Zakażenie mrsa
Rokowania, prognozy i postęp choroby

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) stanowi istotny czynnik etiologiczny zakażeń szpitalnych (HA-MRSA) i pozaszpitalnych (CA-MRSA), charakteryzując się wysoką śmiertelnością, szczególnie w przypadku bakteriemii, gdzie wskaźnik śmiertelności wynosi od 20% do 50%. W ciągu roku od rozpoznania zakażenia MRSA w społeczności umiera 21,8% pacjentów, co jest znacząco wyższe niż 5,0% w grupie bez MRSA (skorygowany HR 4,1; 95% CI: 3,5-4,7). Wiek jest kluczowym czynnikiem ryzyka, z 30-dniową śmiertelnością rosnącą z 6,9% u osób <65 lat do 33,2% u pacjentów >80 lat. Inne niezależne predyktory śmiertelności w bakteriemii MRSA to wiek ≥70 lat (HR 1,88), wcześniejsza choroba śmiertelna (HR 2,16), wynik w skali Pitta ≥1 (HR 3,45), źródło wysokiego ryzyka (HR 1,85) oraz nieodpowiednie początkowe leczenie (HR 1,39). Dodatkowo, czynniki takie jak hipoalbuminemia, obecność cewnika moczowego, choroby współistniejące (np. choroby serca, nowotwory), oraz rozwój ciężkiej sepsy znacząco zwiększają ryzyko zgonu. Usunięcie ognisk zakażenia stanowi istotny czynnik ochronny (OR 0,51; 95% CI: 0,40-0,63). Utrzymująca się gorączka powyżej 72 godzin jest silnym predyktorem 90-dniowej śmiertelności, przewyższającym CRP i liczbę leukocytów, co podkreśla konieczność dokładnej oceny źródła infekcji i optymalizacji terapii przeciwdrobnoustrojowej.

Wprowadzenie do zakażenia MRSA

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), w języku polskim określany jako metycylinooporny gronkowiec złocisty lub zakażenie MRSA, stanowi jeden z głównych czynników etiologicznych infekcji zarówno szpitalnych (HA-MRSA), jak i pozaszpitalnych (CA-MRSA). Od lat 60. XX wieku, MRSA rozprzestrzenił się na całym świecie, stając się wiodącą przyczyną zakażeń bakteryjnych w placówkach opieki zdrowotnej oraz w środowisku pozaszpitalnym.1 Manifestacje kliniczne zakażeń MRSA mogą obejmować bezobjawową kolonizację błony śluzowej nosa, łagodne zakażenia skóry i tkanek miękkich, aż po inwazyjne choroby o wysokiej śmiertelności.2 MRSA jest drugą wiodącą przyczyną zgonów z powodu bakterii opornych na antybiotyki globalnie, z ponad 100 000 przypisywanych zgonów rocznie.3

Wskaźniki śmiertelności w zakażeniach MRSA

Zakażenia MRSA diagnozowane w społeczności są związane z istotną śmiertelnością w ciągu roku od rozpoznania. Badania wykazały, że w ciągu 1 roku 21,8% pacjentów z MRSA umiera, w porównaniu z 5,0% pacjentów bez MRSA. Ryzyko zgonu jest zwiększone u pacjentów z rozpoznaniem MRSA w społeczności (skorygowany współczynnik ryzyka 4,1; 95% przedział ufności: 3,5-4,7).45 Ten czterokrotny wzrost śmiertelności utrzymywał się w kilku analizach wrażliwości i nie może być całkowicie wyjaśniony przez współistniejące choroby, ponieważ uwzględniono główne czynniki ryzyka zgonu.6

Współczynnik śmiertelności MRSA zależy od lokalizacji infekcji. W przypadku bakteriemii MRSA – jednej z poważniejszych postaci – współczynnik śmiertelności wynosi między 20% a 50%.7 W jednym z badań zaobserwowano ogólną śmiertelność w 179 (32%) epizodach bakteriemii MRSA.8

Wpływ wieku na śmiertelność

Wskaźniki śmiertelności z powodu MRSA mają tendencję do bycia najwyższymi u osób starszych. Badania wykazały, że 30-dniowy współczynnik śmiertelności wzrasta wraz z wiekiem:9

  • poniżej 65 lat: 6,9%
  • 65 do 80 lat: 10,8%
  • powyżej 80 lat: 33,2%

10

Inne badanie wykazało ogólny współczynnik śmiertelności wynoszący 41,9%. Gdy wskaźniki śmiertelności podzielono według wieku, uczestnicy powyżej 60 roku życia mieli zauważalnie wyższy współczynnik śmiertelności (49%) niż ci poniżej 60 roku życia (32,4%). Wskazuje to jednoznacznie, że wskaźniki śmiertelności były najwyższe w najstarszych grupach wiekowych, szczególnie u osób w wieku 85 lat i starszych. Również osoby w wieku między 75 a 84 lata miały wysokie wskaźniki śmiertelności.11

Czynniki predykcyjne śmiertelności w zakażeniach MRSA

Analiza regresji Coxa zidentyfikowała kilka niezależnych czynników predykcyjnych śmiertelności w bakteriemii MRSA:12

  • wiek ≥70 lat (HR 1,88)
  • wcześniejsza choroba śmiertelna (HR 2,16)
  • wynik w skali Pitta ≥1 (HR 3,45)
  • źródło wysokiego ryzyka (HR 1,85)
  • nieodpowiednie początkowe leczenie (HR 1,39)

13

Badania pokazują również, że śmiertelność związana z bakteriemią MRSA pozostaje wysoka, pomimo zmian w epidemiologii.14

Dodatkowe czynniki ryzyka śmiertelności

Poza wiekiem, zidentyfikowano kilka innych czynników przyczyniających się do śmiertelności z powodu MRSA:15

Badanie z 2023 roku wykazało, że oprócz starszego wieku, dodatkowymi czynnikami ryzyka 30-dniowej śmiertelności z powodu bakteriemii MRSA były:16

Starsze badanie z 2017 roku zidentyfikowało czynniki ryzyka 30-dniowej śmiertelności z powodu bakteriemii MRSA, które obejmowały:17

  • większą liczbę chorób współistniejących
  • choroby serca
  • choroby neurologiczne
  • nowotwory
  • zamieszkiwanie w domu opieki

Co ciekawe, niektóre dowody sugerują, że nawet samo nosicielstwo MRSA w nosie bez objawów może zwiększać ryzyko śmiertelności, choć dokładna przyczyna tego zjawiska jest nieznana i wymaga dodatkowych badań.18

Czynniki związane z wyższą śmiertelnością – metaanaliza

Metaanaliza wykazała, że czynniki związane z wyższą śmiertelnością to:19

20

Natomiast usunięcie możliwych do wyeliminowania ognisk zakażenia stanowiło czynnik ochronny (OR: 0,51, 95% CI: 0,40-0,63). Średni wynik APACHE II w momencie rozpoznania bakteriemii MRSA był znacznie wyższy u pacjentów, którzy nie przeżyli, niż u tych, którzy przeżyli [ważona średnia różnica (WMD): 5,81, 95% CI: 3,03-8,59].21

