Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560624/

  Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection due to Candida, which can affect the oral cavity, vagina, penis, or other parts of the body. Untreated Candida infection carries the risk of leading to a systemic infection in which other organs can become involved and may lead to sepsis. […] Candidiasis occurs most commonly as a secondary infection in immunocompromised individuals. […] Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection. Candida albicans is present in healthy persons colonizing the oropharyngeal, esophageal, and gastrointestinal mucosa. Candida albicans can cause mucosal candidiasis in these areas where they usually are present in an immunocompromised host. […] Candida albicans cause thrush when normal host immunity is disturbed. The organism may overgrow on the oral mucosa causing desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of keratin, bacteria, and necrotic tissue. This debris form a pseudo-membrane, which adheres closely to the mucosa.

• #2 Oral thrush (monoliasis, oral candidiasis, OC) | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/oral-thrush-monoliasis-oral-candidiasis-oc

  Oral thrush (or oral candidiasis) is a type of thrush found in the oral cavity. It is a type of fungal (yeast) infection, caused most commonly by Candida albicans, but can also be caused by other non-albican species like C. krusei, C. parapsilosi, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis and C. dubliniensis. As the Candida species are a part of the normal flora that lives in the mouth, it is the change in the normal oral environment, rather than the actual exposure or infection per se, that results in the occurrence of this disease. […] Any changes in the oral environment can cause the Candida species to multiply and colonise the mouth, leading to oral thrush. Immunocompromised people, such as those with HIV/AIDS or cancer, have the highest risk of developing the disease. Age can also be a factor, since the disease is more common in the very young and very old. Saliva plays a major role in the prevention of Candidal overgrowth; therefore, disturbances to normal salivary physiology and decreased salivary flow represent major risk factors for oral thrush.

• #3 Vaginal thrush (yeast infection; vulvovaginal candidiasis; VVT; VVC) | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/vaginal-thrush-yeast-infection-vulvovaginal-candidiasis-vvt-vvc

  Vaginal thrush (or vulvovaginal candidiasis) is a common condition that is often chronic and can interfere with womens sexual function and sense of wellbeing. […] It is a type of fungal infection a yeast infection caused most commonly by the fungus Candida albicans (in over 90% of cases). […] This occurs when the normal environment of the vagina changes as a result of several precipitating factors such as pregnancy, use of antibiotics, diabetes mellitus, HIV, chronic debilitating disease etc which in turn allows the fungus to multiply to abnormal levels and causes the signs and symptoms of vaginal thrush. […] For some unknown reasons, if the vaginal environment changes, the Candida flourish, proliferate to large numbers, colonise the vagina and become pathogenic causing the signs and symptoms of thrush.

• #4 Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560624/

  Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection due to Candida, which can affect the oral cavity, vagina, penis, or other parts of the body. Untreated Candida infection carries the risk of leading to a systemic infection in which other organs can become involved and may lead to sepsis. […] Candidiasis occurs most commonly as a secondary infection in immunocompromised individuals. […] Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection. Candida albicans is present in healthy persons colonizing the oropharyngeal, esophageal, and gastrointestinal mucosa. Candida albicans can cause mucosal candidiasis in these areas where they usually are present in an immunocompromised host. […] Candida albicans cause thrush when normal host immunity is disturbed. The organism may overgrow on the oral mucosa causing desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of keratin, bacteria, and necrotic tissue. This debris form a pseudo-membrane, which adheres closely to the mucosa.

• #5 Thrush in men (male candidiasis): Symptoms and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/246615

  Thrush is a fungal infection caused by Candida yeasts, and especially Candida albicans. It often affects females, but it can occur in males, too. In males, it can affect the head of the penis and the foreskin. […] When thrush occurs in males, it can affect the head of the penis and the foreskin. It can lead to inflammation of the head of the penis, known as balanitis. […] Candidiasis is caused by a yeast fungus, Candida. […] Candida fungi occur naturally inside the body and on the skin, but at levels that do not cause problems. The immune system keeps them in check. […] However, if certain conditions disturb the balance, the fungus can thrive, and candidiasis can develop. The fungal cells produce hyphae, structures that penetrate the tissue. […] Risk factors that make candidiasis more likely include: use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, which can upset the balance of normal microbial flora and allow the Candida to overgrow; taking medications that suppress the immune system, such as chemotherapy or corticosteroids; having a weakened immune system, due, for example, to HIV or dialysis; poorly-managed type-1 or type-2 diabetes, because yeasts thrive more easily in higher levels of blood sugar; obesity, especially if there are rolls of fat where yeast can thrive; poor hygiene, especially if a man is not circumcised; bath foam, soaps, shower gels, lubricants, and other products, which can irritate and damage the skin of the penis, leaving it open to infection; not drying carefully after washing, because the fungus can thrive in warm, moist conditions; having a poor diet.

• #6 Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560624/

  Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection due to Candida, which can affect the oral cavity, vagina, penis, or other parts of the body. Untreated Candida infection carries the risk of leading to a systemic infection in which other organs can become involved and may lead to sepsis. […] Candidiasis occurs most commonly as a secondary infection in immunocompromised individuals. […] Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection. Candida albicans is present in healthy persons colonizing the oropharyngeal, esophageal, and gastrointestinal mucosa. Candida albicans can cause mucosal candidiasis in these areas where they usually are present in an immunocompromised host. […] Candida albicans cause thrush when normal host immunity is disturbed. The organism may overgrow on the oral mucosa causing desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of keratin, bacteria, and necrotic tissue. This debris form a pseudo-membrane, which adheres closely to the mucosa.

• #7 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #8 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #9 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #10 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #11

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  Candidalysin is critical for systemic as well as mucosal infection due to the positive charge at carboxy terminus of its peptide. […] The deep penetrating trait of Candida during VVC is conferred by the heparan sulphate (HS), a highly acidic linear polysaccharide (glycosaminoglycan) present in the invading hyphal structure; heparan sulphate has role in neutrophil anergy. […] The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The presence of secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAP) in vaginal secretions of women with symptomatic vaginitis caused by pathogenic Candida spp. suggest key role of these enzymes in virulence. […] The dimorphism is a crucial virulence trait associated to adaptation of Candida that support their growth in surrounding microenvironment and attain the pathogenic trait.

• #12 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #13 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #14 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #15

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  Candidalysin is critical for systemic as well as mucosal infection due to the positive charge at carboxy terminus of its peptide. […] The deep penetrating trait of Candida during VVC is conferred by the heparan sulphate (HS), a highly acidic linear polysaccharide (glycosaminoglycan) present in the invading hyphal structure; heparan sulphate has role in neutrophil anergy. […] The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The presence of secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAP) in vaginal secretions of women with symptomatic vaginitis caused by pathogenic Candida spp. suggest key role of these enzymes in virulence. […] The dimorphism is a crucial virulence trait associated to adaptation of Candida that support their growth in surrounding microenvironment and attain the pathogenic trait.

