Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/96412-overview

  The wide variability of symptoms and signs in patients with thoracic outlet syndrome and the lack of an objective confirmatory test for the diagnosis makes correctly identifying patients with thoracic outlet syndrome difficult. Therefore, determining its exact incidence remains elusive; estimates range from 3-80 cases per 1000 population. […] Thoracic outlet syndrome is more common in women, particularly those with poor muscular development, poor posture, or both. […] The onset of symptoms typically occurs in persons aged 20-50 years. Although thoracic outlet syndrome is uncommon in children, cases have been reported in adolescents.

• #1 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557450/

  Several variants of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) exist, with neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome being the most prevalent by far, accounting for over 90% of all cases. TOS is more prevalent in females and those with poor muscle development, poor posture, or both. Due to the general nature of symptoms, the true prevalence of TOS is hard to determine. Its estimated incidence is anywhere between 3 to 80 cases per 1000 population. […] Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) manifests when pressures in the thoracic outlet increase to the point of impinging vessels or nerves. TOS presents in a vague and nondescript way. This activity summarizes the diagnosis and management of patients with thoracic outlet syndrome and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in the care of patients with this condition.

• #2 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557450/

  Several variants of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) exist, with neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome being the most prevalent by far, accounting for over 90% of all cases. TOS is more prevalent in females and those with poor muscle development, poor posture, or both. Due to the general nature of symptoms, the true prevalence of TOS is hard to determine. Its estimated incidence is anywhere between 3 to 80 cases per 1000 population. […] Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) manifests when pressures in the thoracic outlet increase to the point of impinging vessels or nerves. TOS presents in a vague and nondescript way. This activity summarizes the diagnosis and management of patients with thoracic outlet syndrome and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in the care of patients with this condition.

• #2 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/96412-overview

  The wide variability of symptoms and signs in patients with thoracic outlet syndrome and the lack of an objective confirmatory test for the diagnosis makes correctly identifying patients with thoracic outlet syndrome difficult. Therefore, determining its exact incidence remains elusive; estimates range from 3-80 cases per 1000 population. […] Thoracic outlet syndrome is more common in women, particularly those with poor muscular development, poor posture, or both. […] The onset of symptoms typically occurs in persons aged 20-50 years. Although thoracic outlet syndrome is uncommon in children, cases have been reported in adolescents.

• #3 Thoracic outlet syndrome: a survey of operative practice amongst vascular surgeons – Journal of Vascular Societies Great Britain and Ireland JVSGBI

  https://jvsgbi.com/thoracic-outlet-syndrome-a-survey-of-operative-practice-amongst-vascular-surgeons/

  Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) poses a significant challenge in clinical management due to its varied presentation and impact on patients’ quality of life. Currently, there are no standardised guidelines used for the management of these patients and guide surgical intervention. This survey aimed to assess practices related to the pre-, peri-, and postoperative management of patients with TOS amongst vascular surgeons. […] The reported incidence of TOS is approximately 1–3 per 100,000; however, despite the uncommon nature of this condition, it can have a significant impact on patients’ quality of life. […] More information is needed to better understand practices related to TOS and to explore the potential benefits of a registry to inform guidelines and clinical decisions. […] Establishing a registry for TOS operations would enable the collection, monitoring and analysis of data related to patient operative workup and outcomes. This data could significantly influence the development of national guidelines for diagnosing and managing patients with TOS.

• #4 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (TOS): Aetiology, Presentation, & Management

  https://www.theplasticsfella.com/thoracic-outlet-syndrome/

  It is relatively uncommon, with an estimated annual incidence of 1-3 cases per 100,000 population (Illig, 2021). Important epidemiological facts are: […] Primarily occurs in adults. […] Slight female predominance, ratio of approximately 3:1. […] Neurogenic subtype is more common than vascular, of which venous is more frequent than arterial. […] Learned about the epidemiology of TOS; its higher prevalence in adults with a female dominance and neurogenic form being the most common.