Stan pacjenta, odpowiedni czas leczenia przeciwdrobnoustrojowego, interwencja chirurgiczna i ciężkość choroby oceniona według skali APACHE II są najważniejszymi czynnikami ryzyka zgonu u pacjentów z zakażeniami krwi MRSA.22 Ustalenia te mogą pomóc lekarzom przewidywać wyniki u pacjentów, szczególnie otrzymujących opiekę paliatywną, z zakażeniami krwi MRSA i pomóc w poprawie postępowania z tymi pacjentami.23

Markery prognostyczne w bakteriemii MRSA

Utrzymująca się gorączka jako kluczowy predyktor śmiertelności

Analiza post hoc randomizowanego badania klinicznego CAMERA2 zidentyfikowała utrzymującą się gorączkę po 72 godzinach jako kluczowy predyktor zwiększonej śmiertelności u pacjentów z bakteriemią MRSA.24 Gorączka trwająca ponad 72 godziny jest silniejszym predyktorem 90-dniowej śmiertelności u pacjentów z bakteriemią MRSA niż CRP i liczba leukocytów. Utrzymująca się gorączka sugeruje nierozwiązane infekcje lub trwające problemy z kontrolą źródła, co czyni ją bardziej specyficznym i wiarygodnym markerem niż CRP czy liczba leukocytów.25

Wyniki badania podkreślają znaczenie oceny utrzymującej się gorączki u pacjentów z bakteriemią MRSA. Gorączka utrzymująca się ponad 72 godziny nie powinna być pomijana i powinna skłonić klinicystów do przeprowadzenia dokładnego badania w kierunku nierozwiązanych źródeł infekcji.26

Ostatecznie, badanie podkreśla potrzebę udoskonalenia narzędzi oceny ryzyka dla bakteriemii MRSA. Gorączka powinna być priorytetowym klinicznym markerem, podczas gdy należy badać dodatkowe biomarkery w celu poprawy stratyfikacji pacjentów i kierowania decyzjami dotyczącymi leczenia.27

Modele uczenia głębokiego w prognozowaniu zakażeń MRSA

MRSA powoduje znaczną zachorowalność i śmiertelność w szpitalach. Szybka, dokładna stratyfikacja ryzyka MRSA jest kluczowa dla optymalizacji terapii antybiotykowej.28 Zaawansowane modele uczenia głębokiego wykazały lepszą wydajność w porównaniu do innych modeli uczenia maszynowego w rzeczywistych zbiorach danych MHHS i MIMIC-IV.29

Modele te skutecznie stratyfikują pacjentów na kategorie wysokiego, średniego i niskiego ryzyka, potencjalnie optymalizując terapię przeciwdrobnoustrojową i zmniejszając niepotrzebne stosowanie leków przeciw MRSA. Podkreśla to przewagę modeli uczenia głębokiego w przewidywaniu dodatnich hodowli MRSA, przewyższając tradycyjne modele uczenia maszynowego i wspierając oceny klinicystów.30

Model może być szeroko stosowany do różnych typów infekcji. W porównaniu z decyzją lekarza prowadzącego, model może zapewnić potencjalne korzyści, zmniejszając niepotrzebne stosowanie leków przeciwko MRSA i optymalizując terapię przeciwdrobnoustrojową. Biorąc pod uwagę wydajność modelu w zbiorach danych, najprawdopodobniej zapewnia on więcej korzyści klinicznych w populacjach z wysoką częstością występowania zakażeń MRSA.31

Genetyczne aspekty prognozy w zakażeniach MRSA

Oporność i tolerancja to dwa sposoby, w jakie gospodarz może przetrwać infekcję. Oporność polega na ograniczeniu obciążenia patogenem, podczas gdy tolerancja to ograniczenie wpływu na zdrowie danego obciążenia patogenem.32

Znaczenie czynników genetycznych w przeżywalności

Badania na myszach zidentyfikowały locus cechy ilościowej (QTL) na chromosomie 7 związany z przeżyciem i zmianą masy ciała po zakażeniu MRSA.33 Hipoteza sugeruje, że C5a może mieć zmienione wiązanie z wariantowymi receptorami u myszy CC024, zmniejszając uszkodzenia spowodowane burzą cytokinową i prowadząc do zdolności tolerowania wyższego obciążenia patogenem i dłuższego przeżycia.34

Przeżycie po zakażeniu MRSA ma komponent genetyczny i prawdopodobnie jest związane z dominującymi allelami u myszy CC024.35 Podobieństwo w wyniku zakażenia między pokoleniami F1 i F2 wskazuje, że dłuższy fenotyp przeżycia tolerancyjnego szczepu CC024 jest dominujący.36

Najlepszymi genami kandydatami dla QTL przeżycia i zmiany masy ciała w analizie są receptory czynnika dopełniacza C5a, C5ar1 i C5ar2.37 Te warianty C5ar1 i C5ar2, niezależnie lub razem, są silnymi kandydatami do odgrywania ważnej roli w zwiększonym przeżyciu podczas zakażenia MRSA u myszy CC024.38

Humanizowane modele zwierzęce w badaniach nad MRSA

Badania na humanizowanych myszach (huNSG) wykazały znacznie gorsze przeżycie w porównaniu do wszystkich innych grup myszy, co wywołało pytanie, w jaki sposób lokalne zakażenie S. aureus w mięśniu uda mogło spowodować tak dramatyczną eskalację choroby.39 Możliwym wyjaśnieniem tej ciężkości choroby może być rozprzestrzenianie się bakterii z miejsca zakażenia do narządów wewnętrznych, powodując systemową infekcję.40

Odkrycie, że humanizowane myszy ulegały infekcji po lokalnym zakażeniu S. aureus, było dość zaskakujące i przewyższyło początkową hipotezę o większej podatności myszy humanizowanych niż niehumanizowanych.41 Stopień humanizacji był więc z retrospektywnego punktu widzenia bardzo dobrym predyktorem szansy przeżycia humanizowanej myszy.42

Podsumowując, w badaniu wykazano, że lokalna infekcja MRSA u humanizowanych myszy wywołała systemowe rozprzestrzenianie się bakterii i wysoką śmiertelność, podczas gdy infekcja pozostała lokalnie u niehumanizowanych myszy.43

Rokowanie w leczeniu zakażeń MRSA

CA-MRSA, zwłaszcza zakażenia skóry, może być łatwiejszy do leczenia niż HA-MRSA. Jednak do 70% zakażeń skóry MRSA powraca po skutecznym leczeniu. Może to wynikać z faktu, że inne osoby, z którymi mieszkasz lub przebywasz dużo, są skolonizowane przez MRSA, lub ponieważ MRSA żyje na przedmiotach i powierzchniach przez długi czas, gdzie może ponownie zakazić pacjenta.44

Ponad połowa wszystkich przypadków MRSA jest leczona antybiotykami, a lekarze skutecznie leczą większość zakażeń skóry MRSA. Jednak poważne infekcje, takie jak zapalenie płuc, zapalenie wsierdzia i bakteriemia, mogą szybko się pogorszyć, zanim lekarz znajdzie skuteczne leczenie.45