• #16

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The effectiveness of the phytomolecules against VVC in vaginal isolates and models have also been established with several molecules including terpinene-4-ol, phytol, propolis, baicalein, quercetin, hydroxy tyrosol, etc. […] The antifungal action of phytomolecules against Candida is collaborative effort of multiple steps that either progresses sequentially or altogether at the same time to knock down the cell. […] The phytomolecules interact with the biomolecules and enzymes present ECM to inactivate them and reach the fungal cell surface without getting trapped. […] The presence of candidalysin potentiates the invasive traits of hyphal cells; and it is further linked with release of heparan sulphate (HS), responsible for neutrophil anergy.

• #17 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  All of the conditions outlined above are associated with increased colonization rates. The routes of candidal invasion include (1) disruption of a colonized surface (skin or mucosa), allowing the organisms access to the bloodstream, and (2) persorption via the gastrointestinal wall, which may occur following massive colonization with large numbers of organisms that pass directly into the bloodstream.

• #18 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  All of the conditions outlined above are associated with increased colonization rates. The routes of candidal invasion include (1) disruption of a colonized surface (skin or mucosa), allowing the organisms access to the bloodstream, and (2) persorption via the gastrointestinal wall, which may occur following massive colonization with large numbers of organisms that pass directly into the bloodstream.

• #19 Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560624/

  Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection due to Candida, which can affect the oral cavity, vagina, penis, or other parts of the body. Untreated Candida infection carries the risk of leading to a systemic infection in which other organs can become involved and may lead to sepsis. […] Candidiasis occurs most commonly as a secondary infection in immunocompromised individuals. […] Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection. Candida albicans is present in healthy persons colonizing the oropharyngeal, esophageal, and gastrointestinal mucosa. Candida albicans can cause mucosal candidiasis in these areas where they usually are present in an immunocompromised host. […] Candida albicans cause thrush when normal host immunity is disturbed. The organism may overgrow on the oral mucosa causing desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of keratin, bacteria, and necrotic tissue. This debris form a pseudo-membrane, which adheres closely to the mucosa.

• #20 Thrush: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/969147-overview

  Thrush is an infection of the buccal cavity by Candida albicans, which was first described by the French pediatrician Francois Valleix in 1838. The disease is typically limited to infants and neonates, patients on antibiotics or steroids, and patients with polyendocrine disorders or underlying immune dysfunction. Thrush may be the first sign of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; its appearance in advanced HIV infection indicates poor prognosis. Children who are receiving inhaled steroids also have increased incidence of oral candidiasis. […] C albicans causes thrush when normal host immunity or normal host flora is disrupted. Overgrowth of yeast on the oral mucosa leads to desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of bacteria, keratin, and necrotic tissue. This debris combines to form a pseudomembrane, which may closely adhere to the mucosa. This membrane is usually not large but may rarely involve extensive areas of edema, ulceration, and necrosis of the underlying mucosa.

• #21 Canesten Thrush 6-day Vaginal Tablets | Canesten products

  https://www.canesten.com.sg/discover-canesten-products/canesten-thrush-6-day-vaginal-tablets

  The pathogenesis of vaginal yeast infection is associated with vaginal microflora imbalance, overgrowth of fungus, and invasion of fungal epithelial cells. Therefore, it is not considered a sexually transmitted disease. […] Vaginitis caused by Candidiasis usually develops usually at the end of the ovulation cycle (within about a week before the start of the new menstrual cycle). Vaginal yeast infections occur at this stage possibly due to: a. the hormonal imbalance leading to reduced cell-mediated immune response.

• #22 Is Thrush Contagious? Prevention and Complications

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/vaginal-yeast-infections-oral-thrush-and-oral-sex-3133055

  Researchers from Brazil found that oral candidiasis was not so much linked to sexual behaviors but rather to underlying immune disorders like HIV. […] There is evidence that cunnilingus (oral-vaginal sex) can trigger vaginal yeast infections. […] Enzymes in saliva can neutralize this bacteria, allowing C. albicans to grow beyond their normal limits. […] Candidiasis is not a sexually transmitted infection (STI) and is not associated with having multiple sexual partners, or a new partner. […] Health experts generally advise against sex if there is an active vaginal yeast infection. This is because inflammation caused by candidiasis can compromise vaginal tissues and increase the risk of acquiring HIV. […] Candidiasis is not an STI and cannot be passed through oral sex. With that said, oral sex can increase the risk of a yeast infection by causing an imbalance in vaginal flora. […] Vaginal sex is not advised if you have a yeast infection as the infection can compromise vaginal tissues and increase the risk of HIV.

• #23 What is genital thrush in men and how to treat it

  https://www.dalilimedical.com/en/article-3388/What-is-genital-thrush-in-men-and-how-to-treat-it

  Thrush in the penis is a fungal infection caused by the fungus „Candida”, which usually causes inflammation of the glans (head of the penis) and the foreskin (the skin surrounding the head of the penis). […] Candidiasis of the genitals in men usually appears subclinically. Clinical symptoms of male genital thrush are less common than in women. This relative disparity in incidence is due to the anatomical characteristics of the external genitalia in men, such as the presence of a foreskin and the absence of deep folds. The natural immunity of the mucous membranes, the presence of normal bacteria under the foreskin, as well as regular hygiene practices, contribute to limiting the rapid growth of fungi on the mucous membranes of the male genitals. […] The causes of thrush are related to changes in the physiological state of the mucous membranes of the genitals: In a healthy body, the pH of the mucous membranes is close to neutral. Any change towards the acidic side, where pH values range between 5.8 and 6.5, leads to a significant increase in the pathological activity of fungi.

• #24 What is genital thrush in men and how to treat it

  https://www.dalilimedical.com/en/article-3388/What-is-genital-thrush-in-men-and-how-to-treat-it

  Dysbacteriosis is one of the main factors contributing to the appearance of clinical symptoms of thrush. Lactobacilli act as a natural defense against fungi, limiting their rapid reproduction. […] A change in the body’s immune status is the cause of thrush. The immune system plays a vital role in regulating the body’s functions. […] The body’s protective status declines during the subclinical stage of an associated disease. Many diseases, including sexually transmitted diseases that affect the genitourinary system, appear at this stage subclinically, but may be accompanied by candidiasis that appears with clear clinical symptoms. […] Thrush is not a sexually transmitted disease, but it may be transmitted during sexual intercourse if the wife suffers from a yeast infection. […] The consequences of candidiasis can be short-term or long-term. Early consequences appear during the acute stage of the disease and include: Problems in sexual life, as candidiasis causes erosion of the mucous membrane of the genitals, leading to pain and discomfort during sex.

