Rak odbytu
Etiologia i przyczyny

Rak odbytu (carcinoma ani) jest nowotworem złośliwym rozwijającym się w tkankach kanału odbytu, którego etiologia jest ściśle związana z zakażeniem wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV). Około 90-93% przypadków przypisuje się przetrwałej infekcji HPV, zwłaszcza typom wysokiego ryzyka onkogennego HPV-16 i HPV-18, które odpowiadają za ponad 90% zachorowań. Mechanizm patogenetyczny obejmuje integrację DNA wirusa z genomem gospodarza, co prowadzi do inaktywacji białek supresorowych i niekontrolowanego podziału komórek. Przetrwała infekcja może prowadzić do rozwoju śródnabłonkowej neoplazji odbytu (AIN) i progresji do raka inwazyjnego. Ryzyko progresji HSIL do raka wynosi około 1/4000 w populacji ogólnej i 1/100 u osób z HIV, a progresja AIN do raka inwazyjnego występuje w 10-11% przypadków.

Etiologia raka odbytu

Rak odbytu (łac. carcinoma ani) to nowotwór złośliwy rozwijający się w tkankach kanału odbytu lub odbytu. Jest stosunkowo rzadkim nowotworem, jednak jego częstość występowania wzrasta na przestrzeni ostatnich dekad. Poznanie etiologii tej choroby ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktyki i leczenia12.

Zakażenie HPV jako główna przyczyna

Zdecydowana większość przypadków raka odbytu jest związana z zakażeniem wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV). Szacuje się, że około 90-93% przypadków raka odbytu przypisuje się przetrwałemu zakażeniu HPV, co czyni go najważniejszym czynnikiem ryzyka w rozwoju tego nowotworu34. Wśród ponad 150 typów HPV, typy wysokiego ryzyka onkogennego, szczególnie HPV-16 i HPV-18, są najczęściej związane z rozwojem raka odbytu, odpowiadając za ponad 90% przypadków56.

HPV jest najczęstszą infekcją przenoszoną drogą płciową. Wirus wnika do komórek nabłonka odbytu i zmienia ich DNA, co prowadzi do zaburzenia normalnych mechanizmów kontrolujących wzrost i podział komórek. Białka wirusa HPV mogą blokować działanie białek supresorowych, które w normalnych warunkach zapobiegają rozwojowi raka, co skutkuje niekontrolowanym podziałem komórek78.

Większość zakażeń HPV ustępuje samoistnie dzięki odpowiedzi immunologicznej organizmu, jednak u niektórych osób infekcja utrzymuje się, prowadząc do przewlekłych zmian w komórkach, które mogą przekształcić się w stan przednowotworowy zwany dysplazją odbytu lub śródnabłonkową neoplazją odbytu (AIN), a następnie w inwazyjnego raka910.

Czynniki ryzyka związane z HPV

Istnieje kilka czynników, które zwiększają ryzyko zakażenia HPV lub utrudniają organizmowi zwalczanie infekcji, co w konsekwencji może prowadzić do rozwoju raka odbytu:

  • Aktywność seksualna: Osoby mające wielu partnerów seksualnych mają większe ryzyko zakażenia HPV, co zwiększa ich podatność na rozwój raka odbytu1112.
  • Receptywny stosunek analny: Zarówno u kobiet, jak i mężczyzn, bycie stroną przyjmującą w stosunku analnym zwiększa ryzyko zakażenia HPV i rozwoju raka odbytu1314.
  • Brak szczepień przeciwko HPV: Szczepienia przeciwko HPV są skuteczną metodą zapobiegania zakażeniu typami HPV wysokiego ryzyka, które mogą prowadzić do raka odbytu1315.

Immunosupresja jako czynnik ryzyka

Osłabiony układ odpornościowy znacząco zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju raka odbytu. Główne przyczyny immunosupresji związane z tym nowotworem to:

  • Zakażenie HIV: Osoby zakażone wirusem HIV mają znacząco wyższe ryzyko rozwoju raka odbytu w porównaniu do populacji ogólnej. Ryzyko to jest 28-29 razy wyższe według metaanaliz, bez różnicy między kobietami a mężczyznami1617.
  • Leki immunosupresyjne: Osoby przyjmujące leki hamujące układ odpornościowy, np. po przeszczepie narządów, mają zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka odbytu135.
  • Choroby autoimmunologiczne: Schorzenia takie jak celiakia, toczeń czy choroba Gravesa-Basedowa mogą osłabiać układ odpornościowy i zwiększać ryzyko rozwoju raka odbytu1819.

Osłabiony układ odpornościowy ma trudności z kontrolowaniem zakażeń HPV, co może prowadzić do przetrwałej infekcji i zwiększonego ryzyka rozwoju raka2021.