Podczas gdy wiele osób może wyzdrowieć z łagodnej infekcji MRSA, cięższe infekcje są związane z wyższą śmiertelnością lub mogą powodować trwałe uszkodzenie narządów, które może negatywnie wpływać na oczekiwaną długość życia.46 MRSA może prowadzić do ciężkiej, zagrażającej życiu choroby w niektórych przypadkach. Wskaźniki śmiertelności dla MRSA, szczególnie zakażeń krwi MRSA, są najwyższe u osób starszych.47

Oprócz wieku, kilka innych czynników może zwiększać ryzyko śmierci z powodu tych infekcji. Są to m.in. choroby współistniejące, takie jak choroby serca i nowotwory, a także kilka czynników związanych z samą infekcją.48

Implikacje kliniczne dla prognozy zakażeń MRSA

Zrozumienie dynamiki kolonizacji, dróg transmisji, czynników ryzyka progresji do infekcji i warunków sprzyjających pojawieniu się oporności umożliwi optymalizację strategii skutecznej kontroli MRSA.49 Wysoce zjadliwe szczepy MRSA są przyczyną zakażeń o dużej śmiertelności, dlatego istotna jest wiedza o patomechanizmach ciężkich postaci tych infekcji.50

W przypadku zakażenia skóry, lekarz może chirurgicznie leczyć i drenować rany. Może przepisać antybiotyki miejscowe lub doustne. Pacjent będzie wymagał leczenia w szpitalu, jeśli ma ciężkie lub inwazyjne zakażenie MRSA.51

Badania wykazały, że niektóre linie genetyczne S. aureus są związane ze znacznie niższymi wskaźnikami śmiertelności niż inne. Na przykład, CC5 i CC22 (HR 0,52 i 0,45) były związane ze znacznie niższymi wskaźnikami śmiertelności niż CC8.52 Jednakże, MIC wankomycyny ≥1,5 nie miał istotnego wpływu na śmiertelność, niezależnie od metody stosowanej do jego oceny.53

Ważnym aspektem w rokowaniu zakażeń MRSA jest wdrożenie odpowiedniego narzędzia oceny ryzyka oraz dobór optymalnej terapii przeciwdrobnoustrojowej, co może znacząco wpłynąć na przeżywalność pacjentów z tymi groźnymi zakażeniami.54