• #25

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  The infection of VVC is extremely distressful with itchy, burning, and wet sensation. […] The presence of Lactobacillus keeps the vagina healthy as well as checks the pathogenic trait of Candida, and hence monitoring this microbiome forms the basis of recommending probiotics-based therapy for VVC. […] The interaction between Lactobacillus and Candida in the vaginal region is facilitated via the secretion of metabolic products by Lactobacillus that either directly regulate the virulence traits of Candida or activate the immune response for extending protection. […] Any dysbiosis in this control system results in the development of Candida mediated disease state in the vaginal area. […] The vaginal region has varying amounts of short-chain aliphatic organic acids, lactic acid (LA), and acetic acid (AA), depending upon the dominant Lactobacillus species.

• #26 What is genital thrush in men and how to treat it

  https://www.dalilimedical.com/en/article-3388/What-is-genital-thrush-in-men-and-how-to-treat-it

  Dysbacteriosis is one of the main factors contributing to the appearance of clinical symptoms of thrush. Lactobacilli act as a natural defense against fungi, limiting their rapid reproduction. […] A change in the body’s immune status is the cause of thrush. The immune system plays a vital role in regulating the body’s functions. […] The body’s protective status declines during the subclinical stage of an associated disease. Many diseases, including sexually transmitted diseases that affect the genitourinary system, appear at this stage subclinically, but may be accompanied by candidiasis that appears with clear clinical symptoms. […] Thrush is not a sexually transmitted disease, but it may be transmitted during sexual intercourse if the wife suffers from a yeast infection. […] The consequences of candidiasis can be short-term or long-term. Early consequences appear during the acute stage of the disease and include: Problems in sexual life, as candidiasis causes erosion of the mucous membrane of the genitals, leading to pain and discomfort during sex.

• #27

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  The infection of VVC is extremely distressful with itchy, burning, and wet sensation. […] The presence of Lactobacillus keeps the vagina healthy as well as checks the pathogenic trait of Candida, and hence monitoring this microbiome forms the basis of recommending probiotics-based therapy for VVC. […] The interaction between Lactobacillus and Candida in the vaginal region is facilitated via the secretion of metabolic products by Lactobacillus that either directly regulate the virulence traits of Candida or activate the immune response for extending protection. […] Any dysbiosis in this control system results in the development of Candida mediated disease state in the vaginal area. […] The vaginal region has varying amounts of short-chain aliphatic organic acids, lactic acid (LA), and acetic acid (AA), depending upon the dominant Lactobacillus species.

• #28

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  For successful colonization and infection, adherence of Candida to vaginal epithelial cell (VEC) is crucial. […] The supernatant of L. paracasei reduced the expression of ALS3, EFG1, HWP1 while increased the expression of YWP1 in C. albicans where all are involved in yeast-to-hyphae morphology transition. […] The vaginal epithelial cell (VEC) and host immune system are crucial in defining the relationship/interaction between the pathogen and the host. […] An effective defense mechanism must be capable of preventing infection in the vaginal environment in order to facilitate a harmonical long-term colonization of Candida in vaginal microbiome. […] During dysbiosis in vaginal microbiome, VECs act as a first line of defense against Candida. […] The recognition of Candida via pattern recognition receptors (PRR) results in initiation of adaptive response, phagocytosis, NETosis via immune cells.

• #29 What is genital thrush in men and how to treat it

  https://www.dalilimedical.com/en/article-3388/What-is-genital-thrush-in-men-and-how-to-treat-it

  Thrush in the penis is a fungal infection caused by the fungus „Candida”, which usually causes inflammation of the glans (head of the penis) and the foreskin (the skin surrounding the head of the penis). […] Candidiasis of the genitals in men usually appears subclinically. Clinical symptoms of male genital thrush are less common than in women. This relative disparity in incidence is due to the anatomical characteristics of the external genitalia in men, such as the presence of a foreskin and the absence of deep folds. The natural immunity of the mucous membranes, the presence of normal bacteria under the foreskin, as well as regular hygiene practices, contribute to limiting the rapid growth of fungi on the mucous membranes of the male genitals. […] The causes of thrush are related to changes in the physiological state of the mucous membranes of the genitals: In a healthy body, the pH of the mucous membranes is close to neutral. Any change towards the acidic side, where pH values range between 5.8 and 6.5, leads to a significant increase in the pathological activity of fungi.

• #30 What is genital thrush in men and how to treat it

  https://www.dalilimedical.com/en/article-3388/What-is-genital-thrush-in-men-and-how-to-treat-it

  Thrush in the penis is a fungal infection caused by the fungus „Candida”, which usually causes inflammation of the glans (head of the penis) and the foreskin (the skin surrounding the head of the penis). […] Candidiasis of the genitals in men usually appears subclinically. Clinical symptoms of male genital thrush are less common than in women. This relative disparity in incidence is due to the anatomical characteristics of the external genitalia in men, such as the presence of a foreskin and the absence of deep folds. The natural immunity of the mucous membranes, the presence of normal bacteria under the foreskin, as well as regular hygiene practices, contribute to limiting the rapid growth of fungi on the mucous membranes of the male genitals. […] The causes of thrush are related to changes in the physiological state of the mucous membranes of the genitals: In a healthy body, the pH of the mucous membranes is close to neutral. Any change towards the acidic side, where pH values range between 5.8 and 6.5, leads to a significant increase in the pathological activity of fungi.

• #31 Recurrent Thrush Infections? You probably haven’t addressed biofilm formation and PH. — Natural Health-Naturopath Auckland-Katherine Matthews

  https://www.katherinematthews.co.nz/blog/recurrent-thrush-treatment

  Recurrent thrush infections, particularly recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC), pose significant challenges for millions of women. To treat this condition effectively we need to address two key elements in persistent infections. These are the formation of biofilms by Candida species and the role of vaginal pH. […] Candida species, notably Candida albicans, form biofilmsstructured communities of fungal cells encased in an extracellular matrix composed of proteins, polysaccharides, and extracellular DNA. This biofilm serves as a robust defense mechanism, enabling Candida to adhere to mucosal surfaces and resist antifungal treatments. Studies have shown that biofilms significantly reduce the efficacy of common antifungal agents like clotrimazole, with mature biofilms displaying up to 1,000 times greater resistance compared to planktonic (free-floating) cells.