• #5 The Incidence of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32771464/

  Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) refers to a constellation of compressive problems that occur at the thoracic outlet. TOS has been recognized since the 19th century, and the „modern” era of treatment, especially for neurogenic TOS, dates from at least the 1970s. […] Despite this, however, the incidence and prevalence of these syndromes are almost completely unknown. […] Based on referral assumptions and population density in our area, the incidence of NTOS seems to be between 2 and 3 cases per 100,000 people per year and that of VTOS between 0.5 and 1 per 100,000 people per year, ATOS being sporadic. […] The rates of NTOS and VTOS, as aforementioned, are approximately 25 and 8 per year in a metropolitan area of 1,000,000, respectively. Although a rare disease, these numbers are not insignificant, although are much lower than prior estimates.

• #6 Role of Lifestyle in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Narrative Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/13/2/417

  The incidence of TOS is estimated to be between 2.5 and 4.0 cases per 100,000 people per year in the United States, and 3 to 4 cases per 100,000 people per year in France. […] The clinical issue is that screening for positional compression in the general population results in a prevalence of positive tests much higher than the prevalence of TOS cases. […] To date, asymptomatic cases of neurovascular positional compression have led many authors to suggest that tests used to diagnose TOS either perform poorly or have little discriminative value. […] Ultimately, a small number of patients with TOC or TOS will develop complications or sequelae as a result of the chronic conflict between the neurovascular bundle and the adjacent structures. […] TOS is classified as a rare disease on both sides of the Atlantic.

• #7 Overview of thoracic outlet syndromes – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-thoracic-outlet-syndromes

  Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) refers to a constellation of signs and symptoms that arise from compression of the neurovascular bundle by various structures in the area just above the first rib and behind the clavicle, within the confined space of the thoracic outlet. […] Distinct terms are used to describe the predominantly affected structure, including neurogenic (nTOS) from brachial plexus compression, venous (vTOS) from subclavian vein compression, and arterial (aTOS) from subclavian artery compression. Neurogenic TOS accounts for greater than 95 percent of cases of thoracic outlet syndrome, whereas vTOS accounts for 3 percent and aTOS accounts for 1 percent of cases. […] Thoracic outlet syndromes are commonly reported in adults and are infrequent in the pediatric population, and thus the literature is sparse. All three types of TOS have been reported in children, but vascular TOS may be more common in the adult population. Common risk factors for children with venous thoracic outlet syndrome include sports-related injuries and hypercoagulable states. Neurogenic TOS and arterial TOS appear to be associated with bony abnormalities more frequently in children compared with adults.

• #8 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Care | Ochsner Health

  https://www.ochsner.org/services/thoracic-outlet-syndrome-center/

  Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) is not a common condition. Less than 2% of the population is diagnosed with some form of thoracic outlet syndrome. […] Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome is the most common type of TOS and comprises 95% of all patients diagnosed with TOS. […] Venous thoracic outlet syndrome is the second most common type of TOS and comprises 4% of all patients diagnosed with thoracic outlet syndrome. […] Arterial thoracic outlet syndrome is a very rare disorder comprising less than 1% of all patients diagnosed with TOS.

• #9 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Narrative Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/5/962

  Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) comprises a group of disorders that result in compression of the neurovasculature exiting the thoracic outlet and was first described in 1956. The epidemiology of TOS is not firmly established, likely due to a lack of agreement regarding universal diagnostic criteria. The existing data suggest an average incidence of TOS between 3 to 80 cases per 1000 people, typically affecting adolescents to middle-aged adults, especially females between the ages of 20 and 50. As mentioned above, TOS is usually subclassified into nTOS, vTOS, and aTOS. nTOS arises from compression of the brachial plexus and comprises the majority of TOS cases, making up for 95% of all diagnosed cases. vTOS and aTOS stem from compression of the subclavian vessels and comprise roughly 4% and 1% of TOS cases, respectively.