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  1. 19.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. […] Clinical manifestations of MRSA range from asymptomatic colonization of the nasal mucosa to mild skin and soft tissue infections to fulminant invasive disease with high mortality. […] An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA. […] This paper reveals how different S. aureus lineages have adopted different strategies to overcome host responses and cause severe pathology. […] This is an important reference for all persons interested in the optimal treatment of S. aureus bacteraemia.
  • #2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. […] Clinical manifestations of MRSA range from asymptomatic colonization of the nasal mucosa to mild skin and soft tissue infections to fulminant invasive disease with high mortality. […] An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA. […] This paper reveals how different S. aureus lineages have adopted different strategies to overcome host responses and cause severe pathology. […] This is an important reference for all persons interested in the optimal treatment of S. aureus bacteraemia.
  • #3 Frontiers | MRSA Infection in the Thigh Muscle Leads to Systemic Disease, Strong Inflammation, and Loss of Human Monocytes in Humanized Mice
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.892053/full
    MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is the second-leading cause of deaths by antibiotic-resistant bacteria globally, with more than 100,000 attributable deaths annually. […] Despite the undeniable and urgent need for new therapeutics, particularly for a vaccine, the development has been hampered by poor correlation of pre-clinical and clinical efficacy. […] The huNSG mouse group showed significantly inferior survival to all other mouse groups which raised the question, how local S. aureus infection in the thigh muscle could cause this dramatic escalation of disease. […] A possible explanation for this severity of disease might be spreading of bacteria from the local site of infection to inner organs, thus causing systemic infection. […] The finding, that humanized mice succumbed to infection following a local challenge with S. aureus was rather surprising, and exceeded our first hypothesis of humanized mice being more susceptible than non-humanized ones considerably.
  • #4 Mortality after infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) diagnosed in the community
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2259374/
    Outbreak reports suggest that community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections can be life-threatening. […] Within 1 year, 21.8% of MRSA patients died as compared with 5.0% of non-MRSA patients. The risk of death was increased in patients diagnosed with MRSA in the community (adjusted hazard ratio 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 3.54.7). […] MRSA infections diagnosed in the community are associated with significant mortality in the year after diagnosis. […] However, hospital-based studies do not capture patients from the community whose infection does not require hospital care, and thus such studies or case reports cannot evaluate the impact of this infection on mortality. […] The four-fold increase in mortality persisted across several sensitivity analyses.
  • #5 Mortality after infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA) diagnosed in the community | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7015-6-2
    Outbreak reports suggest that community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections can be life-threatening. […] Within 1 year, 21.8% of MRSA patients died as compared with 5.0% of non-MRSA patients. The risk of death was increased in patients diagnosed with MRSA in the community (adjusted hazard ratio 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 3.54.7). […] MRSA infections diagnosed in the community are associated with significant mortality in the year after diagnosis. […] In this study, we demonstrated an increase in mortality within a year of a diagnosis with an MRSA infection in the community. This increased mortality cannot be completely explained by underlying co-morbid conditions as we adjusted for the major risk factors of death. […] The four-fold increase in mortality persisted across several sensitivity analyses.
  • #6 Mortality after infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA) diagnosed in the community | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7015-6-2
    Outbreak reports suggest that community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections can be life-threatening. […] Within 1 year, 21.8% of MRSA patients died as compared with 5.0% of non-MRSA patients. The risk of death was increased in patients diagnosed with MRSA in the community (adjusted hazard ratio 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 3.54.7). […] MRSA infections diagnosed in the community are associated with significant mortality in the year after diagnosis. […] In this study, we demonstrated an increase in mortality within a year of a diagnosis with an MRSA infection in the community. This increased mortality cannot be completely explained by underlying co-morbid conditions as we adjusted for the major risk factors of death. […] The four-fold increase in mortality persisted across several sensitivity analyses.
  • #7 MRSA: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11633-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa
    If you have a skin infection, your provider will surgically treat and drain your wounds. They might give you topical or oral antibiotics. You’ll need to be treated in the hospital if you have a severe or invasive MRSA infection. […] CA-MRSA, especially skin infections, can be easier to treat than HA-MRSA. But up to 70% of MRSA skin infections come back (recur) after successful treatment. This might be because other people you live with or are around a lot are colonized with MRSA, or because MRSA lives on objects and surfaces for a long time, where it can reinfect you. […] Yes, more than half of all MRSA cases are cured with antibiotics, and providers successfully treat most MRSA skin infections. But serious infections like pneumonia, endocarditis and bacteremia can quickly get worse before a provider can find a treatment that works. […] The mortality (death) rate of MRSA depends on where you’re infected. For MRSA bacteremia one of the more serious forms the mortality rate is between 20% and 50%.
  • #8 Predictive factors for mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: impact on outcome of host, microorganism and therapy – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23331461/
    Mortality related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection (BSI) remains high, despite changes in the epidemiology. […] Overall mortality was observed in 179 (32%) episodes. […] The Cox-regression analysis identified age 70 years (HR 1.88), previous fatal disease (HR 2.16), Pitt score 1 (HR 3.45), high-risk source (HR 1.85) and inappropriate initial treatment (HR 1.39) as independent predictive factors for mortality. […] CC5 and CC22 (HR 0.52 and 0.45) were associated with significantly lower mortality rates than CC8. […] V-MIC 1.5 did not have a significant impact on mortality, regardless of the method used to assess it.
  • #9 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    Severe MRSA infections can be fatal. MRSA mortality rates tend to be highest in older people. Certain underlying health conditions can also increase the risk of death. […] While MRSA can cause a mild skin infection in some people, in others, it can lead to serious illness and even death. Most of the research into MRSA survival and mortality focuses on these serious infections, namely bloodstream infections. […] The researchers found that the 30-day mortality rate increased with older age: under 65: 6.9%, 65 to 80: 10.8%, over 80: 33.2%. […] The researchers found an overall mortality rate of 41.9%. When they broke mortality rates down by age, participants older than 60 had a noticeably higher mortality rate (49%) than those younger than 60 (32.4%). […] However, it still pointed out that mortality rates were highest in the oldest age groups, specifically in people 85 and older. Those between 75 and 84 also had high mortality rates.
  • #10 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    Severe MRSA infections can be fatal. MRSA mortality rates tend to be highest in older people. Certain underlying health conditions can also increase the risk of death. […] While MRSA can cause a mild skin infection in some people, in others, it can lead to serious illness and even death. Most of the research into MRSA survival and mortality focuses on these serious infections, namely bloodstream infections. […] The researchers found that the 30-day mortality rate increased with older age: under 65: 6.9%, 65 to 80: 10.8%, over 80: 33.2%. […] The researchers found an overall mortality rate of 41.9%. When they broke mortality rates down by age, participants older than 60 had a noticeably higher mortality rate (49%) than those younger than 60 (32.4%). […] However, it still pointed out that mortality rates were highest in the oldest age groups, specifically in people 85 and older. Those between 75 and 84 also had high mortality rates.
  • #11 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    Severe MRSA infections can be fatal. MRSA mortality rates tend to be highest in older people. Certain underlying health conditions can also increase the risk of death. […] While MRSA can cause a mild skin infection in some people, in others, it can lead to serious illness and even death. Most of the research into MRSA survival and mortality focuses on these serious infections, namely bloodstream infections. […] The researchers found that the 30-day mortality rate increased with older age: under 65: 6.9%, 65 to 80: 10.8%, over 80: 33.2%. […] The researchers found an overall mortality rate of 41.9%. When they broke mortality rates down by age, participants older than 60 had a noticeably higher mortality rate (49%) than those younger than 60 (32.4%). […] However, it still pointed out that mortality rates were highest in the oldest age groups, specifically in people 85 and older. Those between 75 and 84 also had high mortality rates.
  • #12 Predictive factors for mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: impact on outcome of host, microorganism and therapy – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23331461/
