Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Emphysema – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/emphysema/symptoms-causes/syc-20355555

  In emphysema, the inner walls of the lungs’ air sacs called alveoli are damaged, causing them to eventually rupture. This creates one larger air space instead of many small ones and reduces the surface area available for gas exchange. […] Smoking is the leading cause of emphysema. Treatment can help with symptoms and may slow how fast the condition gets worse. But it can’t reverse the damage. […] Emphysema results from long-term exposure to airborne irritants, including: Smoking cigarettes, which is the most common cause. […] Rarely, emphysema results from a gene change passed down in families. This gene change causes low levels of a protein called alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT). […] Factors that increase your risk of developing emphysema include: Smoking. Smoking cigarettes or having smoked in the past is the biggest risk factor for emphysema. […] The uncommon condition called AAT deficiency raises the risk of emphysema. Other genetic factors may make certain smokers more likely to get emphysema.

• #2 Emphysema: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview

  Smoking is by far the single most clearly established environmental risk factor for emphysema/chronic bronchitis. Eight out of 10 cases of COPD are caused by smoking. […] Chronic occupational exposure to inhaled mineral dusts, metal fumes, organic dusts (eg, wood, grains), diesel exhaust fumes, and/or chemical gases or vapors is estimated to be the cause of 19.2% of COPD in smokers and 31.1% of COPD in individuals with no history of smoking. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the production of an abnormal AAT protein. Although the mechanisms are not completely known, it is believed that in the lungs, low-levels of AAT allow for the destructive effects of neutrophil elastase to go unchecked, which results in damage to the delicate gas exchange region of the lungs (alveoli), eventually leading to emphysema in individuals as young as 30 years of age. Among patients with COPD, up to 3% are estimated to have AATD.

• #3 Emphysema | American Lung Association

  https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/emphysema

  Emphysema can be caused by smoking, indoor and outdoor air pollution and by a genetic form of COPD called alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. […] Emphysema causes damage to the lung tissue and alveoli or tiny air sacs. Over time, this damage causes the tiny air sacs to break and create one big air pocket instead of small ones. […] Quitting smoking is an important step to take to help manage your emphysema. Avoiding secondhand smoke is also recommended.

• #4 Emphysema > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/emphysema

  Emphysema is caused by permanent damage to the lungs, making it hard for a person to breathe. The most common cause of this damage is smoking, although long-term exposure to chemicals or pollutants in the environment can also lead to emphysema. […] Emphysema arises when the lungs are damaged by repeated exposure to irritants. Common causes include: Smoking, Vaping, Secondhand smoke, Air pollution, Exposure to smoke from fires (e.g., wood) used for cooking or heating, Chemical fumes at work, Dust inhalation at work, Chronic lung infections. […] Additionally, AAT deficiency, an inherited condition, can increase the risk of developing emphysema.

• #5 Emphysema: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/chest-lungs/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-leaflet/emphysema

  Emphysema is a progressive lung condition that is a form of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Smoking is the most common cause of emphysema. […] Factors that increase the risk of developing emphysema include: […] Smoking. Emphysema is most likely to develop in cigarette smokers; however, cigar and pipe smokers also are susceptible. The risk for all types of smokers increases with the number of years and amount of tobacco smoked. Around 50% of smokers will develop emphysema with around 20% of smokers developing more severe symptoms. 80% of deaths from COPD are related to smoking. […] Age. Although the lung damage that occurs in emphysema develops gradually, most people with tobacco-related emphysema begin to experience symptoms of the disease between the ages of 40 and 60. […] Passive smoking. This means breathing in the smoke from someone else’s cigarette, pipe or cigar. Being around secondhand smoke increases the risk of emphysema.

• #6 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559281/

  COPD is caused by prolonged exposure to harmful particles or gases. Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of COPD worldwide. Other causes may include second-hand smoke, environmental and occupational exposures, and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD). […] In emphysema, an irritant (e.g., smoking) causes an inflammatory response. Neutrophils and macrophages are recruited and release multiple inflammatory mediators. Oxidants and excess proteases leading to the destruction of the air sacs. The protease-mediated destruction of elastin leads to a loss of elastic recoil and results in airway collapse during exhalation. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a rare cause of emphysema which involves a lack of antiproteases and the imbalance leaves the lung parenchyma at risk for protease-mediated damage. AATD is caused by misfolding of the mutated protein which can accumulate in the liver. AATD should be suspected in COPD patients who present with liver damage. As opposed to smoking-related emphysema, AATD primarily involves the lower lobes.