• #10

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40122-019-0124-2

  Venous TOS accounts for 3-5% of cases and arterial TOS the final 1-2%. […] Both true and disputed nTOS are more common in women. […] Teenaged to 60-year-old females are most frequently affected by true nTOS. […] Arterial TOS, a predominantly unilateral condition, affects both genders equally and more often affects young adults. […] Venous TOS also tends to be unilateral and is more common in men than women. […] Due to its association with repetitive upper extremity activity, vTOS is more common in younger, able-bodied individuals, and most often affects the dominant upper extremity. […] The prevalence and diagnosis of nTOS is controversial, and much debate surrounds the role of nTOS to upper limb entrapment neuropathies. […] Despite advances, substantial controversy regarding the diagnosis remains. This is evidenced by the lack of objective findings surrounding nTOS, the most common and widely disputed form of TOS.

• #11 Evaluation and Management of Arterial Thoracic Outlet Syndrome | Thoracic Key

  https://thoracickey.com/evaluation-and-management-of-arterial-thoracic-outlet-syndrome/

  Arterial thoracic outlet syndrome is rare and may be associated with a bony anomaly. […] The true prevalence of aTOS is unknown given many patients may be asymptomatic. In one of the largest single-center series out of Baylor University, Urschel and Kourlis described their 50-year experience with all TOS patients. Of 5147 extremities treated, only 240 (4.7%) were for associated arterial complications. […] Cervical ribs exist in approximately less than 2% of the population and are a known cause of subclavian artery compression and aneurysm. The approximated incidence of subclavian aneurysms caused by a cervical rib is 0.019% or 1 in 5000 people. […] The prevalence of a bone anomaly was 29% in treated TOS cases. Interestingly, when they stratified TOS cases based on subtypes, the likelihood of arterial compression was much higher in the presence of a bony anomaly (odds ratio [OR] 4.0; P .001).

• #12 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/117600/all/Thoracic_Outlet_Syndrome?q=Thoracic+outlet+syndrome

  There are no universal diagnostic criteria to accurately determine epidemiology. […] Approximately 90-95% of all TOS cases (1) […] Predominant in 20- to 50-year-old females. […] Approximately 5-10% of all TOS cases (1) […] Predominant in 20- to 35-year-old physically active males. […] Approximately 1% of all TOS cases (1) […] No gender preference.

• #13 Thoracic outlet syndrome – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic_outlet_syndrome

  Thoracic outlet syndrome affects about 1% of the population. […] It is more common in women than men and it occurs most commonly between 20 and 50 years of age. […] TOS is frequently a repetitive stress injury (RSI) caused by certain types of work environments. […] The two groups of people most likely to develop TOS are those with neck injuries due to traffic accidents and those who use computers in non-ergonomic postures for extended periods of time. […] TOS can be attributed to one or more of the following factors: congenital abnormalities, trauma, injury, and rarer acquired causes such as tumors. […] TOS is somewhat difficult to diagnose since there is no set diagnostic criteria. […] The condition was first described in 1818 and the current term „thoracic outlet syndrome” first used in 1956.

• #14 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome and Cervical Ribs

  https://patient.info/doctor/cervical-ribs-and-thoracic-outlet-syndrome

  Cervical ribs remain asymptomatic for most people. However people with a cervical rib are at higher risk of neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome (nTOS), with up to 20% of nTOS cases attributable solely to the presence of a cervical rib. […] Because of a lack of a gold standard for diagnosis it is difficult to obtain meaningful epidemiological figures. Differences between disciplines exist with reports that surgeons diagnose the condition 100 times more frequently than neurologists. Irrespective of the overall incidence, it is estimated that over 90% of all thoracic outlet syndrome cases are neurogenic, whereas 3-5% are venous. Less than 1% are arterial. The true neurological type probably affects no more than 1 person in 1 million. The overall incidence is given as between 3 and 80 per 1,000. Onset is from the 2nd to the 8th decade with a peak in the 4th decade. It is more common in women than in men, with an excess of between 3- and 9-fold. […] Analysis of 1,352 chest radiographs in London suggested the prevalence was 0.74% with a higher rate in females compared with males.