    Mortality related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection (BSI) remains high, despite changes in the epidemiology. […] Overall mortality was observed in 179 (32%) episodes. […] The Cox-regression analysis identified age 70 years (HR 1.88), previous fatal disease (HR 2.16), Pitt score 1 (HR 3.45), high-risk source (HR 1.85) and inappropriate initial treatment (HR 1.39) as independent predictive factors for mortality. […] CC5 and CC22 (HR 0.52 and 0.45) were associated with significantly lower mortality rates than CC8. […] V-MIC 1.5 did not have a significant impact on mortality, regardless of the method used to assess it.
  • #13 Predictive factors for mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: impact on outcome of host, microorganism and therapy – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23331461/
    Mortality related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection (BSI) remains high, despite changes in the epidemiology. […] Overall mortality was observed in 179 (32%) episodes. […] The Cox-regression analysis identified age 70 years (HR 1.88), previous fatal disease (HR 2.16), Pitt score 1 (HR 3.45), high-risk source (HR 1.85) and inappropriate initial treatment (HR 1.39) as independent predictive factors for mortality. […] CC5 and CC22 (HR 0.52 and 0.45) were associated with significantly lower mortality rates than CC8. […] V-MIC 1.5 did not have a significant impact on mortality, regardless of the method used to assess it.
  • #14 Predictive factors for mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: impact on outcome of host, microorganism and therapy – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23331461/
    Mortality related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection (BSI) remains high, despite changes in the epidemiology. […] Overall mortality was observed in 179 (32%) episodes. […] The Cox-regression analysis identified age 70 years (HR 1.88), previous fatal disease (HR 2.16), Pitt score 1 (HR 3.45), high-risk source (HR 1.85) and inappropriate initial treatment (HR 1.39) as independent predictive factors for mortality. […] CC5 and CC22 (HR 0.52 and 0.45) were associated with significantly lower mortality rates than CC8. […] V-MIC 1.5 did not have a significant impact on mortality, regardless of the method used to assess it.
  • #15 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    In addition to age, several other factors have been found to contribute to MRSA mortality. […] A 2023 study reported that, in addition to older age, additional risk factors for 30-day mortality from an MRSA bloodstream infection were: having a urinary catheter, lack of quality medical care, such as a consultation from a hospital infectious disease team or inappropriate treatment, having hypoalbuminemia (low levels of albumin in the blood). […] An older 2017 study identified risk factors for 30-day mortality from MRSA bloodstream infections that included: a higher number of underlying health conditions, heart disease, neurological disease, cancer, living in a nursing home. […] Some evidence suggests just having MRSA in your nose without symptoms may increase mortality risk. […] The exact reason for this finding is unknown and requires additional research.
  • #16 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    In addition to age, several other factors have been found to contribute to MRSA mortality. […] A 2023 study reported that, in addition to older age, additional risk factors for 30-day mortality from an MRSA bloodstream infection were: having a urinary catheter, lack of quality medical care, such as a consultation from a hospital infectious disease team or inappropriate treatment, having hypoalbuminemia (low levels of albumin in the blood). […] An older 2017 study identified risk factors for 30-day mortality from MRSA bloodstream infections that included: a higher number of underlying health conditions, heart disease, neurological disease, cancer, living in a nursing home. […] Some evidence suggests just having MRSA in your nose without symptoms may increase mortality risk. […] The exact reason for this finding is unknown and requires additional research.
  • #17 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    In addition to age, several other factors have been found to contribute to MRSA mortality. […] A 2023 study reported that, in addition to older age, additional risk factors for 30-day mortality from an MRSA bloodstream infection were: having a urinary catheter, lack of quality medical care, such as a consultation from a hospital infectious disease team or inappropriate treatment, having hypoalbuminemia (low levels of albumin in the blood). […] An older 2017 study identified risk factors for 30-day mortality from MRSA bloodstream infections that included: a higher number of underlying health conditions, heart disease, neurological disease, cancer, living in a nursing home. […] Some evidence suggests just having MRSA in your nose without symptoms may increase mortality risk. […] The exact reason for this finding is unknown and requires additional research.
  • #18 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    In addition to age, several other factors have been found to contribute to MRSA mortality. […] A 2023 study reported that, in addition to older age, additional risk factors for 30-day mortality from an MRSA bloodstream infection were: having a urinary catheter, lack of quality medical care, such as a consultation from a hospital infectious disease team or inappropriate treatment, having hypoalbuminemia (low levels of albumin in the blood). […] An older 2017 study identified risk factors for 30-day mortality from MRSA bloodstream infections that included: a higher number of underlying health conditions, heart disease, neurological disease, cancer, living in a nursing home. […] Some evidence suggests just having MRSA in your nose without symptoms may increase mortality risk. […] The exact reason for this finding is unknown and requires additional research.
  • #19 Predictors of mortality in adult patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a meta-analysis and systematic review – Ju – Annals of Palliative Medicine
    https://apm.amegroups.org/article/view/75878/html
    Cases of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection have been increasing. Patients with MRSA bloodstream infection have a poor prognosis and high mortality rate. Identification of potential risk factors associated with MRSA bloodstream infection-related mortality may help improve patient outcomes. […] Factors associated with higher mortality were development of severe sepsis or septic shock [odds ratio (OR): 4.56, 95% CI: 3.37-6.18], congestive heart failure (OR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.27-2.50), liver cirrhosis (OR: 1.90, 95% CI: 1.27-2.65), malignancy (OR: 1.62, 95% CI: 1.33-1.98), infective endocarditis (OR: 2.05, 95% CI: 1.35-3.11), nosocomial infection (OR: 2.80, 95% CI: 1.41-5.55), intensive care unit admission (OR: 3.08, 95% CI: 1.49-6.36) and inappropriate empirical antimicrobial treatment (OR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.16-4.36); removal of the eradicable foci was a protective factor (OR: 0.51, 95% CI: 0.40-0.63). The average APACHE II score at the time of diagnosis of MRSA bloodstream infection was considerably higher in patients who did not survive than in those who survived [weighted mean difference (WMD): 5.81, 95% CI: 3.03-8.59].
  • #20 Predictors of mortality in adult patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a meta-analysis and systematic review – Ju – Annals of Palliative Medicine
    https://apm.amegroups.org/article/view/75878/html
    Cases of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection have been increasing. Patients with MRSA bloodstream infection have a poor prognosis and high mortality rate. Identification of potential risk factors associated with MRSA bloodstream infection-related mortality may help improve patient outcomes. […] Factors associated with higher mortality were development of severe sepsis or septic shock [odds ratio (OR): 4.56, 95% CI: 3.37-6.18], congestive heart failure (OR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.27-2.50), liver cirrhosis (OR: 1.90, 95% CI: 1.27-2.65), malignancy (OR: 1.62, 95% CI: 1.33-1.98), infective endocarditis (OR: 2.05, 95% CI: 1.35-3.11), nosocomial infection (OR: 2.80, 95% CI: 1.41-5.55), intensive care unit admission (OR: 3.08, 95% CI: 1.49-6.36) and inappropriate empirical antimicrobial treatment (OR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.16-4.36); removal of the eradicable foci was a protective factor (OR: 0.51, 95% CI: 0.40-0.63). The average APACHE II score at the time of diagnosis of MRSA bloodstream infection was considerably higher in patients who did not survive than in those who survived [weighted mean difference (WMD): 5.81, 95% CI: 3.03-8.59].
  • #21 Predictors of mortality in adult patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a meta-analysis and systematic review – Ju – Annals of Palliative Medicine
    https://apm.amegroups.org/article/view/75878/html
    Cases of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection have been increasing. Patients with MRSA bloodstream infection have a poor prognosis and high mortality rate. Identification of potential risk factors associated with MRSA bloodstream infection-related mortality may help improve patient outcomes. […] Factors associated with higher mortality were development of severe sepsis or septic shock [odds ratio (OR): 4.56, 95% CI: 3.37-6.18], congestive heart failure (OR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.27-2.50), liver cirrhosis (OR: 1.90, 95% CI: 1.27-2.65), malignancy (OR: 1.62, 95% CI: 1.33-1.98), infective endocarditis (OR: 2.05, 95% CI: 1.35-3.11), nosocomial infection (OR: 2.80, 95% CI: 1.41-5.55), intensive care unit admission (OR: 3.08, 95% CI: 1.49-6.36) and inappropriate empirical antimicrobial treatment (OR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.16-4.36); removal of the eradicable foci was a protective factor (OR: 0.51, 95% CI: 0.40-0.63). The average APACHE II score at the time of diagnosis of MRSA bloodstream infection was considerably higher in patients who did not survive than in those who survived [weighted mean difference (WMD): 5.81, 95% CI: 3.03-8.59].
  • #22 Predictors of mortality in adult patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a meta-analysis and systematic review – Ju – Annals of Palliative Medicine
    https://apm.amegroups.org/article/view/75878/html
