP given the sudden drop in circulating oestrogen levels in the mother following birth, and the suspected protective effects of oestrogens against psychosis. […] The CCN gene family encodes a number of secreted extracellular matrix-associated proteins that are highly-expressed in the brain; impaired function of the extracellular matrix, and the subsequent abnormal cell-cell interactions, have recently received attention as a possible pathophysiological mechanism in a number of mood disorders. […] This model may be updated and refined as new data emerge from avenues including larger genomic screens, hypothesis-free gene expression screens in model systems, and physiological measurements in patients with PP.
  • #38 An Update on the Presentation, Nosology, and Causes of Postpartum Psychosis
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/an-update-on-the-presentation-nosology-and-causes-of-postpartum-psychosis
    The results of multiple recent studies have suggested that in individuals with PP, this final inflammatory phase is exaggeratedpotentially, in part, as a consequence of altered activity, or number, of immunosuppressive regulatory T-cells (Tregs). […] Heightened immunoreactivity may partially explain links between COVID-19 infection and apparent vulnerability to psychosis across the lifespan, including in the postpartum period. […] The immediate postpartum period sees precipitous drops in circulating estrogen and progesterone levels in the new mother following expulsion of the placenta. […] It has been proposed that at-risk mothers are somehow especially biologically sensitive to estrogen and/or progesterone depletion. […] We have proposed that defective (re)myelination processes occurring in the perinatal period may underlie PP symptoms and be related to abnormal secretion of the cellular communication network factor 3 protein by Tregs.
  • #39 Altered dynamics of the prefrontal networks are associated with the risk for postpartum psychosis: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-021-01351-5
    We also find evidence of an impaired emotional regulation in women at risk of PP, as indicated by their reduced emotional-dependent modulation of functional connectivity of the executive network, which correlated with longer reaction time to the presentation of negative emotional stimuli. […] This increased fear-dependent connectivity in the women who develop a postpartum relapse may indicate the presence of an aberrant network function in the triple network model described earlier, and which has been implicated in psychosis. […] In summary, in women at risk of PP, an altered response to estrogen levels could lead to a disruption in dopamine signalling which, if not compensated through the modulation of the executive network function, would result in an overactive salience network mediating the onset of symptoms in the postpartum.
  • #40 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5491479/
    An increasing body of literature has implicated immune system dysfunction in psychotic disorders in general and in PP specifically. […] Although the epidemiology, risk/protective factors, and comorbid phenotypes associated with PP have been systematically investigated and several have been consistently replicated, the molecular, cellular and neural pathophysiology of the condition is currently very poorly understood. […] Understanding the biological factors that confer PP risk will be important for identifying and characterising novel drug targets for more efficacious, less toxic, pharmacotherapy. […] The temporal proximity of PP onset to childbirth, its high relapse rate, and its relatively stable prevalence and nature across societies and cultures, indicates that risk for the condition may be substantially influenced by biological factors.
  • #41 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    The fact that PP is often responsive to antipsychotic treatment indicates that abnormal serotonergic and/or dopaminergic function may play a role in its pathogenesis; there is a well-established link between oestrogen levels and serotonergic function. […] An increasing body of literature has implicated immune system dysfunction in psychotic disorders in general and in PP specifically, whilst thyroid system abnormalities and other autoimmune conditions have been reported in some cases of PP. […] Although the epidemiology, risk/protective factors, and comorbid phenotypes associated with PP have been systematically investigated and several have been consistently replicated, the molecular, cellular and neural pathophysiology of the condition is currently very poorly understood. […] Understanding the biological factors that confer PP risk will be important for identifying and characterising novel drug targets for more efficacious, less toxic, pharmacotherapy.
  • #42 Understanding the pathophysiology of postpartum psychosis: Challenges and new approaches
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v7/i2/77.htm
    A more pressing aim once biological risk pathways have been identified will be to describe predictive biomarkers which may be used to classify individuals at risk of the condition early in their pregnancy. […] I have previously proposed, based upon numerous lines of clinical and basic scientific evidence, that maternal deficiency for the enzyme steroid sulfatase, encoded by the X-linked STS gene, may represent one candidate risk mechanism for PP. […] The steroid hormone axis has repeatedly been implicated in the pathogenesis of PP given the sudden drop in circulating oestrogen levels in the mother following birth, and the suspected protective effects of oestrogens against psychosis. […] The CCN gene family encodes a number of secreted extracellular matrix-associated proteins that are highly-expressed in the brain; impaired function of the extracellular matrix, and the subsequent abnormal cell-cell interactions, have recently received attention as a possible pathophysiological mechanism in a number of mood disorders. […] This model may be updated and refined as new data emerge from avenues including larger genomic screens, hypothesis-free gene expression screens in model systems, and physiological measurements in patients with PP.
  • #43 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    With an estimated global prevalence of 0.089 to 2.6 per 1000 births, postpartum psychosis classifies as an illness with a low incidence rate. […] Postpartum psychosis usually has a sudden onset but is a brief and limited illness that responds rapidly to treatment. […] Once organic causes have been ruled out, medications to control acute psychosis may be started. These include mood stabilizers, atypical antipsychotics, and antiepileptic drugs. […] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recognized as a means of treatment with a tremendous benefit in patients with psychosis related to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder refractory to antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. […] Postpartum psychosis is a severe mental crisis that warrants immediate medical attention. Although considered a psychiatric emergency, most patients respond to treatment and demonstrate fast recovery and remission. […] Having one episode of postpartum psychosis predisposes the patient to another episode with a future pregnancy.