Palenie tytoniu

Palenie tytoniu jest ważnym niezależnym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju raka odbytu. Badania wykazały, że osoby palące mają kilkakrotnie wyższe ryzyko rozwoju tego nowotworu w porównaniu do osób niepalących2220. Mechanizmy, poprzez które palenie zwiększa ryzyko raka odbytu, obejmują:

  • Osłabienie funkcji układu odpornościowego, co utrudnia zwalczanie zakażeń HPV20.
  • Ekspozycję na kancerogenne substancje zawarte w dymie tytoniowym, które mogą uszkadzać DNA komórek i promować rozwój nowotworów23.
  • Zwiększenie podatności na przewlekłe zakażenia HPV24.

Co istotne, ryzyko związane z paleniem zmniejsza się znacząco po zaprzestaniu palenia25.

Wcześniejsza historia nowotworów HPV-zależnych

Osoby z historią innych nowotworów związanych z zakażeniem HPV mają zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka odbytu. Do tych nowotworów należą:

  • Rak szyjki macicy195.
  • Rak pochwy2627.
  • Rak sromu2627.
  • Rak prącia28.

Zwiększone ryzyko wynika prawdopodobnie z zakażenia tymi samymi typami HPV, które mogą prowadzić do rozwoju nowotworów w różnych lokalizacjach2930.

Przewlekłe stany zapalne obszaru odbytu

Długotrwałe stany zapalne w obszarze odbytu mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju raka odbytu. Do takich stanów należą:

Przewlekły stan zapalny może prowadzić do uszkodzenia DNA komórek i zwiększać ryzyko transformacji nowotworowej23.

Wiek i płeć jako czynniki ryzyka

Wiek i płeć są istotnymi czynnikami ryzyka w rozwoju raka odbytu:

  • Wiek: Ryzyko raka odbytu wzrasta wraz z wiekiem. Większość przypadków diagnozuje się u osób powyżej 50. roku życia, a średni wiek w momencie diagnozy to wczesne lata 601325.
  • Płeć: Rak odbytu występuje częściej u kobiet niż u mężczyzn w większości grup populacyjnych, z wyjątkiem mężczyzn rasy czarnej, u których częstość występowania jest wyższa niż u kobiet tej samej rasy3233.

Transformacja nowotworowa i progresja choroby

Rozwój raka odbytu jest procesem wieloetapowym, który obejmuje:

  1. Zakażenie HPV: Wirus wnika do komórek nabłonka odbytu10.
  2. Przetrwała infekcja: Zamiast zostać wyeliminowany przez układ odpornościowy, wirus utrzymuje się w komórkach10.
  3. Integracja DNA wirusa z genomem gospodarza: Prowadzi to do zaburzenia normalnych mechanizmów kontroli podziału komórkowego7.
  4. Rozwój dysplazji: Tworzą się zmiany przednowotworowe, znane jako śródnabłonkowa neoplazja odbytu (AIN)6.
  5. Progresja do raka inwazyjnego: Komórki nabierają zdolności do inwazji sąsiednich tkanek i przerzutowania34.

Według badań, ryzyko progresji ze stanu wysokiego stopnia dysplazji (HSIL) do raka inwazyjnego wynosi około 1 na 4000 w populacji ogólnej i 1 na 100 u osób żyjących z HIV35. Inne badania sugerują, że progresja AIN do inwazyjnego raka odbytu występuje w 10-11% przypadków36.

Podsumowanie czynników etiologicznych

Rak odbytu jest chorobą, której etiologia jest złożona i wieloczynnikowa. Głównym czynnikiem przyczynowym jest zakażenie HPV, szczególnie typami wysokiego ryzyka onkogennego (HPV-16 i HPV-18). Jednak na rozwój tego nowotworu wpływają również inne czynniki, w tym osłabiony układ odpornościowy (szczególnie w wyniku zakażenia HIV), palenie tytoniu, historia innych nowotworów HPV-zależnych, przewlekłe stany zapalne obszaru odbytu, a także wiek i płeć316.

Zrozumienie czynników etiologicznych raka odbytu ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktyki, w tym programów szczepień przeciwko HPV, badań przesiewowych u osób z grupy wysokiego ryzyka oraz modyfikacji stylu życia. Badania nad etiologią raka odbytu są nadal prowadzone, co może prowadzić do lepszego zrozumienia mechanizmów prowadzących do rozwoju tej choroby i bardziej skutecznych metod jej zapobiegania i leczenia3736.