    Patient condition, appropriate timing of antimicrobial treatment, surgical intervention and disease severity according to the APACHE II score are the most important risk factors for death in patients with MRSA bloodstream infections. […] Age, patient condition, timing and appropriate antimicrobial treatment, surgical intervention and disease severity evaluated by the APACHE II score are the most important predictors of mortality in patients with MRSA bloodstream infections. These findings may help physicians predict outcomes in patients especially who received palliative care with MRSA bloodstream infections and help to improve the management of these patients.
  • #23 Predictors of mortality in adult patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a meta-analysis and systematic review – Ju – Annals of Palliative Medicine
    https://apm.amegroups.org/article/view/75878/html
    Patient condition, appropriate timing of antimicrobial treatment, surgical intervention and disease severity according to the APACHE II score are the most important risk factors for death in patients with MRSA bloodstream infections. […] Age, patient condition, timing and appropriate antimicrobial treatment, surgical intervention and disease severity evaluated by the APACHE II score are the most important predictors of mortality in patients with MRSA bloodstream infections. These findings may help physicians predict outcomes in patients especially who received palliative care with MRSA bloodstream infections and help to improve the management of these patients.
  • #24 Persistent Fever as a Key Mortality Predictor in MRSA Bacteremia
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/persistent-fever-as-a-key-mortality-predictor-in-mrsa-bacteremia
    Fever lasting beyond 72 hours is a stronger predictor of 90-day mortality in MRSA bacteremia patients than CRP and WBC counts. Persistent fever suggests unresolved infections or ongoing source control issues, making it a more specific and reliable marker than CRP or WBC. The findings emphasize the need for clinicians to prioritize persistent fever in risk stratification and consider personalized diagnostic and treatment strategies for MRSA bacteremia […] A post hoc analysis of the CAMERA2 randomized clinical trial has identified persistent fever after 72 hours as a key predictor of increased mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia. […] The study’s findings underline the importance of assessing persistent fever in patients with MRSA bacteremia. Ong stressed that fever beyond 72 hours should not be overlooked and should prompt clinicians to conduct a thorough investigation for unresolved sources of infection. […] Ultimately, the study highlights the need to enhance risk assessment tools for MRSA bacteremia. Fever should be prioritized as a key clinical marker, while additional biomarkers should be explored to improve patient stratification and guide treatment decisions.
  • #25 Persistent Fever as a Key Mortality Predictor in MRSA Bacteremia
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/persistent-fever-as-a-key-mortality-predictor-in-mrsa-bacteremia
    Fever lasting beyond 72 hours is a stronger predictor of 90-day mortality in MRSA bacteremia patients than CRP and WBC counts. Persistent fever suggests unresolved infections or ongoing source control issues, making it a more specific and reliable marker than CRP or WBC. The findings emphasize the need for clinicians to prioritize persistent fever in risk stratification and consider personalized diagnostic and treatment strategies for MRSA bacteremia […] A post hoc analysis of the CAMERA2 randomized clinical trial has identified persistent fever after 72 hours as a key predictor of increased mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia. […] The study’s findings underline the importance of assessing persistent fever in patients with MRSA bacteremia. Ong stressed that fever beyond 72 hours should not be overlooked and should prompt clinicians to conduct a thorough investigation for unresolved sources of infection. […] Ultimately, the study highlights the need to enhance risk assessment tools for MRSA bacteremia. Fever should be prioritized as a key clinical marker, while additional biomarkers should be explored to improve patient stratification and guide treatment decisions.
  • #26 Persistent Fever as a Key Mortality Predictor in MRSA Bacteremia
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/persistent-fever-as-a-key-mortality-predictor-in-mrsa-bacteremia
    Fever lasting beyond 72 hours is a stronger predictor of 90-day mortality in MRSA bacteremia patients than CRP and WBC counts. Persistent fever suggests unresolved infections or ongoing source control issues, making it a more specific and reliable marker than CRP or WBC. The findings emphasize the need for clinicians to prioritize persistent fever in risk stratification and consider personalized diagnostic and treatment strategies for MRSA bacteremia […] A post hoc analysis of the CAMERA2 randomized clinical trial has identified persistent fever after 72 hours as a key predictor of increased mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia. […] The study’s findings underline the importance of assessing persistent fever in patients with MRSA bacteremia. Ong stressed that fever beyond 72 hours should not be overlooked and should prompt clinicians to conduct a thorough investigation for unresolved sources of infection. […] Ultimately, the study highlights the need to enhance risk assessment tools for MRSA bacteremia. Fever should be prioritized as a key clinical marker, while additional biomarkers should be explored to improve patient stratification and guide treatment decisions.
  • #27 Persistent Fever as a Key Mortality Predictor in MRSA Bacteremia
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/persistent-fever-as-a-key-mortality-predictor-in-mrsa-bacteremia
    Fever lasting beyond 72 hours is a stronger predictor of 90-day mortality in MRSA bacteremia patients than CRP and WBC counts. Persistent fever suggests unresolved infections or ongoing source control issues, making it a more specific and reliable marker than CRP or WBC. The findings emphasize the need for clinicians to prioritize persistent fever in risk stratification and consider personalized diagnostic and treatment strategies for MRSA bacteremia […] A post hoc analysis of the CAMERA2 randomized clinical trial has identified persistent fever after 72 hours as a key predictor of increased mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia. […] The study’s findings underline the importance of assessing persistent fever in patients with MRSA bacteremia. Ong stressed that fever beyond 72 hours should not be overlooked and should prompt clinicians to conduct a thorough investigation for unresolved sources of infection. […] Ultimately, the study highlights the need to enhance risk assessment tools for MRSA bacteremia. Fever should be prioritized as a key clinical marker, while additional biomarkers should be explored to improve patient stratification and guide treatment decisions.
  • #28 Deep learning model for personalized prediction of positive MRSA culture using time-series electronic health records | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46211-0
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses significant morbidity and mortality in hospitals. Rapid, accurate risk stratification of MRSA is crucial for optimizing antibiotic therapy. Our model effectively stratifies patients into high-, medium-, and low-risk categories, potentially optimizing antimicrobial therapy and reducing unnecessary MRSA-specific antimicrobials. This highlights the advantage of deep learning models in predicting MRSA positive cultures, surpassing traditional machine learning models and supporting clinicians judgments. […] Our deep learning-based MRSA-predictive model exhibited better performance compared to other machine learning models in real-world MHHS and MIMIC-IV datasets. […] The model can be widely applied to various types of infections. Compared to the treating physicians decision, our model could provide potential benefits, reducing unnecessary MRSA antimicrobial use and optimizing antimicrobial therapy. Considering the performance of our model in the datasets, the model likely provides more clinical benefits in populations with a high prevalence of MRSA infections. Studies in high-risk populations, such as immunocompromised patients, and prospective studies are warranted to validate the model.
  • #29 Deep learning model for personalized prediction of positive MRSA culture using time-series electronic health records | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46211-0
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses significant morbidity and mortality in hospitals. Rapid, accurate risk stratification of MRSA is crucial for optimizing antibiotic therapy. Our model effectively stratifies patients into high-, medium-, and low-risk categories, potentially optimizing antimicrobial therapy and reducing unnecessary MRSA-specific antimicrobials. This highlights the advantage of deep learning models in predicting MRSA positive cultures, surpassing traditional machine learning models and supporting clinicians judgments. […] Our deep learning-based MRSA-predictive model exhibited better performance compared to other machine learning models in real-world MHHS and MIMIC-IV datasets. […] The model can be widely applied to various types of infections. Compared to the treating physicians decision, our model could provide potential benefits, reducing unnecessary MRSA antimicrobial use and optimizing antimicrobial therapy. Considering the performance of our model in the datasets, the model likely provides more clinical benefits in populations with a high prevalence of MRSA infections. Studies in high-risk populations, such as immunocompromised patients, and prospective studies are warranted to validate the model.
  • #30 Deep learning model for personalized prediction of positive MRSA culture using time-series electronic health records | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46211-0