  • #44 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    In one study conducted on parous women with bipolar disorder, sleep loss triggering episodes of mania was considered to be an essential marker to determine predisposition to developing postpartum psychosis. The conclusion was that women who reported sleep deprivation leading to manic episodes were twice as likely to have experienced an episode of postpartum psychosis at some point in their lives. […] Postpartum psychosis usually has a sudden onset but is a brief and limited illness that responds rapidly to treatment. […] Once organic causes have been ruled out, medications to control acute psychosis may be started. These include mood stabilizers, atypical antipsychotics, and antiepileptic drugs. […] Although prophylactic treatment for women with bipolar disorder throughout pregnancy is a recommendation for women at high risk of relapse, benefits and risks merit careful discussion.
  • #45 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    With an estimated global prevalence of 0.089 to 2.6 per 1000 births, postpartum psychosis classifies as an illness with a low incidence rate. […] Postpartum psychosis usually has a sudden onset but is a brief and limited illness that responds rapidly to treatment. […] Once organic causes have been ruled out, medications to control acute psychosis may be started. These include mood stabilizers, atypical antipsychotics, and antiepileptic drugs. […] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recognized as a means of treatment with a tremendous benefit in patients with psychosis related to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder refractory to antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. […] Postpartum psychosis is a severe mental crisis that warrants immediate medical attention. Although considered a psychiatric emergency, most patients respond to treatment and demonstrate fast recovery and remission. […] Having one episode of postpartum psychosis predisposes the patient to another episode with a future pregnancy.
  • #46 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    For women with a previous history of postpartum psychosis, the recommendation is high therapeutic target level lithium prophylaxis (zero points eight to one mmol/liter) to prevent future episodes. […] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recognized as a means of treatment with a tremendous benefit in patients with psychosis related to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder refractory to antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. […] Patients with a history of bipolar disorder stable on mood stabilizer medications before pregnancy who discontinue medications during pregnancy have an elevated risk of developing a relapse in the perinatal or postnatal period.
  • #47 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    For women with a previous history of postpartum psychosis, the recommendation is high therapeutic target level lithium prophylaxis (zero points eight to one mmol/liter) to prevent future episodes. […] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recognized as a means of treatment with a tremendous benefit in patients with psychosis related to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder refractory to antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. […] Patients with a history of bipolar disorder stable on mood stabilizer medications before pregnancy who discontinue medications during pregnancy have an elevated risk of developing a relapse in the perinatal or postnatal period.
  • #48 Postpartum Psychosis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27548
    For women with a previous history of postpartum psychosis, the recommendation is high therapeutic target level lithium prophylaxis (zero points eight to one mmol/liter) to prevent future episodes. […] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recognized as a means of treatment with a tremendous benefit in patients with psychosis related to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder refractory to antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. […] Patients with a history of bipolar disorder stable on mood stabilizer medications before pregnancy who discontinue medications during pregnancy have an elevated risk of developing a relapse in the perinatal or postnatal period.
  • #49 Postpartum Psychosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544304/
    With an estimated global prevalence of 0.089 to 2.6 per 1000 births, postpartum psychosis classifies as an illness with a low incidence rate. […] Postpartum psychosis usually has a sudden onset but is a brief and limited illness that responds rapidly to treatment. […] Once organic causes have been ruled out, medications to control acute psychosis may be started. These include mood stabilizers, atypical antipsychotics, and antiepileptic drugs. […] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recognized as a means of treatment with a tremendous benefit in patients with psychosis related to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder refractory to antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. […] Postpartum psychosis is a severe mental crisis that warrants immediate medical attention. Although considered a psychiatric emergency, most patients respond to treatment and demonstrate fast recovery and remission. […] Having one episode of postpartum psychosis predisposes the patient to another episode with a future pregnancy.
  • #50 Postpartum psychosis – NHS
    https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-partum-psychosis/
    Postpartum psychosis is a serious mental health illness that can affect someone soon after having a baby. […] It can get worse rapidly and the illness can risk the safety of the mother and baby. […] It’s not clear what causes postpartum psychosis, but you’re more at risk if you already have a diagnosis of bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. […] If you’re at high risk of developing postpartum psychosis, you should have specialist care during or before pregnancy and be seen by a perinatal psychiatrist. […] The most severe symptoms tend to last 2 to 12 weeks, and it can take 6 to 12 months or more to recover completely from the condition. […] Although there is about a 1 in 2 chance you will have another episode after a future pregnancy, you should be able to get help quickly with the right care and the risks can be reduced with appropriate interventions.
  • #51 Postpartum psychosis – NHS
    https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-partum-psychosis/
    Postpartum psychosis is a serious mental health illness that can affect someone soon after having a baby. […] It can get worse rapidly and the illness can risk the safety of the mother and baby. […] It’s not clear what causes postpartum psychosis, but you’re more at risk if you already have a diagnosis of bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. […] If you’re at high risk of developing postpartum psychosis, you should have specialist care during or before pregnancy and be seen by a perinatal psychiatrist. […] The most severe symptoms tend to last 2 to 12 weeks, and it can take 6 to 12 months or more to recover completely from the condition. […] Although there is about a 1 in 2 chance you will have another episode after a future pregnancy, you should be able to get help quickly with the right care and the risks can be reduced with appropriate interventions.