• #32 Recurrent Thrush Infections? You probably haven’t addressed biofilm formation and PH. — Natural Health-Naturopath Auckland-Katherine Matthews

  https://www.katherinematthews.co.nz/blog/recurrent-thrush-treatment

  Recurrent thrush infections, particularly recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC), pose significant challenges for millions of women. To treat this condition effectively we need to address two key elements in persistent infections. These are the formation of biofilms by Candida species and the role of vaginal pH. […] Candida species, notably Candida albicans, form biofilmsstructured communities of fungal cells encased in an extracellular matrix composed of proteins, polysaccharides, and extracellular DNA. This biofilm serves as a robust defense mechanism, enabling Candida to adhere to mucosal surfaces and resist antifungal treatments. Studies have shown that biofilms significantly reduce the efficacy of common antifungal agents like clotrimazole, with mature biofilms displaying up to 1,000 times greater resistance compared to planktonic (free-floating) cells.

• #33 Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560624/

  Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection due to Candida, which can affect the oral cavity, vagina, penis, or other parts of the body. Untreated Candida infection carries the risk of leading to a systemic infection in which other organs can become involved and may lead to sepsis. […] Candidiasis occurs most commonly as a secondary infection in immunocompromised individuals. […] Candidiasis is an opportunistic infection. Candida albicans is present in healthy persons colonizing the oropharyngeal, esophageal, and gastrointestinal mucosa. Candida albicans can cause mucosal candidiasis in these areas where they usually are present in an immunocompromised host. […] Candida albicans cause thrush when normal host immunity is disturbed. The organism may overgrow on the oral mucosa causing desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of keratin, bacteria, and necrotic tissue. This debris form a pseudo-membrane, which adheres closely to the mucosa.

• #34 Oral thrush – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oral-thrush/symptoms-causes/syc-20353533

  Oral thrush, also called oral candidiasis (kan-dih-DIE-uh-sis), is a condition in which the fungus Candida albicans builds up in the mouth. […] A healthy immune system works to get rid of harmful invading organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi. This maintains a balance between „good” and „bad” microbes in your body. But sometimes these protective measures fail. Then candida fungus grows and allows an oral thrush infection to take hold. […] The most common type of candida fungus is Candida albicans. Several factors, such as a weakened immune system, can raise your risk of oral thrush. […] Oral thrush is more likely in babies and older adults due to lower immunity. Some medical conditions and treatments can weaken your immune system. They include cancer and its treatments, an organ transplant, medicines that weaken the immune system, and HIV/AIDS. […] Oral thrush that isn’t treated can lead to more-serious systemic candida infections. If you have a weakened immune system, thrush may spread to your esophagus or other parts of your body.

• #35 Thrush in men and women

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/thrush-in-men-and-women/

  Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida that is normally harmless. […] Thrush tends to grow in warm, moist conditions and develops if the balance of bacteria changes. […] This can happen if your skin is irritated or damaged. […] you’re taking antibiotics. […] you have poorly controlled diabetes. […] you have a weakened immune system (for example, because of HIV or chemotherapy). […] you’re having hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] you’re pregnant.

• #36 Thrush in men and women

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/thrush-in-men-and-women/

  Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida that is normally harmless. […] Thrush tends to grow in warm, moist conditions and develops if the balance of bacteria changes. […] This can happen if your skin is irritated or damaged. […] you’re taking antibiotics. […] you have poorly controlled diabetes. […] you have a weakened immune system (for example, because of HIV or chemotherapy). […] you’re having hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] you’re pregnant.

• #37 Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560624/

  There are three major routes by which Candida reaches the bloodstream: the most frequent route is via the gastrointestinal tract mucosal barrier, others being through an intravascular catheter and from a localized infection. […] Vulvovaginal candidiasis may be triggered by the use of local or systemic antimicrobial therapy, and it may also precipitate recurrent episodes of disease. The exact mechanism by which antibiotics cause candidal vulvovaginitis is still unknown. Hypothetically, the pathophysiology of vulvovaginitis may be due to reduction or change of normal vaginal flora, restraints of yeast colonization, and proliferation.

• #38 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Antibiotics are often implicated as a cause of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Frequent antibiotic use decreases protective vaginal flora and allows colonization by Candida species. […] Diabetes mellitus is often considered a predisposing factor for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Hyperglycemia enhances the ability of Candida albicans to bind to vaginal epithelial cells. […] Contraceptive methods may also promote recurrences of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Use of spermicidal jellies and creams increases susceptibility to infection by altering the vaginal flora and increasing the adhesion of Candida organisms. […] Women who are prone to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis may have deficient cell-mediated immunity. […] Mechanical factors may also be important. Perspiration associated with tightly fitted clothes or poorly ventilated underwear increases local temperature and moisture.

• #39 Thrush in men and women

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/thrush-in-men-and-women/

  Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida that is normally harmless. […] Thrush tends to grow in warm, moist conditions and develops if the balance of bacteria changes. […] This can happen if your skin is irritated or damaged. […] you’re taking antibiotics. […] you have poorly controlled diabetes. […] you have a weakened immune system (for example, because of HIV or chemotherapy). […] you’re having hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] you’re pregnant.

• #40 What is a yeast infection?

  https://flo.health/menstrual-cycle/health/symptoms-and-diseases/what-is-a-yeast-infection

  You are more likely to get a yeast infection if your immune system has taken a dip (for instance, if you’re very stressed or run down) or if you have diabetes that isn’t well managed. […] People with conditions like HIV fall into this bracket, too, as do people taking certain medications, like corticosteroids or TNF inhibitors. […] 138 million people worldwide are affected by recurring yeast infections every year and case numbers are increasing. […] Most of the time, the yeast belongs to a strain called Candida albicans, which antifungal drugs can usually knock out. However, about 10% of cases are caused by a different type of candida. Candida auris, Candida glabrata, and Candida parapsilosis are often resistant to common medications, and that might be why your infection keeps returning.

• #41 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Antibiotics are often implicated as a cause of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Frequent antibiotic use decreases protective vaginal flora and allows colonization by Candida species. […] Diabetes mellitus is often considered a predisposing factor for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Hyperglycemia enhances the ability of Candida albicans to bind to vaginal epithelial cells. […] Contraceptive methods may also promote recurrences of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Use of spermicidal jellies and creams increases susceptibility to infection by altering the vaginal flora and increasing the adhesion of Candida organisms. […] Women who are prone to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis may have deficient cell-mediated immunity. […] Mechanical factors may also be important. Perspiration associated with tightly fitted clothes or poorly ventilated underwear increases local temperature and moisture.

• #42 Thrush in men and women

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/thrush-in-men-and-women/

  Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida that is normally harmless. […] Thrush tends to grow in warm, moist conditions and develops if the balance of bacteria changes. […] This can happen if your skin is irritated or damaged. […] you’re taking antibiotics. […] you have poorly controlled diabetes. […] you have a weakened immune system (for example, because of HIV or chemotherapy). […] you’re having hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] you’re pregnant.