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses significant morbidity and mortality in hospitals. Rapid, accurate risk stratification of MRSA is crucial for optimizing antibiotic therapy. Our model effectively stratifies patients into high-, medium-, and low-risk categories, potentially optimizing antimicrobial therapy and reducing unnecessary MRSA-specific antimicrobials. This highlights the advantage of deep learning models in predicting MRSA positive cultures, surpassing traditional machine learning models and supporting clinicians judgments. […] Our deep learning-based MRSA-predictive model exhibited better performance compared to other machine learning models in real-world MHHS and MIMIC-IV datasets. […] The model can be widely applied to various types of infections. Compared to the treating physicians decision, our model could provide potential benefits, reducing unnecessary MRSA antimicrobial use and optimizing antimicrobial therapy. Considering the performance of our model in the datasets, the model likely provides more clinical benefits in populations with a high prevalence of MRSA infections. Studies in high-risk populations, such as immunocompromised patients, and prospective studies are warranted to validate the model.
  • #31 Deep learning model for personalized prediction of positive MRSA culture using time-series electronic health records | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46211-0
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses significant morbidity and mortality in hospitals. Rapid, accurate risk stratification of MRSA is crucial for optimizing antibiotic therapy. Our model effectively stratifies patients into high-, medium-, and low-risk categories, potentially optimizing antimicrobial therapy and reducing unnecessary MRSA-specific antimicrobials. This highlights the advantage of deep learning models in predicting MRSA positive cultures, surpassing traditional machine learning models and supporting clinicians judgments. […] Our deep learning-based MRSA-predictive model exhibited better performance compared to other machine learning models in real-world MHHS and MIMIC-IV datasets. […] The model can be widely applied to various types of infections. Compared to the treating physicians decision, our model could provide potential benefits, reducing unnecessary MRSA antimicrobial use and optimizing antimicrobial therapy. Considering the performance of our model in the datasets, the model likely provides more clinical benefits in populations with a high prevalence of MRSA infections. Studies in high-risk populations, such as immunocompromised patients, and prospective studies are warranted to validate the model.
  • #32 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonizes humans asymptomatically but can also cause opportunistic infections, ranging from mild skin infections to severe life-threatening conditions. Resistance and tolerance are two ways a host can survive an infection. Resistance is limiting the pathogen burden, while tolerance is limiting the health impact of a given pathogen burden. […] We identified a Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) peak on chromosome 7 for survival and weight change after infection. […] We hypothesize that C5a may have altered binding to variant receptors in CC024 mice, reducing damage caused by the cytokine storm and resulting in the ability to tolerate a higher pathogen burden and longer survival. […] Survival after MRSA infection has a genetic component and is likely linked to dominant alleles in CC024.
  • #33 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonizes humans asymptomatically but can also cause opportunistic infections, ranging from mild skin infections to severe life-threatening conditions. Resistance and tolerance are two ways a host can survive an infection. Resistance is limiting the pathogen burden, while tolerance is limiting the health impact of a given pathogen burden. […] We identified a Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) peak on chromosome 7 for survival and weight change after infection. […] We hypothesize that C5a may have altered binding to variant receptors in CC024 mice, reducing damage caused by the cytokine storm and resulting in the ability to tolerate a higher pathogen burden and longer survival. […] Survival after MRSA infection has a genetic component and is likely linked to dominant alleles in CC024.
  • #34 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonizes humans asymptomatically but can also cause opportunistic infections, ranging from mild skin infections to severe life-threatening conditions. Resistance and tolerance are two ways a host can survive an infection. Resistance is limiting the pathogen burden, while tolerance is limiting the health impact of a given pathogen burden. […] We identified a Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) peak on chromosome 7 for survival and weight change after infection. […] We hypothesize that C5a may have altered binding to variant receptors in CC024 mice, reducing damage caused by the cytokine storm and resulting in the ability to tolerate a higher pathogen burden and longer survival. […] Survival after MRSA infection has a genetic component and is likely linked to dominant alleles in CC024.
  • #35 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonizes humans asymptomatically but can also cause opportunistic infections, ranging from mild skin infections to severe life-threatening conditions. Resistance and tolerance are two ways a host can survive an infection. Resistance is limiting the pathogen burden, while tolerance is limiting the health impact of a given pathogen burden. […] We identified a Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) peak on chromosome 7 for survival and weight change after infection. […] We hypothesize that C5a may have altered binding to variant receptors in CC024 mice, reducing damage caused by the cytokine storm and resulting in the ability to tolerate a higher pathogen burden and longer survival. […] Survival after MRSA infection has a genetic component and is likely linked to dominant alleles in CC024.
  • #36 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    The similarity in infection outcome between the F1 and F2 indicates that the longer survival phenotype of the tolerant CC024 strain is dominant. […] The top candidate genes for the survival and weight change QTL in our analysis are the complement factor C5a receptors, C5ar1 and C5ar2. […] These C5ar1 and C5ar2 variants, independently or together, are strong candidates for an important role in the increased survival during MRSA infection of CC024 mice.
  • #37 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    The similarity in infection outcome between the F1 and F2 indicates that the longer survival phenotype of the tolerant CC024 strain is dominant. […] The top candidate genes for the survival and weight change QTL in our analysis are the complement factor C5a receptors, C5ar1 and C5ar2. […] These C5ar1 and C5ar2 variants, independently or together, are strong candidates for an important role in the increased survival during MRSA infection of CC024 mice.
  • #38 Identification of a genetic region linked to tolerance to MRSA infection using Collaborative Cross mice | PLOS Genetics
    https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1011378
    The similarity in infection outcome between the F1 and F2 indicates that the longer survival phenotype of the tolerant CC024 strain is dominant. […] The top candidate genes for the survival and weight change QTL in our analysis are the complement factor C5a receptors, C5ar1 and C5ar2. […] These C5ar1 and C5ar2 variants, independently or together, are strong candidates for an important role in the increased survival during MRSA infection of CC024 mice.
  • #39 Frontiers | MRSA Infection in the Thigh Muscle Leads to Systemic Disease, Strong Inflammation, and Loss of Human Monocytes in Humanized Mice
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.892053/full
    MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is the second-leading cause of deaths by antibiotic-resistant bacteria globally, with more than 100,000 attributable deaths annually. […] Despite the undeniable and urgent need for new therapeutics, particularly for a vaccine, the development has been hampered by poor correlation of pre-clinical and clinical efficacy. […] The huNSG mouse group showed significantly inferior survival to all other mouse groups which raised the question, how local S. aureus infection in the thigh muscle could cause this dramatic escalation of disease. […] A possible explanation for this severity of disease might be spreading of bacteria from the local site of infection to inner organs, thus causing systemic infection. […] The finding, that humanized mice succumbed to infection following a local challenge with S. aureus was rather surprising, and exceeded our first hypothesis of humanized mice being more susceptible than non-humanized ones considerably.
  • #40 Frontiers | MRSA Infection in the Thigh Muscle Leads to Systemic Disease, Strong Inflammation, and Loss of Human Monocytes in Humanized Mice
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.892053/full
    MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is the second-leading cause of deaths by antibiotic-resistant bacteria globally, with more than 100,000 attributable deaths annually. […] Despite the undeniable and urgent need for new therapeutics, particularly for a vaccine, the development has been hampered by poor correlation of pre-clinical and clinical efficacy. […] The huNSG mouse group showed significantly inferior survival to all other mouse groups which raised the question, how local S. aureus infection in the thigh muscle could cause this dramatic escalation of disease. […] A possible explanation for this severity of disease might be spreading of bacteria from the local site of infection to inner organs, thus causing systemic infection. […] The finding, that humanized mice succumbed to infection following a local challenge with S. aureus was rather surprising, and exceeded our first hypothesis of humanized mice being more susceptible than non-humanized ones considerably.
  • #41 Frontiers | MRSA Infection in the Thigh Muscle Leads to Systemic Disease, Strong Inflammation, and Loss of Human Monocytes in Humanized Mice
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.892053/full
    MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is the second-leading cause of deaths by antibiotic-resistant bacteria globally, with more than 100,000 attributable deaths annually. […] Despite the undeniable and urgent need for new therapeutics, particularly for a vaccine, the development has been hampered by poor correlation of pre-clinical and clinical efficacy. […] The huNSG mouse group showed significantly inferior survival to all other mouse groups which raised the question, how local S. aureus infection in the thigh muscle could cause this dramatic escalation of disease. […] A possible explanation for this severity of disease might be spreading of bacteria from the local site of infection to inner organs, thus causing systemic infection. […] The finding, that humanized mice succumbed to infection following a local challenge with S. aureus was rather surprising, and exceeded our first hypothesis of humanized mice being more susceptible than non-humanized ones considerably.