• #15 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome | PM&R KnowledgeNow

  https://now.aapmr.org/thoracic-outlet-syndrome/

  Epidemiology including risk factors and primary prevention: Accurate diagnosis and incidence of TOS is difficult due to the absence of consistently reproducible objective measures. Some authors propose an incidence of 3-80 cases per 1000. Proportionately, neurogenic TOS (nTOS) is estimated to comprise over 90% of TOS. TOS overall is suggested to be more prevalent in females and those with poor muscle development and posture. Venous TOS (vTOS) accounts for 3% and arterial TOS (aTOS) is estimated to have the lowest incidence, at less than 1%. The female/male ratio for nTOS is 3.5:1 and there is no sex predilection for aTOS or vTOS. Studies indicate that vTOS affects a similar proportion of men and women. Studies indicate average range of development of nTOS is between teenage to 60 years of age. Both vTOS and aTOS usually develop in young patients without significant comorbidities. The typical age range for the development of vTOS is between 20 to 30 years of age. Common risk factors for children with vTOS include sports-related injuries and hypercoagulable states. nTOS and aTOS are associated with boney abnormalities more frequently in children compared with adults. […] Studies indicate that utilizing multiple tests in conjunction may increase the specificity of TOS identification. In particular, combining the Adson and Roos test increased the specificity from as low as 30% when used alone to 82% when both are positive.

• #16 Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/neurogenic-thoracic-outlet-syndrome?embed_domain=external.radpair.com&lang=us

  Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome (nTOS) is the most common cause of thoracic outlet syndrome accounting for approximately 90% of cases. […] Prevalence of neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome has been estimated as high as 8% of the population and most frequently seen in women (female to male ratio 4:1). […] Most often it presents in adulthood (30 – 40 years of age is typical) and it is rare in childhood.

• #17

  https://scispace.com/papers/when-healing-hands-hurt-epidemiology-of-thoracic-outlet-d8941c6z

  When healing hands hurt: Epidemiology of thoracic outlet syndrome among physicians. In this paper, the authors report the presentation and outcome of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) in physicians and assess the impact of TOS on their work resumption. […] Pediatric patients exhibited a higher percentage of vascular TOS than their adult counterparts, with the supraclavicular approach emerging as the preferred treatment method. […] The Committee has defined NTOS as being present when three of the following four criteria are present: signs and symptoms of pathology occurring at the thoracic outlet (pain and/or tenderness), signs and symptoms of nerve compression, absence of other pathology potentially explaining the symptoms, and a positive response to a properly performed scalene muscle test injection.

• #18 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome | Diagnosis & Treatment for Physios

  https://www.physiotutors.com/conditions/thoracic-outlet-syndrome/

  Thoracic Outlet Syndrome is typically diagnosed in early adulthood (ages 20-40) and is more prevalent in those with the shoulder flexed for the majority of the work day, have repeated trauma to the shoulder joint, and those who exhibit abnormal posture, including positions required to play bow instruments (Levine et al. 2018). […] The incidence of TOS is reported to be approximately 8% of the population and the female-to-male ratio is estimated between 2:1 to 4:1, while Urschel et al. (2008) report that vascular TOS is more equal between non-athletic men and women, but found to be even greater in competitive athletic men vs women (Melby et al. 2008). 98% of all patients with TOS fall into the neurogenic TOS (nTOS) category and only 2% have vascular TOS. While neurological symptoms appear more prominently, the majority of these cannot be evaluated objectively by nerve conduction abnormalities or atrophy and would thus fall within the formerly called symptomatic or disputed TOS classification (Davidovic et al. 2003).

• #19 Thoracic outlet syndrome – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Thoracic_outlet_syndrome

  TOS is more common in women. The onset of symptoms usually occurs between 20 and 50 years of age. […] The two groups of people most likely to develop TOS are those suffering neck injuries in motor vehicle accidents and those who use computers in non-ergonomic postures for extended periods of time. Young overhead athletes (such as swimmers, volleyball players and baseball pitchers) and musicians may also develop thoracic outlet syndrome, but significantly less frequently than the two large groups above.