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Human papillomavirus, smoking, and sexual practices in the etiology of anal cancer – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15241823/
    The incidence of anal cancer has increased among both men (160%) and women (78%) from 1973 to 2000 in the U.S. […] The high proportion of tumors with detectable HPV suggests that infection with HPV is a necessary cause of anal cancer, similar to that of cervical cancer. Increases in the prevalence of exposures, such as cigarette smoking, anal intercourse, HPV infection, and the number of lifetime sexual partners, may account for the increasing incidence of anal cancer in men and women.
  • #2 The etiology and epidemiology of anal cancer – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15137956/
    The cause of anal carcinoma remains to be fully elucidated, and HPV seems to play a central role in this process. […] The incidence of anal cancers has increased, which is related to the evolution of HIV and AIDS, and their treatment.
  • #3 Anal Cancer: Signs, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | The Anal Cancer Foundation
    https://www.analcancerfoundation.org/what-is-anal-cancer/
    Anal cancer and precancer have several causes and risk factors. Approximately 10,540 people will be diagnosed with anal cancer in the US and about 1,500 in the UK annually. […] In almost all cases, anal cancer is caused by HPV, a virus that nearly every person has at some point in their life. The other risk factors on this page – immunosuppression, sexual activity, tobacco use, and older age – all may increase the chance that an HPV infection becomes cancerous. However, there are people who don’t have these additional vulnerabilities who also develop anal cancer. […] Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection in the US and UK. HPV is a skin virus that can lead to anal, cervical, vulvar, vaginal, penile and head and neck cancers. It is transmitted through skin-to-skin contact. The virus enters the DNA of the cell and causes changes that limit the body’s ability to destroy the cell even though it is infected with a virus. The impact is that the cell replicates abnormally. This may lead to groups of cellular changes that can become precancer or cancerous over time.
  • #4 Risk factors for anal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society
    https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/anal/risks
    A risk factor is something that increases the risk of developing cancer. It could be a behaviour, substance or condition. Most cancers are the result of many risk factors. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most important risk factor for anal cancer. […] The risk of developing anal cancer increases with age. It is usually seen in people over the age of 55. In general, anal cancer develops more often in women than in men. But Black men (including men of African or Caribbean ancestry) have a higher rate of anal cancer than white men or Black women. […] HPV infection is found in about 90% of people with anal cancer. There are several subtypes of the virus, but HPV16 and HPV18 are most likely to cause anal cancer. HPV infection can also cause cervical, vaginal, vulvar, penile and some oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers.
  • #5 Causes and risk factors of anal cancer | Macmillan Cancer Support
    https://www.macmillan.org.uk/cancer-information-and-support/bowel-cancer/causes-and-risk-factors-of-anal-cancer
    Most anal cancers are caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] HPV is a virus that is linked to different cancers, including anal cancer. […] The types of HPV usually linked to anal cancer are HPV16 and HPV18. […] People taking medicines to suppress their immune system after an organ transplant have a higher risk of anal cancer. […] Smoking tobacco increases the risk of developing anal cancer. […] Like most types of cancer, the risk of developing anal cancer increases as you get older. […] Anal cancer is much more common in women than in men. […] This is when abnormal cells develop in the skin just inside or outside the anus. It is usually caused by the same types of HPV that cause anal cancer. […] HPV infection can also cause abnormal changes in the cells of the cervix or vulva. […] People who have had another cancer linked to HPV have an increased risk of anal cancer. […] People who have had anal or genital warts have an increased risk of anal cancer.
  • #6 HPV, anal dysplasia and anal cancer | CATIE – Canada’s source for HIV and hepatitis C information
    https://www.catie.ca/hpv-anal-dysplasia-and-anal-cancer
    Anal cancer typically develops over a period of years, beginning with a precancerous condition called anal dysplasia. […] A sexually transmitted virus called human papillomavirus (HPV) causes most cases of anal dysplasia and anal cancer. There are different types of HPV. Only some types cause anal dysplasia and anal cancer. […] A sexually transmitted virus called human papillomavirus (HPV) causes almost all cases of anal dysplasia and anal cancer. This makes HPV the most important risk factor for anal cancer. […] HPV types 16 and 18, in particular, account for most cases of anal cancer, as well as most cases of cervical cancer. […] People living with HIV have a higher risk of acquiring an HPV infection and of developing precancerous lesions. […] Other important risk factors for anal dysplasia and anal cancer include cigarette smoking, diets lacking in fruit and vegetables, being over the age of fifty, and history of other sexually transmitted infections.
  • #7 Anal cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anal-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20354140