• #43 Vulvovaginal thrush | Jean Hailes

  https://www.jeanhailes.org.au/health-a-z/vulva-vagina/vulval-vaginal-conditions/vulvovaginal-thrush

  Thrush is often caused by an overgrowth of candida in your vagina. […] Its also thought that higher oestrogen levels can make women more prone to thrush. Oestrogen increases the amount of sugar (glycogen) in your vagina, which creates a perfect environment for candida to grow and thrive. […] Thrush is more likely to affect women who have periods, as they have higher levels of oestrogen. […] Around 5% of women experience recurrent thrush. Recurrent thrush is when you have four or more episodes of thrush over 12 months. This is usually due to persistent infection rather than a new infection. […] If you think you have recurrent thrush, its important to see your doctor. They may investigate if your thrush is caused by other underlying conditions.

• #44 What is a yeast infection?

  https://flo.health/menstrual-cycle/health/symptoms-and-diseases/what-is-a-yeast-infection

  Yeast infections (also known as thrush, monilia, vaginal candidiasis, vulvovaginal candidiasis, and candidal vaginitis) affect 70% of us at some point in our lives and an unlucky 8% deal with recurrent infections. […] Yeast infections are caused by a tiny fungus called candida, which normally lives in the body undetected. If you looked at the body under a microscope, you might find small amounts of candida in the mouth, throat, gut, and on the skin. And when it comes to vaginas, as many as 20% of people have candida there that’s not causing symptoms. […] While our body normally has ways of keeping this fungus in check, sometimes our lines of defense break down, and candida starts to multiply out of control. The result is an infection: candidiasis. […] Because the growth of candida is linked to higher estrogen levels, it’s most common in younger people, as well as those taking some types of hormonal birth control (any type that changes your natural balance of estrogen and progesterone). It’s also commonly seen during pregnancy and among postmenopausal people on hormone replacement therapy whose estrogen levels are being artificially raised. Another risk factor is antibiotics.

• #45 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Host defense mechanisms against Candida infection and their associated defects that allow infection are as follows: Intact mucocutaneous barriers – Wounds, intravenous catheters, burns, ulcerations. […] Phagocytic cells – Granulocytopenia. […] Polymorphonuclear leukocytes – Chronic granulomatous disease. […] Monocytic cells – Myeloperoxidase deficiency. […] Complement – Hypocomplementemia. […] Immunoglobulins – Hypogammaglobulinemia. […] Cell-mediated immunity – Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, diabetes mellitus, cyclosporin A, corticosteroids, HIV infection. […] Mucocutaneous protective bacterial flora – Broad-spectrum antibiotics. […] The first step in the development of a candidal infection is colonization of the mucocutaneous surfaces, followed by proliferation of yeast blastospores and hyphae formation with activation of fungal virulence factors.

• #46 Thrush in men and women

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/thrush-in-men-and-women/

  Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida that is normally harmless. […] Thrush tends to grow in warm, moist conditions and develops if the balance of bacteria changes. […] This can happen if your skin is irritated or damaged. […] you’re taking antibiotics. […] you have poorly controlled diabetes. […] you have a weakened immune system (for example, because of HIV or chemotherapy). […] you’re having hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] you’re pregnant.

• #47 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Antibiotics are often implicated as a cause of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Frequent antibiotic use decreases protective vaginal flora and allows colonization by Candida species. […] Diabetes mellitus is often considered a predisposing factor for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Hyperglycemia enhances the ability of Candida albicans to bind to vaginal epithelial cells. […] Contraceptive methods may also promote recurrences of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Use of spermicidal jellies and creams increases susceptibility to infection by altering the vaginal flora and increasing the adhesion of Candida organisms. […] Women who are prone to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis may have deficient cell-mediated immunity. […] Mechanical factors may also be important. Perspiration associated with tightly fitted clothes or poorly ventilated underwear increases local temperature and moisture.

• #48 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Antibiotics are often implicated as a cause of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Frequent antibiotic use decreases protective vaginal flora and allows colonization by Candida species. […] Diabetes mellitus is often considered a predisposing factor for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Hyperglycemia enhances the ability of Candida albicans to bind to vaginal epithelial cells. […] Contraceptive methods may also promote recurrences of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Use of spermicidal jellies and creams increases susceptibility to infection by altering the vaginal flora and increasing the adhesion of Candida organisms. […] Women who are prone to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis may have deficient cell-mediated immunity. […] Mechanical factors may also be important. Perspiration associated with tightly fitted clothes or poorly ventilated underwear increases local temperature and moisture.

• #49 Thrush in men (male candidiasis): Symptoms and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/246615

  Thrush is a fungal infection caused by Candida yeasts, and especially Candida albicans. It often affects females, but it can occur in males, too. In males, it can affect the head of the penis and the foreskin. […] When thrush occurs in males, it can affect the head of the penis and the foreskin. It can lead to inflammation of the head of the penis, known as balanitis. […] Candidiasis is caused by a yeast fungus, Candida. […] Candida fungi occur naturally inside the body and on the skin, but at levels that do not cause problems. The immune system keeps them in check. […] However, if certain conditions disturb the balance, the fungus can thrive, and candidiasis can develop. The fungal cells produce hyphae, structures that penetrate the tissue. […] Risk factors that make candidiasis more likely include: use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, which can upset the balance of normal microbial flora and allow the Candida to overgrow; taking medications that suppress the immune system, such as chemotherapy or corticosteroids; having a weakened immune system, due, for example, to HIV or dialysis; poorly-managed type-1 or type-2 diabetes, because yeasts thrive more easily in higher levels of blood sugar; obesity, especially if there are rolls of fat where yeast can thrive; poor hygiene, especially if a man is not circumcised; bath foam, soaps, shower gels, lubricants, and other products, which can irritate and damage the skin of the penis, leaving it open to infection; not drying carefully after washing, because the fungus can thrive in warm, moist conditions; having a poor diet.

• #50 Genital thrush in males | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/genital-thrush-in-males

  Your doctor can diagnose thrush by examining your genitals. Usually, the diagnosis is made based on your symptoms and physical examination. Sometimes, your doctor may take a swab to confirm the diagnosis. […] Your doctor or pharmacist may recommend an anti-fungal medicine or steroid medicine to relieve your symptoms. Apply the cream to your genital area as prescribed, including the penis and under the foreskin if you are uncircumcised. […] Avoid using hygiene products or local irritants near your genitals, such as soap, bath oil and body wash. They can disrupt the natural balance of yeast and other organisms on your skin.