• #20

  https://journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/fulltext/2016/03000/thoracic_outlet_syndrome.6.aspx

  Epidemiology and Risk Factors: Due to hyperextension injuries of the neck from either repetitive overhead motion or trauma (2,4) […] Neurogenic TOS: most common, 90% […] Venous TOS: 5% of cases […] Arterial TOS: 1% (3) […] Risk factors: Cervical rib, accessory nerve lesion, overhead athletes, scalene hypertrophy, Klippel-Feil anomaly (2)

• #21 Role of Lifestyle in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Narrative Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/13/2/417

  The high frequency of observations in athletes has led some authors to conclude that the prevalence of TOS may be much higher in these subjects. […] There is an enormous difference between the incidence of patients diagnosed with TOS or TOX and the prevalence of TOC in the population. […] We believe that lifestyle might be an essential determinant of these differences. […] TOS is more frequent among physically active workers who use their arms than among white-collar workers. […] Among athletes, TOS is particularly frequent in sports involving overhead activities that use the upper limb. […] TOS is more prevalent in those with the shoulder flexed for the majority of the working day, have repeated trauma to the shoulder joint, and with those who exhibit abnormal posture. […] Most symptomatic patients with TOS are reported to benefit from physical therapy or medical treatment.

• #22 Orphanet: Thoracic outlet syndrome

  https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/97330

  Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) is a group of disorders characterized by paresthesias, pain and weakness of the upper extremities due to compression, tension or inflammation of the neurovascular bundle as it passes through the thoracic outlet. […] The diagnosis of TOS remains controversial so the true incidence is unknown. Neurogenic TOS is the most frequently observed form accounting for 95% of all cases with 99% of these being disputed NTOS.

• #23 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Narrative Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/5/962

  As mentioned above, there exists a lack of data regarding the epidemiology and pathology of TOS due to its inconsistent diagnosis. In 2016, the Society for Vascular Surgery released an executive summary regarding new reporting standards for TOS. This document aims to unify terminology used to describe TOS and the diagnostic workup process, as well as improve overall reporting standards in an effort to gather clinical evidence to define better TOS treatment options.

• #24 When Healing Hands Hurt: Epidemiology of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Among Physicians

  https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3ff0d5kd

  When Healing Hands Hurt: Epidemiology of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Among Physicians […] Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) is an infrequent condition which results in disability in use of upper extremity. […] Given the investment of time and effort in training to become a MD, the impact of TOS may be devastating. Our objective is to report the presentation and outcome of TOS in MDs. […] A total of 19 MDs were identified, from 1,687 TOS cases. […] Although it has not been reported, MDs are subject to developing TOS. Causes include repetitive motions, athletic injuries, and congenital bony abnormalities. Surgical decompression is beneficial with significant reduction in pain and disability. MDs are highly motivated and insightful; accordingly, they have a very high probability of successful work resumption, with all returning to their medical positions.

• #25 Role of Lifestyle in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: A Narrative Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/13/2/417

  Surgery is generally only proposed when physical therapy, drug treatment, and/or lifestyle changes have failed to improve the symptoms. […] Lifestyle changes from our simian ancestors are closely related to anatomical changes during human evolution, although the causality of bipedal walking over changes in shoulder anatomy cannot be proven. […] Lifestyle is one of the factors that may induce symptoms in patients with positional-induced neurovascular bundle compression. […] The absence of being exposed to manoeuvres that induce compression is one possible explanation for the fact that most patients with TOCs remain asymptomatic. […] Lifestyle remains poorly evaluated.

• #26 ESVS Management of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome – ESVS

  https://esvs.org/event/management-of-thoracic-outlet-syndrome/

  We are pleased to announce another course in the PAD Pathway! Management of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome. […] The thoracic outlet syndrome is a rare and difficult to detect condition, but can lead to serious chronic and disabling complaints. Early recognition and adequate treatment is key. Therefore knowledge on its anatomy, pathophysiology, and different clinical presentation per type of TOS is essential to recognize this syndrome at an early stage and to have a better understanding of which diagnostic modality and treatment option is useful. By attending this course, you will learn the anatomy, pathophysiology, epidemiology and clinical presentation of the thoracic outlet syndrome in general and its clinical subtypes. […] The aim is to provide a greater understanding of how to detect, diagnose and treat TOS and give insight in the current controversies and new perspectives of TOS management.