• #7 Emphysema: Symptoms, Signs, Treatment & Life Expectancy

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/emphysema/article_em.htm

  Cigarette smoking is the primary cause of emphysema. […] Cigarette smoking is by far the most dangerous behavior that causes people to develop emphysema, and it is also the most preventable cause. Other risk factors include a deficiency of an enzyme called alpha-1-antitrypsin, air pollution, airway reactivity, heredity, male sex, and age. […] The importance of cigarette smoking as a risk factor for developing emphysema cannot be overemphasized. […] Cigarette smoke contributes to this disease process in two ways. It destroys lung tissue, which results in the obstruction of air flow, and it causes inflammation and irritation of airways that can add to air flow obstruction. […] Over time, enzymes released during this persistent inflammation lead to the loss of proteins responsible for keeping the lungs elastic.

• #8 Emphysema: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9370-emphysema

  Emphysema is a lung disease. The main cause of emphysema is smoking, but other causes include air pollution and chemical fumes. […] Emphysema usually develops after many years of smoking. However, emphysema has other causes. These include: Air pollutants in your home or workplace. Genetic (inherited) factors such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. Respiratory infections. […] Smoking is the main cause of emphysema. […] Though smoking is the main cause of emphysema, there are other causes. These include: Marijuana, Vaping and e-cigarettes, Cigar smoke, Air pollution, Dust, Chemical fumes.

• #9 COPD – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/copd/symptoms-causes/syc-20353679

  In about 1% of people with COPD, the condition results from a gene change passed down in families. This is a genetic form of emphysema. This gene lessens the levels of a protein called alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) in the body. AAT is made in the liver and released into the bloodstream to help protect the lungs from damage caused by smoke, fumes and dust. […] Long-term exposure to irritants, such as from smoking, injures the lungs. This damage keeps air from moving in and out of the lungs freely, limiting their ability to provide oxygen to the bloodstream and take away carbon dioxide. The two main conditions that prevent effective airflow in the lungs are: Emphysema. This lung condition causes destruction of the fragile walls and elastic fibers of the alveoli. The damaged inner walls of the alveoli may be destroyed, creating one large air space that is hard to empty compared with the many healthy small ones. The alveoli now have less surface area that can be used to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. Also, old air gets trapped in the large alveoli so there isn’t room for enough new air to get in. […] Other irritants can cause COPD, including cigar smoke, secondhand smoke, pipe smoke, air pollution, and workplace exposure to dust, smoke or fumes.

• #10 Emphysema | Emphysema Symptoms | Emphysema Treatment | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/emphysema.html

  Emphysema is a type of COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). COPD is a group of lung diseases that make it hard to breathe and get worse over time. […] The cause of emphysema is usually long-term exposure to irritants that damage your lungs and the airways. In the United States, cigarette smoke is the main cause. Pipe, cigar, and other types of tobacco smoke can also cause emphysema, especially if you inhale them. […] Exposure to other inhaled irritants can contribute to emphysema. These include secondhand smoke, air pollution, and chemical fumes or dusts from the environment or workplace. […] Rarely, a genetic condition called alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency can play a role in causing emphysema. […] The risk factors for emphysema include: Smoking. This the main risk factor. Up to 75% of people who have emphysema smoke or used to smoke.

• #11 Emphysema: What Is It, Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/emphysema

  Emphysema is a disease of the lungs. It occurs most often in people who smoke, but it also occurs in people who regularly breathe in irritants. […] Smoking tobacco is the main cause of emphysema. The more you smoke, the higher your risk of developing emphysema. This includes smoking cannabis. […] Exposure to secondhand smoke also increases your risk of developing emphysema. […] Other causes of, as well as potential risk factors for developing emphysema, may include: exposure to high pollution chemical fumes or lung irritants, a genetic condition called alpha-1 deficiency can lead to a rare form of emphysema called alpha-1 deficiency-related emphysema, history of childhood respiratory infections, a compromised immune system, especially as a result of HIV, rare disorders such as Marfan syndrome. […] Since emphysema is mainly caused by smoking tobacco, the best way to prevent it is to refrain from smoking. It’s also important to stay away from harmful chemicals and fumes as well as heavy pollution.

• #12 Emphysema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482217/

  Emphysema is caused by chronic and significant exposure to noxious gases, with cigarette smoking being the most common cause. Between 80% to 90% of patients with COPD are identified as cigarette smokers. However, only 10% to 15% of smokers develop COPD. […] In addition to smoking, other environmental factors play a significant role in causing emphysema. In developing countries, biomass fuels and environmental pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and particulate matter are significant contributors, particularly affecting women and children. […] A rare hereditary condition, alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency, can also lead to emphysema and liver abnormalities. This autosomal recessive disease accounts for only 1% to 2% of COPD cases. […] Other contributing factors include passive smoking, recurrent lung infections, and allergies. Furthermore, low birth weight in newborns has been linked to a higher risk of developing COPD later in life.