• #51 Vulvovaginal thrush | Jean Hailes

  https://www.jeanhailes.org.au/health-a-z/vulva-vagina/vulval-vaginal-conditions/vulvovaginal-thrush

  Thrush is often caused by an overgrowth of candida in your vagina. […] Its also thought that higher oestrogen levels can make women more prone to thrush. Oestrogen increases the amount of sugar (glycogen) in your vagina, which creates a perfect environment for candida to grow and thrive. […] Thrush is more likely to affect women who have periods, as they have higher levels of oestrogen. […] Around 5% of women experience recurrent thrush. Recurrent thrush is when you have four or more episodes of thrush over 12 months. This is usually due to persistent infection rather than a new infection. […] If you think you have recurrent thrush, its important to see your doctor. They may investigate if your thrush is caused by other underlying conditions.

• #52 Thrush in men and women

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/thrush-in-men-and-women/

  Thrush is caused by a fungus called candida that is normally harmless. […] Thrush tends to grow in warm, moist conditions and develops if the balance of bacteria changes. […] This can happen if your skin is irritated or damaged. […] you’re taking antibiotics. […] you have poorly controlled diabetes. […] you have a weakened immune system (for example, because of HIV or chemotherapy). […] you’re having hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] you’re pregnant.

• #53 Vaginal thrush (yeast infection; vulvovaginal candidiasis; VVT; VVC) | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/vaginal-thrush-yeast-infection-vulvovaginal-candidiasis-vvt-vvc

  On the other hand, more VVT is seen in post menopausal women who have been put on Hormonal Replacement therapy (HRT) to counter menopausal symptoms and in women on the combined oral contraceptive. […] Certain conditions are known to be associated with recurrent thrush. […] These recurrent cases of thrush are commonly caused by other strains of Candida i.e. C. glabrata. […] Uncomplicated thrush occurs sporadically in healthy women and is mild and caused by C.albicans. […] On the other hand, complicated thrush is recurrent, becomes more severe, occurs in women who are immunocompromised and is caused by non-albicans Candida. […] In some instances, such as in immunocompromised women and those with poorly controlled diabetes thrush may result in a more severe disease with widespread systemic fungal infection. […] For VVT caused by fungus other than C.albicans, nystatin cream for seven to forteen days is useful. […] Immunocompromised individuals with VVT require routine antifungal treatment but for seven to forteen days.

• #54 Thrush in men (male candidiasis): Symptoms and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/246615

  Studies show that men who are not circumcised are more likely to develop Candida balanitis. […] Doctors do not consider genital candidiasis as a sexually transmitted infection (STI). People usually acquire it through sexual activity, but it can develop without sexual contact. A partner with a fungal infection does not always transmit it.

• #55 Thrush in men (male candidiasis): Symptoms and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/246615

  Thrush is a fungal infection caused by Candida yeasts, and especially Candida albicans. It often affects females, but it can occur in males, too. In males, it can affect the head of the penis and the foreskin. […] When thrush occurs in males, it can affect the head of the penis and the foreskin. It can lead to inflammation of the head of the penis, known as balanitis. […] Candidiasis is caused by a yeast fungus, Candida. […] Candida fungi occur naturally inside the body and on the skin, but at levels that do not cause problems. The immune system keeps them in check. […] However, if certain conditions disturb the balance, the fungus can thrive, and candidiasis can develop. The fungal cells produce hyphae, structures that penetrate the tissue. […] Risk factors that make candidiasis more likely include: use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, which can upset the balance of normal microbial flora and allow the Candida to overgrow; taking medications that suppress the immune system, such as chemotherapy or corticosteroids; having a weakened immune system, due, for example, to HIV or dialysis; poorly-managed type-1 or type-2 diabetes, because yeasts thrive more easily in higher levels of blood sugar; obesity, especially if there are rolls of fat where yeast can thrive; poor hygiene, especially if a man is not circumcised; bath foam, soaps, shower gels, lubricants, and other products, which can irritate and damage the skin of the penis, leaving it open to infection; not drying carefully after washing, because the fungus can thrive in warm, moist conditions; having a poor diet.

• #56 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #57 Candidiasis | NZ STI Guidelines

  https://sti.guidelines.org.nz/infections/candidiasis/

  Candidiasis is an infection with Candida species, caused by an overgrowth of the organisms often present in small amounts in the genital tract. Pathogenesis is unclear but there is likely to be a combination of genetic and immune factors. […] Approximately 75% of women will experience at least one lifetime episode; less than 5% will have recurrent candidiasis (defined as 4 or more symptomatic episodes within 12 months). […] Recurrent candidiasis (4 or more symptomatic episodes in 12 months) should be confirmed by culture or microscopy on at least 2 occasions, before considering suppressive therapy. […] Recurrent candidiasis is confirmed by culture or microscopy on at least 2 occasions for 100% of patients commencing suppressive therapy.

• #58 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #59 Vaginal thrush (yeast infection; vulvovaginal candidiasis; VVT; VVC) | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/vaginal-thrush-yeast-infection-vulvovaginal-candidiasis-vvt-vvc

  On the other hand, more VVT is seen in post menopausal women who have been put on Hormonal Replacement therapy (HRT) to counter menopausal symptoms and in women on the combined oral contraceptive. […] Certain conditions are known to be associated with recurrent thrush. […] These recurrent cases of thrush are commonly caused by other strains of Candida i.e. C. glabrata. […] Uncomplicated thrush occurs sporadically in healthy women and is mild and caused by C.albicans. […] On the other hand, complicated thrush is recurrent, becomes more severe, occurs in women who are immunocompromised and is caused by non-albicans Candida. […] In some instances, such as in immunocompromised women and those with poorly controlled diabetes thrush may result in a more severe disease with widespread systemic fungal infection. […] For VVT caused by fungus other than C.albicans, nystatin cream for seven to forteen days is useful. […] Immunocompromised individuals with VVT require routine antifungal treatment but for seven to forteen days.

• #60 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #61 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #62 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #63 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #64 Treatment of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/0601/p3306.html

  Vulvovaginal candidiasis is considered recurrent when at least four specific episodes occur in one year or at least three episodes unrelated to antibiotic therapy occur within one year. […] Known etiologies of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis include treatment-resistant Candida species other than Candida albicans, frequent antibiotic therapy, contraceptive use, compromise of the immune system, sexual activity and hyperglycemia. […] Although Candida albicans is the pathogen identified in most patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis, other possible pathogens include Candida tropicalis and Candida glabrata. […] In vitro studies have shown that imidazole antifungal agents such as miconazole and clotrimazole are not as effective against non Candida albicans fungi. […] Although antifungal resistance can cause treatment failure, other factors may contribute to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

• #65 Recurrent Thrush Infections? You probably haven’t addressed biofilm formation and PH. — Natural Health-Naturopath Auckland-Katherine Matthews

  https://www.katherinematthews.co.nz/blog/recurrent-thrush-treatment

  Recurrent thrush infections, particularly recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC), pose significant challenges for millions of women. To treat this condition effectively we need to address two key elements in persistent infections. These are the formation of biofilms by Candida species and the role of vaginal pH. […] Candida species, notably Candida albicans, form biofilmsstructured communities of fungal cells encased in an extracellular matrix composed of proteins, polysaccharides, and extracellular DNA. This biofilm serves as a robust defense mechanism, enabling Candida to adhere to mucosal surfaces and resist antifungal treatments. Studies have shown that biofilms significantly reduce the efficacy of common antifungal agents like clotrimazole, with mature biofilms displaying up to 1,000 times greater resistance compared to planktonic (free-floating) cells.