• #27 Thoracic outlet syndrome: a survey of operative practice amongst vascular surgeons – Journal of Vascular Societies Great Britain and Ireland JVSGBI

  https://jvsgbi.com/thoracic-outlet-syndrome-a-survey-of-operative-practice-amongst-vascular-surgeons/

  This survey highlights the significant variability in pre- and postoperative practices related to TOS among vascular surgeons. Further research, including observational studies, is needed to better understand the relationship of assessment, surgical approaches and perioperative care with patient outcomes to help guide future practice. […] Support for a national registry of patients who undergo an operation for TOS was expressed by 78/81 (96%) respondents and 65/81 (80%) welcomed being part of a discussion group to develop this. […] This study has revealed that, although surgical decompression for TOS is uncommonly performed, there is variability in the preoperative and postoperative practices amongst vascular surgeons. Indications for operative decompression are more commonly neurogenic or venous TOS and the supraclavicular approach is the one most often used. Our results support undertaking an observational study to understand the impact of different practices on patient outcomes and the establishment of a registry for patients who undergo a surgical operation for TOS. This could guide future patient management and inform national guidelines.

• #28 Top Published Expert Doctors for Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

  https://findexpertmd.com/d/Thoracic_Outlet_Syndrome

  434 top medical experts on Thoracic Outlet Syndrome across 42 countries and 34 U.S. states, including 374 MDs (Physicians). This is based on an objective analysis of their Scientific Publications, Clinical Trials, Medicare, and NIH Grants. […] Clinical Trials ClinicalTrials.gov: at least 17 including 2 Active, 4 Completed, 3 Recruiting.

• #29 Clinical characteristics and surgical outcomes in thoracic outlet syndrome: a comparative study of cases with and without cervical rib | Egyptian Journal of Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejns.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41984-025-00381-1

  The aim of this paper is to compare the clinical presentation, progression of symptoms, and surgical outcome in patients of TOS with and without cervical rib. […] The study observed that patients with cervical rib presented at a younger age and often exhibited bilateral symptoms, more severe manifestations, and a more rapid progression of the disease. […] The greater severity of symptoms in this subgroup underscores the necessity for early identification and prompt intervention to prevent long-term complications and improve quality of life. […] The study also confirms that surgical intervention leads to a more rapid and complete resolution of symptoms in this group, with morbidity rates comparable to those observed in patients without a cervical rib.

• #30 Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome: a systematic review – Acta Phlebologica 2015 August;16(2):59-68 – Minerva Medica – Journals

  https://www.minervamedica.it/en/journals/acta-phlebologica/article.php?cod=R43Y2015N02A0059

  Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (TOS) refers to the compression of the neurovascular bundle by various structures in the area just above the first rib and behind the clavicle leading to a wide range of signs and symptoms. […] This article presents a systematic analysis of the most recent scientific literature on epidemiology, the different etiologies of TOS, diagnostic procedures and innovative treatments. […] The anatomy of thoracic outlet, the etiopathogenesis of different forms of TOS, the current procedures of diagnosis of each type of TOS found in literature, the description of the recent indications to the medical or surgical therapies in patients with TOS are here presented. […] Modern studies indicate that a multidisciplinary comprehensive approach to TOS improves early and long-term outcomes.

• #31 Venous thoracic outlet syndrome: what radiologists should know

  https://epos.myesr.org/poster/esr/ecr2023/C-24526

  To interpret epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical presentation of Venous Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (VTOS). […] TOS, according to which structures are compressed, is classified as: Neurogenic TOS (the most common 90%), venous TOS (the second most common 5%) and arterial TOS (the rarest form 1%) respectively. […] Primary effort-induced VTOS occurs in young adults, usually after excessive arm activity. […] Early diagnosis and treatment are essential in preventing fatal complications, such as pulmonary embolism and…

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