    Anal cancer happens when cells in the anal canal develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell a cell what to do. In healthy cells, the DNA gives instructions to grow and multiply at a set rate. The instructions tell the cells to die at a set time. In cancer cells, the changes give different instructions. The changes tell the cancer cells to make many more cells quickly. Cancer cells can keep living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells. […] Most anal cancers are thought to be caused by human papillomavirus, also called HPV. HPV is a common virus that’s passed through sexual contact. For most people, the virus never causes problems. It usually goes away on its own. For some, though, the virus can cause changes in the cells that may lead to cancer.
  • #8
    https://healthmatch.io/anal-cancer/anal-cancer-symptoms-and-signs
    Anal cancer differs significantly from colon and rectal cancers in its causes and main risk factors, even though all three cancers form along your GI tract. […] While there’s no definitive cause of anal cancer, about 90% of diagnoses are linked to infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] The HPV proteins can stop two proteins that help prevent the development of cancer from doing their job of keeping cell growth in check, causing cancer cells to grow out of control. […] One of the main risk factors for catching HPV is lowered immunity. That’s why those with HIV are at a particularly high risk of developing anal cancer. Other risk factors include sexual activity that can spread HPV (or HIV), anal warts, the presence of other types of cancer, especially cervical, vaginal, and vulvar cancers, lowered immunity from disease or other factors, and smoking. […] HPV is the main underlying factor for developing anal cancer. Smoking, lowered immunity, certain types of cancer, and HIV also increase your risk of developing the disease.
  • #9 3 myths about anal cancer, debunked | MD Anderson Cancer Center
    https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/3-myths-about-anal-cancer–debunked.h00-159621012.html
    Anal cancer is a fairly rare type of cancer that develops in the anus and anal canal. About 8,000 people in the U.S. are diagnosed with anal cancer each year. […] The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the biggest risk factor for anal cancer, and it is very common. Eight out of 10 people in the United States will be infected by this virus in their lifetime. It can be transmitted through any intimate skin-to-skin contact. […] Having anal cancer, or another HPV-related cancer, does not mean you are actively infected with HPV. It also doesn’t mean you caught the virus recently. It usually takes decades between HPV infection and the cell changes that turn into cancer. […] The most common type of anal cancer is squamous cell carcinoma, which forms in the cells that line the anus. Anal squamous cell carcinoma is usually successfully treated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Most patients do not need surgery for this cancer and do not need a colostomy bag.
  • #10 Anal Cancer Etiology and Screening (ACES) Study – NCI
    https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/cancer-types/anus/aces-study
    Anal squamous cell carcinomas (representing 90% of anal cancers) are caused by high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection via a multistep process that begins with HPV infection. […] While many HPV infections do not cause disease and are cleared by the host immune system, some persist, and a subset of persistent infections will progress to anal precancer (high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions; HSIL) and may develop into invasive cancer if left untreated. […] Although anal cancer is rare in the general population, certain groups, including people with HIV, particularly men who have sex with men (MSM), have a much higher risk of developing anal cancer. […] Other groups with elevated risk include women with HIV, MSM without HIV, and women with a history of lower genital tract disease.
  • #11 Anal Cancer Causes & Risk Factors | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
    https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/anal/anal-cancer-causes-risk-factors
    The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common virus that is sexually transmitted (you can get when you have sex). Many people have HPV but dont know it. In most people, the virus is not active in the body. […] For some people, HPV infection can lead to certain types of cancer. These include cervical cancer, vaginal cancer, head and neck cancer, and anal cancer. […] About 9 out of every 10 cases of anal cancer are caused by HPV. Your risk of getting anal cancer from HPV depends on the kind of HPV you have. […] The kind of HPV most often linked to anal cancer is called HPV 16. Your risk of anal cancer is higher depending on the kind of HPV you have. […] If you have sex with many partners, you have a higher chance of getting exposed to HPV. That puts you at higher risk for anal cancer.
  • #12 Anal Cancer: Signs, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | The Anal Cancer Foundation
    https://www.analcancerfoundation.org/what-is-anal-cancer/
    Individuals with autoimmune disorders. […] Transplant recipients and other individuals on immunosuppressive drugs. […] Any sexual contact, including manual stimulation, has the ability to expose you to HPV. It’s important to reiterate that nearly all adults will have HPV at some point in their lifetime. […] While increasing exposure will increase your chance of contracting HPV, even a person with only one lifetime partner can be infected with HPV. Having multiple sex partners can increase your chance of developing anal cancer because it can increase your chance of being exposed to a carcinogenic strain of HPV. […] Smoking increases your chances of developing anal cancer as the carcinogens (cancer-causing chemicals) in tobacco can affect the entire body. There is evidence that smoking may decrease the immune system’s ability to fight HPV infection. Studies have also shown that current smokers are at a higher risk of developing anal cancer than former smokers and those who have never smoked at all. […] Most cases of anal cancer are diagnosed when an individual is older than 50 years old. This is because HPV takes time to alter the cells to develop into cancer. However, there are cases of people in their 20s and 30s developing anal cancer.