• #13 COPD Causes and Risk Factors | American Lung Association

  https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/copd/what-causes-copd

  Long-term exposure to particulate matter PM 2.5 and nitrogen dioxides increases your risk of developing COPD. Sources of PM 2.5 are motor vehicles, factories, powerplants, wood burning and wildfires. Exposure to poor air quality worsens symptoms and accelerates lung function decline in adults, especially if you have other risk factors for COPD. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AATD) deficiency is a genetic or inherited condition that affects the body’s ability to produce a protein (Alpha-1) that protects the lungs. Alpha-1 is the most common genetic form of emphysema and can only be diagnosed by using a blood test. […] COPD is often referred to as a „smoker’s disease” however although smoking is one of the main risk factors for developing COPD, people who never smoke may also develop COPD. Other risk factors may include: A history of childhood respiratory infections, Smoke exposure from coal or wood burning stove, Exposure to secondhand smoke, People with a history of asthma, People who have underdeveloped lungs, Those who are age 40 and older as lung function declines as you age.

• #14 Emphysema: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview

  Smoking is by far the single most clearly established environmental risk factor for emphysema/chronic bronchitis. Eight out of 10 cases of COPD are caused by smoking. […] Chronic occupational exposure to inhaled mineral dusts, metal fumes, organic dusts (eg, wood, grains), diesel exhaust fumes, and/or chemical gases or vapors is estimated to be the cause of 19.2% of COPD in smokers and 31.1% of COPD in individuals with no history of smoking. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the production of an abnormal AAT protein. Although the mechanisms are not completely known, it is believed that in the lungs, low-levels of AAT allow for the destructive effects of neutrophil elastase to go unchecked, which results in damage to the delicate gas exchange region of the lungs (alveoli), eventually leading to emphysema in individuals as young as 30 years of age. Among patients with COPD, up to 3% are estimated to have AATD.

• #15 Emphysema Causes and Diagnoses | Northwestern Medicine

  https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/pulmonary/lung-diseases/emphysema/causes-and-diagnoses

  The primary cause of emphysema is smoking, but there are other factors that can increase your risk for developing emphysema. They include: […] Age: Most people who develop smoking-related emphysema will begin to experience symptoms between the ages of 40 and 60. […] Exposure to secondhand smoke: Anyone exposed to secondhand smoke from cigarettes, pipes and cigars is at risk of getting emphysema. […] Occupational exposure: Chemical fumes and dust from coal, wood, cotton or grain can increase the risk of emphysema. This risk is even greater if you are also a smoker. […] Exposure to airborne pollutants: Fumes from heating oil or car exhaust or smog increases your risk of emphysema.

• #16 Understanding Emphysema: Causes And Solutions

  https://www.lungmds.com/pulmonary-disease/emphysema/

  Most cases of emphysema are seen in people between the ages of 40-60, but it can occur much earlier than this too. […] You may also be exposed to dangerous chemicals and fumes in the workplace, such as if you work around cotton, wood, grain, or mining products. The risk is much greater if you work around these products daily and you also smoke. There is also a risk associated with emphysema if you are around indoor and outdoor pollution, such as car exhaust.

• #17 Causes

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/copd/copd-causes/

  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) happens when the lungs and airways become damaged and inflamed. […] It’s usually associated with long-term exposure to something harmful such as cigarette smoke. […] Smoking is the main cause of COPD and is thought to be responsible for around 9 in every 10 cases. […] The harmful chemicals in smoke can damage the lining of the lungs and airways. […] Breathing in other people’s smoke (passive smoking) may increase your risk of COPD. […] Exposure to certain types of dust and chemicals at work may damage the lungs and increase your risk of COPD. […] The risk of COPD is even higher if you breathe in dust or fumes in the workplace and you also smoke. […] Exposure to air pollution over a long period can affect how well the lungs work. Some research has suggested it could increase your risk of COPD.

• #18 COPD – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/copd/symptoms-causes/syc-20353679

  In about 1% of people with COPD, the condition results from a gene change passed down in families. This is a genetic form of emphysema. This gene lessens the levels of a protein called alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) in the body. AAT is made in the liver and released into the bloodstream to help protect the lungs from damage caused by smoke, fumes and dust. […] Long-term exposure to irritants, such as from smoking, injures the lungs. This damage keeps air from moving in and out of the lungs freely, limiting their ability to provide oxygen to the bloodstream and take away carbon dioxide. The two main conditions that prevent effective airflow in the lungs are: Emphysema. This lung condition causes destruction of the fragile walls and elastic fibers of the alveoli. The damaged inner walls of the alveoli may be destroyed, creating one large air space that is hard to empty compared with the many healthy small ones. The alveoli now have less surface area that can be used to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. Also, old air gets trapped in the large alveoli so there isn’t room for enough new air to get in. […] Other irritants can cause COPD, including cigar smoke, secondhand smoke, pipe smoke, air pollution, and workplace exposure to dust, smoke or fumes.