  • #42 Frontiers | MRSA Infection in the Thigh Muscle Leads to Systemic Disease, Strong Inflammation, and Loss of Human Monocytes in Humanized Mice
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.892053/full
    The rate of humanization was thus from a retrospective point of view a very good predictor for a humanized mouse’s chance of survival. […] The huNSG mice showed higher levels than all other groups and had in addition human cytokines/chemokines at similar levels than murine ones. […] In summary, we could show in this study, that a local infection with MRSA in humanized mice induced systemic spreading of the bacteria and high mortality, while the infection stayed locally in non-humanized mice.
  • #43 Frontiers | MRSA Infection in the Thigh Muscle Leads to Systemic Disease, Strong Inflammation, and Loss of Human Monocytes in Humanized Mice
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.892053/full
    The rate of humanization was thus from a retrospective point of view a very good predictor for a humanized mouse’s chance of survival. […] The huNSG mice showed higher levels than all other groups and had in addition human cytokines/chemokines at similar levels than murine ones. […] In summary, we could show in this study, that a local infection with MRSA in humanized mice induced systemic spreading of the bacteria and high mortality, while the infection stayed locally in non-humanized mice.
  • #44 MRSA: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11633-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa
    If you have a skin infection, your provider will surgically treat and drain your wounds. They might give you topical or oral antibiotics. You’ll need to be treated in the hospital if you have a severe or invasive MRSA infection. […] CA-MRSA, especially skin infections, can be easier to treat than HA-MRSA. But up to 70% of MRSA skin infections come back (recur) after successful treatment. This might be because other people you live with or are around a lot are colonized with MRSA, or because MRSA lives on objects and surfaces for a long time, where it can reinfect you. […] Yes, more than half of all MRSA cases are cured with antibiotics, and providers successfully treat most MRSA skin infections. But serious infections like pneumonia, endocarditis and bacteremia can quickly get worse before a provider can find a treatment that works. […] The mortality (death) rate of MRSA depends on where you’re infected. For MRSA bacteremia one of the more serious forms the mortality rate is between 20% and 50%.
  • #45 MRSA: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11633-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa
    If you have a skin infection, your provider will surgically treat and drain your wounds. They might give you topical or oral antibiotics. You’ll need to be treated in the hospital if you have a severe or invasive MRSA infection. […] CA-MRSA, especially skin infections, can be easier to treat than HA-MRSA. But up to 70% of MRSA skin infections come back (recur) after successful treatment. This might be because other people you live with or are around a lot are colonized with MRSA, or because MRSA lives on objects and surfaces for a long time, where it can reinfect you. […] Yes, more than half of all MRSA cases are cured with antibiotics, and providers successfully treat most MRSA skin infections. But serious infections like pneumonia, endocarditis and bacteremia can quickly get worse before a provider can find a treatment that works. […] The mortality (death) rate of MRSA depends on where you’re infected. For MRSA bacteremia one of the more serious forms the mortality rate is between 20% and 50%.
  • #46 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    While many people can recover from a mild MRSA infection, more severe infections are associated with higher mortality or may cause permanent organ damage that could negatively affect life expectancy. […] MRSA can lead to severe, life threatening illness in some cases. Mortality rates for MRSA, specifically MRSA bloodstream infections, are highest in older adults. […] In addition to age, several other factors can increase the risk of death from these infections. These include underlying health conditions like heart disease and cancer, as well as several factors related to the infection itself.
  • #47 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    While many people can recover from a mild MRSA infection, more severe infections are associated with higher mortality or may cause permanent organ damage that could negatively affect life expectancy. […] MRSA can lead to severe, life threatening illness in some cases. Mortality rates for MRSA, specifically MRSA bloodstream infections, are highest in older adults. […] In addition to age, several other factors can increase the risk of death from these infections. These include underlying health conditions like heart disease and cancer, as well as several factors related to the infection itself.
  • #48 MRSA Survival Rate by Age, and Factors that Affect Survival
    https://www.healthline.com/health/infection/mrsa-survival-rate-by-age
    While many people can recover from a mild MRSA infection, more severe infections are associated with higher mortality or may cause permanent organ damage that could negatively affect life expectancy. […] MRSA can lead to severe, life threatening illness in some cases. Mortality rates for MRSA, specifically MRSA bloodstream infections, are highest in older adults. […] In addition to age, several other factors can increase the risk of death from these infections. These include underlying health conditions like heart disease and cancer, as well as several factors related to the infection itself.
  • #49 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. […] Clinical manifestations of MRSA range from asymptomatic colonization of the nasal mucosa to mild skin and soft tissue infections to fulminant invasive disease with high mortality. […] An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA. […] This paper reveals how different S. aureus lineages have adopted different strategies to overcome host responses and cause severe pathology. […] This is an important reference for all persons interested in the optimal treatment of S. aureus bacteraemia.
  • #50 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. […] Clinical manifestations of MRSA range from asymptomatic colonization of the nasal mucosa to mild skin and soft tissue infections to fulminant invasive disease with high mortality. […] An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA. […] This paper reveals how different S. aureus lineages have adopted different strategies to overcome host responses and cause severe pathology. […] This is an important reference for all persons interested in the optimal treatment of S. aureus bacteraemia.
  • #51 MRSA: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11633-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa
    If you have a skin infection, your provider will surgically treat and drain your wounds. They might give you topical or oral antibiotics. You’ll need to be treated in the hospital if you have a severe or invasive MRSA infection. […] CA-MRSA, especially skin infections, can be easier to treat than HA-MRSA. But up to 70% of MRSA skin infections come back (recur) after successful treatment. This might be because other people you live with or are around a lot are colonized with MRSA, or because MRSA lives on objects and surfaces for a long time, where it can reinfect you. […] Yes, more than half of all MRSA cases are cured with antibiotics, and providers successfully treat most MRSA skin infections. But serious infections like pneumonia, endocarditis and bacteremia can quickly get worse before a provider can find a treatment that works. […] The mortality (death) rate of MRSA depends on where you’re infected. For MRSA bacteremia one of the more serious forms the mortality rate is between 20% and 50%.
  • #52 Predictive factors for mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: impact on outcome of host, microorganism and therapy – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23331461/
    Mortality related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection (BSI) remains high, despite changes in the epidemiology. […] Overall mortality was observed in 179 (32%) episodes. […] The Cox-regression analysis identified age 70 years (HR 1.88), previous fatal disease (HR 2.16), Pitt score 1 (HR 3.45), high-risk source (HR 1.85) and inappropriate initial treatment (HR 1.39) as independent predictive factors for mortality. […] CC5 and CC22 (HR 0.52 and 0.45) were associated with significantly lower mortality rates than CC8. […] V-MIC 1.5 did not have a significant impact on mortality, regardless of the method used to assess it.
  • #53 Predictive factors for mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: impact on outcome of host, microorganism and therapy – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23331461/
    Mortality related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infection (BSI) remains high, despite changes in the epidemiology. […] Overall mortality was observed in 179 (32%) episodes. […] The Cox-regression analysis identified age 70 years (HR 1.88), previous fatal disease (HR 2.16), Pitt score 1 (HR 3.45), high-risk source (HR 1.85) and inappropriate initial treatment (HR 1.39) as independent predictive factors for mortality. […] CC5 and CC22 (HR 0.52 and 0.45) were associated with significantly lower mortality rates than CC8. […] V-MIC 1.5 did not have a significant impact on mortality, regardless of the method used to assess it.
  • #54 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    This is most likely the best paper evaluating the question of whether MRSA adds to the overall burden of nosocomial infections. […] This is a methodologically sound analysis of excess length of stay of MRSA bacteraemia. […] Higher risk of failure of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections. […] This commentary provides an update regarding the growing evidence for and against the role of active surveillance in MRSA control. […] This paper represents an essential and up-to-date guidance document for management of MRSA infection.