  • #13 Anal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & Prognosis
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6151-anal-cancer
    Engaging in anal sex as the receiving partner. This is true for everyone, regardless of sex. Having multiple partners for any type of sex increases your risk for HPV, and therefore your risk of anal cancer. […] Not being vaccinated against HPV. Some forms of HPV are commons anal cancer causes. […] Being age 55 and older. Providers typically detect anal cancer in people in this age group. […] Smoking. People who smoke are more likely to develop cancer of all kinds. […] Having a disease or needing medication that compromises your immune system. For example, people who are organ recipients must take medicine to prevent organ rejection. […] Having an anal fistula (an abnormal opening), which goes from your anus to the skin around your anus. […] Having other cancers, including vulvar, vaginal or cervical cancer.
  • #14 Anal Cancer Causes & Risk Factors | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
    https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/anal/anal-cancer-causes-risk-factors
    Having anal sex is a risk factor linked to anal cancer. The disease is more common in men who have sex with men. […] Smoking cigarettes raises your risk for many types of cancer, including anal cancer. […] You have lower immunity. This can be from an HIV infection or because you take medicines that suppress your immune system. […] You have chronic (long-term) anal irritation from conditions such as an anal fistula or benign (not cancer) anal lesions. […] You have had other cancers, such as penile, cervical, vaginal, or vulvar cancer. […] You are over age 50. […] You were assigned female at birth.
  • #15 HPV, anal dysplasia and anal cancer | CATIE – Canada’s source for HIV and hepatitis C information
    https://www.catie.ca/hpv-anal-dysplasia-and-anal-cancer
    HPV vaccines are widely available and highly effective at preventing certain types of HPV, including those that most often cause anal dysplasia and anal cancer. […] Quitting or reducing smoking reduces the risk of developing anal dysplasia and anal cancer. […] Screening for anal dysplasia can increase the chances of catching the dysplasia early, so that it can be treated before cancer develops.
  • #16 Anal cancer risk | Cancer Research UK
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/statistics-by-cancer-type/anal-cancer/risk-factors
    Anal cancer cases are preventable, UK, 2015. […] Anal cancer cases caused by infections, UK, 2015. […] 91% of anal cancer cases in the UK are preventable. […] Anal cancer risk is associated with a number of risk factors. […] 91% of anal cancer cases in the UK are caused by HPV infection. […] Around 91% of anal cancers in women and 75% in men are HPV-positive, a meta-analysis showed. […] Anal cancer risk is 28-29 times higher in people with HIV infection, compared with the general population, with no difference between men and women, meta-analyses have shown. […] Anal cancer risk is more than 3 times higher in HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM) compared with other HIV-positive men, a cohort study showed. […] Anal cancer risk may be higher in smokers compared with non-smokers; the association is probably independent of other risk factors including human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, and may reflect an immunosuppressive effect of smoking.
  • #17 Risks and causes of anal cancer | Cancer Research UK
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/anal-cancer/risks-causes
    Having HPV is the biggest risk factor for anal cancer. Most of us have HPV at some point during our life. But for most people, it won’t cause anal cancer. […] Men and women with HPV have an increased risk of developing anal cancer. Around 90 in 100 cases of anal cancer (around 90%) are linked to HPV infection. […] HPV vaccination works better in people who haven’t ever had an HPV infection. […] Your risk of developing anal cancer increases as you get older. […] Having the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) increases your risk of developing anal cancer. […] Some studies have shown smoking increases the risk of anal cancer. […] Some studies show that if you have had cervical, vulval or vaginal cancer you have a higher risk of developing abnormal cells in the anus or anal cancer than the general population. […] If you have a weakened immune system, you are at greater risk of developing anal cancer compared to the general population.
  • #18 Anal cancer
    https://www.cancervic.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/anal_cancer/anal-cancer-overview.html
    About 90% of anal cancer cases are caused by infection with specific strains of a very common virus called human papillomavirus (HPV). […] HPV can infect the surface of different areas, including the anus, cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, mouth and throat. Some HPV strains cause anal and genital warts. […] If cancer develops, it usually appears many years after the first infection. Other risk factors for anal cancer include: having a weakened immune system, for example because of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, an organ transplant or an autoimmune disease such as coeliac disease, lupus or Graves disease; being a receptive partner („bottom”) in anal sex; having anal or genital warts; having had an abnormal cervical screening test result; having had cancer of the cervix, vulva or vagina; smoking tobacco; having unprotected sex; having many sex partners; being aged over 45. […] Some people with anal cancer do not have any of these risk factors.