• #66 What is a yeast infection?

  https://flo.health/menstrual-cycle/health/symptoms-and-diseases/what-is-a-yeast-infection

  A previous infection never fully went away in the first place. A small study published in The Journal of Infectious Diseases tracked 10 women with recurring yeast infections and found that eight of them had the exact same strain of Candida albicans every time. This suggests their yeast infections might have been a relapse rather than a reinfection. […] Uncontrolled diabetes, which can cause blood sugar levels to spike. This, in turn, leads to higher sugar levels in the vagina, which is essentially more food for the candida to feed on. People with diabetes may also have a reduced immune response, which makes it harder for their bodies to wipe out the infection. […] There are also a few medical conditions that make yeast infections more likely to return.

• #67 Genital thrush in males | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/genital-thrush-in-males

  Thrush is a yeast infection caused by an overgrowth of a fungus called candida. […] Candida infections can occur in many different parts of your body, including your genital area. […] Thrush occurs when there is an overgrowth of candida. […] Normally, your body stops candida overgrowth naturally. Some conditions interfere with your body’s balance of flora (bacteria and fungi that keep your body healthy), including: taking antibiotics, some health conditions, such as poorly-controlled diabetes, and stress. […] Candida is not considered a sexually transmitted infection (STI), but can be transmitted to the penis by a sexual partner. […] If treatment isn’t effective, or you get thrush frequently, you should return to your doctor. You may have other health problems or a drug-resistant type of candida.

• #68 How does genital candidiasis affect women and men?| PortalCLÍNIC

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/news/how-does-genital-candidiasis-affect-women-and-men

  Genital candidiasis is a common type of infection caused by the yeast, Candida. Although less well known, candidiasis is also very common in men. In women, Candida infection is known as vulvovaginal candidiasis while, in men, it usually leads to inflammation of the glans (head of the penis) known as balanitis. However, some conditions particular to the sexes can promote infection, such as pregnancy in women or having a foreskin in men. Approximately 75% of women will develop vulvovaginal candidiasis at least once in their lives. However, although less well known, candidiasis is also common in men. Recurrent episodes of balanitis can be a sign of hidden diabetes. Vulvovaginal candidiasis and balanitis are not considered sexually transmitted infections, as the disease itself is not transferred from one person to another, only the organisms that cause it. Infection of other areas by self-contagion is more likely in men than in women, due to access to the infected area.

• #69 Is Thrush Contagious? Prevention and Complications

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/vaginal-yeast-infections-oral-thrush-and-oral-sex-3133055

  Researchers from Brazil found that oral candidiasis was not so much linked to sexual behaviors but rather to underlying immune disorders like HIV. […] There is evidence that cunnilingus (oral-vaginal sex) can trigger vaginal yeast infections. […] Enzymes in saliva can neutralize this bacteria, allowing C. albicans to grow beyond their normal limits. […] Candidiasis is not a sexually transmitted infection (STI) and is not associated with having multiple sexual partners, or a new partner. […] Health experts generally advise against sex if there is an active vaginal yeast infection. This is because inflammation caused by candidiasis can compromise vaginal tissues and increase the risk of acquiring HIV. […] Candidiasis is not an STI and cannot be passed through oral sex. With that said, oral sex can increase the risk of a yeast infection by causing an imbalance in vaginal flora. […] Vaginal sex is not advised if you have a yeast infection as the infection can compromise vaginal tissues and increase the risk of HIV.

• #70 Is Thrush Contagious? Prevention and Complications

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/vaginal-yeast-infections-oral-thrush-and-oral-sex-3133055

  Researchers from Brazil found that oral candidiasis was not so much linked to sexual behaviors but rather to underlying immune disorders like HIV. […] There is evidence that cunnilingus (oral-vaginal sex) can trigger vaginal yeast infections. […] Enzymes in saliva can neutralize this bacteria, allowing C. albicans to grow beyond their normal limits. […] Candidiasis is not a sexually transmitted infection (STI) and is not associated with having multiple sexual partners, or a new partner. […] Health experts generally advise against sex if there is an active vaginal yeast infection. This is because inflammation caused by candidiasis can compromise vaginal tissues and increase the risk of acquiring HIV. […] Candidiasis is not an STI and cannot be passed through oral sex. With that said, oral sex can increase the risk of a yeast infection by causing an imbalance in vaginal flora. […] Vaginal sex is not advised if you have a yeast infection as the infection can compromise vaginal tissues and increase the risk of HIV.

• #71

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  The specific incidence rate for acute VVC is difficult to determine, owing the numerous unreported cases to healthcare practitioners, mostly due to the use of easily accessible over-the-counter medications. […] An accurate and timely diagnosis of the causative agent of VVC is also essential for defining better therapy regime. […] The key advantage of transforming ethnopharmacological knowledge into a VVC therapy is the effective mitigation of infection along with health benefits, as phytomolecules work via multiple pathways targeting several molecules with least toxicity. […] The present review is an effort to elaborate the pathogenicity of VVC with special reference to vaginal microbiome dysbiosis. […] The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane.

• #72

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The effectiveness of the phytomolecules against VVC in vaginal isolates and models have also been established with several molecules including terpinene-4-ol, phytol, propolis, baicalein, quercetin, hydroxy tyrosol, etc. […] The antifungal action of phytomolecules against Candida is collaborative effort of multiple steps that either progresses sequentially or altogether at the same time to knock down the cell. […] The phytomolecules interact with the biomolecules and enzymes present ECM to inactivate them and reach the fungal cell surface without getting trapped. […] The presence of candidalysin potentiates the invasive traits of hyphal cells; and it is further linked with release of heparan sulphate (HS), responsible for neutrophil anergy.