• #19 Emphysema: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview

  Emphysema occurs in approximately 2% of persons who use intravenous drugs. This is attributed to pulmonary vascular damage resulting from the insoluble filler (eg, cornstarch, cotton fibers, cellulose, talc) contained in methadone or methylphenidate. […] Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection was found to be an independent risk factor for emphysema, even after controlling for confounding variables such as smoking, intravenous drug use, race, and age. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is among the most prevalent potentially fatal genetic disorders in the United States and occurs approximately equally in men and women. The incidence of AADT in the White population is estimated between 1/2500 and 1/3000. Among patients with COPD, up to 3% have AATD. The overwhelming majority of individuals with AATD have not been diagnosed; approximately 10% of the individuals in the United States estimated to have AATD have received a diagnosis. AATD has been identified in virtually all populations but is most common in individuals of Scandinavian, British, Spanish, and Portuguese descent.

• #20 Emphysema: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview

  Emphysema occurs in approximately 2% of persons who use intravenous drugs. This is attributed to pulmonary vascular damage resulting from the insoluble filler (eg, cornstarch, cotton fibers, cellulose, talc) contained in methadone or methylphenidate. […] Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection was found to be an independent risk factor for emphysema, even after controlling for confounding variables such as smoking, intravenous drug use, race, and age. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is among the most prevalent potentially fatal genetic disorders in the United States and occurs approximately equally in men and women. The incidence of AADT in the White population is estimated between 1/2500 and 1/3000. Among patients with COPD, up to 3% have AATD. The overwhelming majority of individuals with AATD have not been diagnosed; approximately 10% of the individuals in the United States estimated to have AATD have received a diagnosis. AATD has been identified in virtually all populations but is most common in individuals of Scandinavian, British, Spanish, and Portuguese descent.

• #21 Emphysema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emphysema

  Emphysema is a lower respiratory tract disease, characterised by enlarged air-filled spaces in the lungs, that can vary in size and may be very large. […] Causes include tobacco smoking, air pollution, and genetics. […] Emphysema usually affects the middle aged or older population because it takes time to develop with the effects of tobacco smoking and other risk factors. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a genetic risk factor that may lead to the condition presenting earlier. […] Centrilobular emphysema is the only type associated with smoking. […] Panlobular emphysema, also called panacinar emphysema, affects all of the alveoli in a lobule, and can involve the whole lung or mainly the lower lobes. […] This type of emphysema is associated with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (A1AD or AATD), and Ritalin lung, and is not related to smoking.

• #22 Pulmonary emphysema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-emphysema?lang=us

  Emphysema is one of the entities grouped under the overarching term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and is best thought of primarily as a pathological rather than clinical entity. […] It is predominantly a disease of middle to late life owing to the cumulative effect of lifelong tobacco smoking and other environmental risk factors, e.g. air pollution. […] Patients with genetic risk factors such as alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency may present earlier according to phenotype. […] Smoking: by far the most common, ~90% of all cases. […] Centrilobular or centriacinar emphysema is the most common type and affects the proximal respiratory bronchioles, particularly of the upper zones. It has a strong dose-dependent association with smoking. […] Panlobular or panacinar emphysema affects the entire secondary pulmonary lobule and is more pronounced in the lower zones, matching areas of maximal blood flow. It is seen particularly in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (exacerbated by smoking).

• #23 Emphysema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482217/

  Emphysema is caused by chronic and significant exposure to noxious gases, with cigarette smoking being the most common cause. Between 80% to 90% of patients with COPD are identified as cigarette smokers. However, only 10% to 15% of smokers develop COPD. […] In addition to smoking, other environmental factors play a significant role in causing emphysema. In developing countries, biomass fuels and environmental pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and particulate matter are significant contributors, particularly affecting women and children. […] A rare hereditary condition, alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency, can also lead to emphysema and liver abnormalities. This autosomal recessive disease accounts for only 1% to 2% of COPD cases. […] Other contributing factors include passive smoking, recurrent lung infections, and allergies. Furthermore, low birth weight in newborns has been linked to a higher risk of developing COPD later in life.