  • #19 Anal Cancer: Signs, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | The Anal Cancer Foundation
    https://www.analcancerfoundation.org/what-is-anal-cancer/
    There are certain HPV-related conditions that make it more likely that you will develop anal cancer: History of anal warts or anal precancer: men and women with anal warts or anal precancer are at increased risk of developing anal cancer because this history indicates an HPV infection. If the infection is persistent with recurrent lesions, it can lead to changes in the anal cells, which may eventually become cancer if left untreated. […] History of other HPV-related cancer: women with a history of cervical, vulvar or vaginal cancer are at risk of developing anal cancer because these cancers are also caused by HPV, and the immune system has demonstrated difficulty in fighting the virus. […] Having a weakened immune system can make the body more susceptible to developing an infection. This is also true for HPV, which can more easily develop into a persistent infection in these individuals. Individuals at increased risk of developing anal cancer include: HIV-positive men and women.
  • #20 What Causes Anal Cancer? | Anal Cancer Causes | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/anal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html
    HPV infection […] Researchers have found some risk factors that increase a persons risk of anal cancer, but the exact cause of anal cancer is not known. […] Most anal cancers seem to be linked to infection with HPV (the human papillomavirus). While HPV infection seems to be important in the development of anal cancer, the vast majority of people with HPV infections do not get anal cancer. […] A great deal of research is now being done to learn how HPV might cause anal cancer. There is good evidence that HPV causes many anal squamous cell carcinomas. But the role of this virus in causing anal adenocarcinomas is less certain. […] When the body is less able to fight off infections, viruses like HPV can become more active, which might trigger the development of anal cancer. […] Smoking also seems to make the immune system less effective in fighting HPV infections. Many studies have noted an increased rate of anal cancer in people who smoke, and the effect of smoking is especially important in people with other risk factors for anal cancer.
  • #21 Anal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More
    https://www.health.com/anal-cancer-8665855
    People who have many sexual partners are at a higher risk for developing anal cancer. This could be because they have a higher tendency to contract STIs like HPV and HIV (which is also a risk factor). […] When your immune system is low, its unable to fight off infections effectively. Viral infections like HPV and HIV can become more active, contributing to cancer. […] This habit is commonly linked to lung cancer, but the carcinogenic (cancer-causing) chemicals in tobacco can also travel to other parts of the body. […] People who have had genital warts or cancer of the vagina, cervix, or vulva are at a higher risk for developing anal cancer. This may be because anal warts and these cancers are linked to HPV infection.
  • #22 Anal cancer
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/anal-cancer-and-anal-canal-cancer
    Anal cancer is a rare malignant tumour which grows in or around the anus. Most anal cancers are classified as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Nearly all (90%) anal cancers are attributable to persistent infection with HPV, the cause of genital warts. Certain strains of HPV are known to be oncogenic (cancer-causing), especially types HPV 16 and 18, and these two infections cause more than 90% of anal cancers. In Australia and New Zealand, the rates of anal cancer are increasing in association with documented increases in infection with HPV. […] The risk of anal cancer is greater in the following groups of patients: People with anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) a precursor lesion, Men and women who have receptive anal intercourse, Men and women infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Anal cancer is more common in patients with advanced disease, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), when the incidence is 137 in 100,000, Men who have had sex with men, Immunosuppressed patients, for example, organ transplant recipients, Intravenous drug users, People with a high lifetime number of sex partners, Cigarette smokers, who are 4 times more likely than non-smokers to have anal cancer, People who have injured their anal mucosae, such as anal fistulae in inflammatory bowel disease or anal trauma, Women, and less often men, with lichen sclerosus, People with a history of genital warts, Women with a history of cervical cancer, abnormal cervical smears (CIN), vulval cancer, vulval intraepithelial carcinoma (VIN), or men with penile cancer or penile intraepithelial carcinoma (PIN).
  • #23 Anal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & Prevention Guide
    https://www.truemeds.in/diseases/cancer/anal-cancer-53
    Smoking: Cigarette smoking has been linked to an increased risk of anal cancer. The harmful substances in tobacco can damage DNA and promote cancer development. […] Sexual practices: Certain sexual practices, particularly receptive anal intercourse, may increase the risk of HPV infection and subsequent anal cancer. Engaging in unprotected sex can also heighten this risk. […] Chronic anal inflammation: Conditions that cause chronic inflammation in the anal area, such as anal fistulas or inflammatory bowel disease, may contribute to the risk of anal cancer. Persistent irritation can lead to changes in cell structure.