• #73 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #74

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  Candidalysin is critical for systemic as well as mucosal infection due to the positive charge at carboxy terminus of its peptide. […] The deep penetrating trait of Candida during VVC is conferred by the heparan sulphate (HS), a highly acidic linear polysaccharide (glycosaminoglycan) present in the invading hyphal structure; heparan sulphate has role in neutrophil anergy. […] The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The presence of secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAP) in vaginal secretions of women with symptomatic vaginitis caused by pathogenic Candida spp. suggest key role of these enzymes in virulence. […] The dimorphism is a crucial virulence trait associated to adaptation of Candida that support their growth in surrounding microenvironment and attain the pathogenic trait.

• #75 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #76

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  Candidalysin is critical for systemic as well as mucosal infection due to the positive charge at carboxy terminus of its peptide. […] The deep penetrating trait of Candida during VVC is conferred by the heparan sulphate (HS), a highly acidic linear polysaccharide (glycosaminoglycan) present in the invading hyphal structure; heparan sulphate has role in neutrophil anergy. […] The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The presence of secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAP) in vaginal secretions of women with symptomatic vaginitis caused by pathogenic Candida spp. suggest key role of these enzymes in virulence. […] The dimorphism is a crucial virulence trait associated to adaptation of Candida that support their growth in surrounding microenvironment and attain the pathogenic trait.

• #77

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  Candidalysin is critical for systemic as well as mucosal infection due to the positive charge at carboxy terminus of its peptide. […] The deep penetrating trait of Candida during VVC is conferred by the heparan sulphate (HS), a highly acidic linear polysaccharide (glycosaminoglycan) present in the invading hyphal structure; heparan sulphate has role in neutrophil anergy. […] The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The presence of secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAP) in vaginal secretions of women with symptomatic vaginitis caused by pathogenic Candida spp. suggest key role of these enzymes in virulence. […] The dimorphism is a crucial virulence trait associated to adaptation of Candida that support their growth in surrounding microenvironment and attain the pathogenic trait.

• #78

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  The pathogenicity of Candida spp. in VVC depends on its adherence properties, which are related to both abiotic surfaces and mucous membrane. […] The effectiveness of the phytomolecules against VVC in vaginal isolates and models have also been established with several molecules including terpinene-4-ol, phytol, propolis, baicalein, quercetin, hydroxy tyrosol, etc. […] The antifungal action of phytomolecules against Candida is collaborative effort of multiple steps that either progresses sequentially or altogether at the same time to knock down the cell. […] The phytomolecules interact with the biomolecules and enzymes present ECM to inactivate them and reach the fungal cell surface without getting trapped. […] The presence of candidalysin potentiates the invasive traits of hyphal cells; and it is further linked with release of heparan sulphate (HS), responsible for neutrophil anergy.

• #79 Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/213853-overview

  Candida species also contain their own set of well-recognized but poorly characterized virulence mechanisms that contribute to their ability to cause infection. […] The main virulence factors include the following: Surface molecules that permit adherence of the organism to other structures (eg, human cells, extracellular matrix, prosthetic devices). […] Acid proteases and phospholipases that involve penetration and damage of cell envelopes. […] Ability to convert to a hyphal form (phenotypic switching). […] Upregulation of alternative carbon utilization pathways (metabolic adaptation). […] Induction of differential stress resistance responses (superoxide dismutases). […] Masking of cell wall components for immune evasion. […] As with most fungal infections, host defects play a significant role in the development of candidal infections.

• #80 Vaginal and Vulval Candidiasis (Vulvovaginal Candidiasis) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/vaginal-and-vulval-candidiasis

  The infective organism is a fungus that reproduces by budding: […] Recent research suggests that symptomatic vaginal and vulval candidiasis (VVC) is not due to opportunistic infection or immunodeficiency but is a hypersensitivity response to the commensal organism. This response may be genetically determined and oestrogen also seems to play a role. […] Advances in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms that are found in candida have led to vaccine development which is currently in trials. […] It is usually due to infection with C. albicans and various host factors including: […] Immunosuppression.

• #81 Vulvovaginal Candidiasis – TeachMeObGyn

  https://teachmeobgyn.com/sexual-health/non-transmitted-infections/vulvovaginal-candidiasis/

  The pathogen in 90% of candidiasis cases is the commensal organism Candida albicans. This particular yeast-like fungus characteristically replicates by budding and can be found as part of the bodys normal flora in the gastro-intestinal tract. Due to this, there are also instances of oral candidiasis in both men and women. For the purposes of this article however we will be focusing on candida infection of the female lower genital tract. […] However, a new line of thinking proposes that symptomatic candidiasis infections may also be as a result of a hypersensitivity reaction to the commensal organism Candida albicans, with genetics and oestrogen levels also thought to play a role. […] Oestrogen levels are thought to have an impact on the likelihood of developing a candidiasis infection by stimulating increased glycogen production, this provides a more favourable environment for microorganisms to thrive. It is also thought that oestrogen may have a direct influence on the candida organism by promoting its growth and encouraging it to stick to the walls of the vagina. Increased levels of oestrogen in pregnancy could mean that candida infections are more likely in some women.

• #82

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12982-024-00274-y

  VVC is defined as a mucosal infection and generally remains unreported/unrecorded by women due to social or behavioural inhibitions; usually treated using over the counter medicine or home remedies on their own. […] The main causative of VVC is members of genus Candida; the severity and recurrence of infection varies considerably with species. […] The health promoting bacteria (Lactobacilli) in vaginal microbiome often keeps check on colonization/virulence of Candida but under some conditions like antibiotic treatment, the microbiome get disturbed and Candida flourishes to cause disease. […] Host factors like antibiotic therapy, diabetes, hormonal change, etc. play a significant role in turning VVC to resilient and recurrent VVC (RVVC), a unretractable form of Candida infection. […] The global burden of RVVC in both immune-competent as well as healthy women, and has increased.

• #83 Recurrent Thrush Infections? You probably haven’t addressed biofilm formation and PH. — Natural Health-Naturopath Auckland-Katherine Matthews

  https://www.katherinematthews.co.nz/blog/recurrent-thrush-treatment

  Did you know that the cells in your vagina have their own defense mechanisms against candida overgrowth? The epithelial cells (inner skin of the vagina) have receptors to signal and recruit defenses such as lactobacillus bacteria. Estrogens further influence the vaginal ecosystem by regulating immune cells. Lactobacillus produces lactic acid and supports the acidic environment, highlighting the interplay between hormonal balance, pH, and microbiome health. […] Addressing persistent vaginal candidiasis requires a multifaceted approach: Incorporating boric acid suppositories into treatment regimens can be a game-changer for resistant infections by breaking down biofilms and enhancing the effectiveness of other antifungal agents. Specific strains of lactobacilli, such as Lactobacillus crispatus, can help restore and maintain a healthy vaginal microbiome, preventing recurrent infections.

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