  • #24 Explore Anal Cancer Symptoms And Causes Symptoms and Causes at HCG Oncology
    http://www.hcgoncology.com/types-of-cancers/anal-cancer-symptoms-and-causes/
    Smoking is also one of the major causes of anal cancer, as it is not only one of the major risk factors but can also lead to its recurrence. […] Many case studies have reflected on the possibility of patients with sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS or HIV and a history of anal warts getting diagnosed with anal cancer. The reason behind this is that patients with chlamydia, anal warts, and AIDS/HIV have a compromised immune system, which leads to the easy growth of cancerous cells in the body.
  • #25 Anal Cancer: Causes, Symptoms & Treatments
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/anal-cancer
    Anal cancer causes and risk factors include chronic infection with HPV, gender and age. HPV infection spreads primarily through vaginal, oral or anal sex. The HPV vaccine provides protection against strains of the virus. […] Other common risk factors for anal cancer include a compromised immune system, often caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection, immunosuppressants or an organ transplant, anal intercourse, other gynecologic cancers, such as cervical cancer, vulvar cancer or vaginal cancer, and chronic local inflammation, such as anal fistulas or long-lasting open wounds. […] Two-thirds of anal cancer cases occur in people older than 55. The average age for diagnosis is in the early 60s, according to the ACS. Women are at greater risk than men. […] Smokers have a higher risk of anal cancer, but that risk decreases significantly when they quit. Anal cancer is more prevalent among African Americans than in whites.
  • #26 Anal Cancer – Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | OSF Cancer Institute | OSF HealthCare
    https://www.osfhealthcare.org/services/specialties/cancer/conditions-treatments/conditions/anal
    Anal cancer is a serious but rare condition that develops in the tissues of the anus. […] The causes of anal cancer can depend on the individual and their risk factors. […] People who are most at risk for developing anal cancer include: Anyone who has a weakened immune system, such as people who are on immunosuppression medicines after organ transplant or those who are on steroids for a long time; Anyone who is HIV-positive; Anyone with a history of anal warts; Having many sexual partners; Men who have sex with men; Smoking; Women with a history of cervical, vaginal or vulvar cancer; Women older than age 45 who are HPV 16 positive; Anyone who hasn’t been vaccinated against HPV.
  • #27 Anal cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/anal-cancer
    Anal cancer is a rare cancer. The most common cause of anal cancer is the human papilloma virus (HPV), accounting for around 90 per cent of cases. […] People who have anal intercourse may have an increased risk of anal cancer possibly due to an increased risk of HPV infection. […] Women who have already had cervical, vulval or vaginal cancer or a history of abnormal cells in the cervix, vulva or vagina are also at risk. […] Having diseases such as chlamydia, anal warts and AIDS/HIV can contribute to the risk of developing anal cancer. […] People with weakened immune systems are at an increased risk of anal cancer. […] Smoking tobacco is another factor that can increase the risk of anal cancer.
  • #28 Anal Cancer | Harold C. Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center | Condition | UT Southwestern Medical Center
    https://utswmed.org/conditions-treatments/anal-cancer/
    Sexual activity: Having anal sex and having many partners can increase the risk of anal cancer. […] History of cancer: Women who have had cervical, vaginal, or vulvar cancer are at a higher risk of anal cancer. […] Race and gender: Anal cancer is more common among African-American men than women, but it is more common among women than men in other population groups.
  • #29 What Causes Anal Cancer? HPV and Other Risk Factors
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/anal-cancer/risk-factors
    Human papillomavirus (HPV), a collection of more than 150 viruses spread primarily by contact during vaginal, oral or anal sexual activity, is responsible for the majority of anal cancers. […] Chronic infection with high-risk types of HPV is the most significant risk factor for anal cancer. […] HPV may be asymptomatic for years, and persistent HPV infections may cause cell changes that, left untreated, may become cancer. […] Patients with a history of anal warts also have an increased risk of anal cancer. […] Men and women with a history of receptive anal intercourse, especially those younger than 30, have a higher risk of anal cancer. […] People with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS, are more likely to develop anal cancer. […] Women with a history of cervical, vulvar or vaginal cancer, which are also are caused by HPV infection, have an increased anal cancer risk.
  • #30 Risk factors for anal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society
    https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/anal/risks
    In both men and women, some sexual activities increase the risk for anal cancer. These activities include having receptive anal intercourse (receiving anal sex) and having many sexual partners. There are higher rates of anal cancer among men who have sex with men compared to the overall male population. […] People with immunosuppression seem to have higher rates of anal cancer. This includes people with a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and those who have had an organ transplant and must take medicines to suppress their immune system. […] Women who have been diagnosed with cancer of the cervix, vagina or vulva have a higher risk of developing anal cancer. This may be because these cancers have similar risk factors, such as an HPV infection. […] Studies show that smoking tobacco increases the risk for anal cancer. Smokers are several times more likely to have anal cancer compared with people who dont smoke.
  • #31
    https://continentalhospitals.com/diseases/anal-cancer/
    The risk of anal cancer increases with age, particularly in people over 50. However, it can occur at any age. […] Chronic conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) can increase the risk of developing anal cancer due to prolonged inflammation in the area. […] A history of certain cancers, such as cervical, vulvar, or vaginal cancer, can increase the risk of developing anal cancer, especially in women. […] Having multiple sexual partners increases the risk of contracting HPV, which can contribute to the development of anal cancer. […] While rare, some individuals may have a genetic predisposition to cancer, making them more likely to develop anal cancer.
  • #32 What Causes Anal Cancer? HPV and Other Risk Factors
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/anal-cancer/risk-factors
    Having a compromised immune system means an increased risk for developing anal cancer. […] Those with anal fistulas or open wounds that last a long time, have a slightly higher risk for developing anal cancer. […] Two-thirds of anal cancer cases occur in people older than 55. […] Smokers have a significantly higher risk for developing anal cancer. […] Incidence of anal cancer is higher among African Americans, particularly men, than in whites. Women are also at greater risk than men for the disease.
  • #33 Anal cancer Information | Mount Sinai – New York
    https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/anal-cancer
    Anal cancer can start anywhere in the anus. Where it starts determines the kind of cancer it is. […] The cause of anal cancer is unclear. However, there is a link between anal cancer and the human papillomavirus or HPV infection. HPV is a sexually transmitted virus that has been linked to other cancers as well. […] Other major risk factors include: HIV/AIDS infection. Anal cancer is more common among HIV/AIDS positive men who have sex with other men. Sexual activity. Having many sexual partners and having anal sex are both major risks. This may be due to the increased risk for HPV and HIV/AIDS infection. Smoking. Quitting will reduce your risk for anal cancer. Weak immune system. HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, certain medicines, and other conditions that weaken the immune system increase your risk. Age. Most people who have anal cancer are age 50 or older. In rare cases, it is seen in people younger than age 35. Sex and race. Anal cancer is more common among women than men in most groups. More African American males get anal cancer than females.
  • #34 What is anal cancer? – Bowel Cancer Australia
    https://www.bowelcanceraustralia.org/bowel-cancer/what-is-bowel-cancer/anal-cancer/
    Cancer can spread through tissue, the lymph system, and the blood: Tissue the cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas. […] When cancer spreads to another part of the body, it is called metastasis. Cancer cells break away from where they began (the primary tumour) and travel through the lymph system or blood. […] The metastatic tumour is the same type of cancer as the primary tumour. For example, if anal cancer spreads to the lung, the cancer cells in the lung are actually anal cancer cells. The disease is metastatic anal cancer, not lung cancer.
  • #35 What is anal cancer? – Bowel Cancer Australia
    https://www.bowelcanceraustralia.org/bowel-cancer/what-is-bowel-cancer/anal-cancer/
    Most anal cancers are related to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection […] In the general population, 90% of anal cancers are caused by a particular strain of the human papillomavirus (HPV), HPV 16, however there is no current system of screening in place for anal HPV and pre-cancerous changes. […] Risk factors for anal cancer include the following: Being infected with anal HPV can lead to pre-cancerous cells inside or around the anus. […] The rate of progression from anal HSIL (High grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions the term used to describe the microscopic appearances of pre-cancer) to anal cancer isnt known but it is thought it may be of the order of 1 in 4,000 in the general population and 1 in 100 in people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). […] The prognosis depends on the following: The size of the tumour, Whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes.
  • #36 Anal Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2500052-overview
    Progression of AIN to invasive cancer of the anus has been shown to occur in 10-11% of cases. […] Clearly, more clinical research is needed to permit a strong statement about rates and risk factors for progression. […] Human papillomavirus, smoking, and sexual practices in the etiology of anal cancer.
  • #37 Anal Cancer Etiology and Screening (ACES) Study – NCI
    https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/cancer-types/anus/aces-study
    Current recommendations for anal cancer screening include anal cytology and/or high-risk HPV testing. […] Like in cervical screening, anal cytology has limited reproducibility and sensitivity for detecting anal precancers, and while HPV testing has high sensitivity, the specificity is low owing to the high prevalence of HPV in certain groups with elevated risk for anal cancer. […] Very limited data exist on the performance of these tests as well as other biomarkers, such as HPV and host gene methylation, for detecting anal precancers. […] The ACES study is meeting this need by evaluating the performance of HPV genotyping, dual stain, and HPV and host methylation biomarkers for detection of anal precancer among individuals undergoing HPV testing, anal cytology, and HRA through the Anal Cancer Prevention Program at Mount Sinai.