• #24 Emphysema: Symptoms, stages, causes, treatments, and outlook

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8934

  Emphysema is a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that causes symptoms like coughing, wheezing, and breathing difficulties. It occurs when air sacs in the lung sustain damage or stretch. […] Smoking is the most common cause of emphysema, but other factors can also cause it. […] In most cases, emphysema and COPD result from cigarette smoking. However, up to 25% of people with COPD have never smoked. […] Other causes appear to be genetic factors, such as an alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, and exposure to environmental irritants, including secondhand smoke, workplace pollutants, air pollution, and biomass fuels. […] In addition, not all people who smoke develop emphysema. It may be that genetic factors make some people more susceptible to the condition. […] Emphysema is not contagious. One person cannot catch it from another.

• #25 COPD Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/copd-causes-risk-factors-914865

  Severe viral and bacterial lung infections in early childhood have been associated with reduced lung function and increased respiratory symptoms in adulthood, which contributes to the development of COPD. […] Chronic lung infections, such as tuberculosis, are especially linked to COPD. […] Having a lower socioeconomic status poses an increased risk of developing COPD, especially during childhood. […] Women may have a higher sensitivity to COPD risk factors than men. […] Alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency is a rare genetic disorder responsible for a small number of cases of COPD. […] If you have an AAT deficiency, whether or not you’re exposed to smoke or other lung irritants, you can develop COPD simply because your body doesn’t make enough of the AAT protein, which protects your lungs from damage. […] Other possible COPD contributing factors include deficient lung function and malnutrition.

• #26 Emphysema – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/emphysema

  Emphysema is a long-term lung condition that causes shortness of breath due to damaged and enlarged air sacs in the lungs (alveoli). […] Although there are many things that can lead to the development of emphysema, the vast majority of occurrences arise from exposure to cigarette smoke. […] The risk is associated with the number of years and the amount of tobacco the person has been smoking. […] Centriacinar begins in the respiratory bronchioles and spreads mainly in the upper half of the lungs. This is the most common type of emphysema and is usually linked with long-standing cigarette smoking. […] Panacinar commonly resides in the lower half of the lungs and destroys the tissue of the air sacs, causing a distinctive, uniform enlargement of air spaces. It is associated with a genetic disease (homozygous alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency). […] Paraseptal tends to localize around the septa or pleura. It’s often associated with inflammatory processes, such as prior lung infections.

• #27 Pulmonary emphysema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-emphysema?lang=us

  Emphysema is one of the entities grouped under the overarching term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and is best thought of primarily as a pathological rather than clinical entity. […] It is predominantly a disease of middle to late life owing to the cumulative effect of lifelong tobacco smoking and other environmental risk factors, e.g. air pollution. […] Patients with genetic risk factors such as alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency may present earlier according to phenotype. […] Smoking: by far the most common, ~90% of all cases. […] Centrilobular or centriacinar emphysema is the most common type and affects the proximal respiratory bronchioles, particularly of the upper zones. It has a strong dose-dependent association with smoking. […] Panlobular or panacinar emphysema affects the entire secondary pulmonary lobule and is more pronounced in the lower zones, matching areas of maximal blood flow. It is seen particularly in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (exacerbated by smoking).

• #28 Centrilobular Emphysema: What Is It? | Carda Health

  https://www.cardahealth.com/post/centrilobular-emphysema

  Cigarette smoking is the primary cause of centrilobular emphysema, but excess exposure to other toxic fumes, such as secondhand smoke, coal dust, or car fumes, can also cause this chronic lung condition. […] Long-term exposure to cigarette smoke is the most common external risk factor that causes centrilobular emphysema. […] Additionally, cigarette smoke can greatly narrow the bronchioles and can not just damage the air sacs, but can permanently destroy them. […] In addition to cigarette smoke, long-term exposure to other toxic fumes, such as secondhand smoke, pollution, or charcoal dust, are other risk factors for centrilobular emphysema. […] Smoking is the primary risk factor for centrilobular emphysema. […] The longer a patient smokes cigarettes, the higher their risk of developing this type of emphysema. […] Exposure to strong fumes, such as secondhand smoke, air pollutants, or dust, is another risk factor for centrilobular emphysema. […] Lung damage, including a collapsed lung or hole in the lung, is another less common risk factor for centrilobular emphysema.

• #29 Pulmonary emphysema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-emphysema?lang=us

  Emphysema is one of the entities grouped under the overarching term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and is best thought of primarily as a pathological rather than clinical entity. […] It is predominantly a disease of middle to late life owing to the cumulative effect of lifelong tobacco smoking and other environmental risk factors, e.g. air pollution. […] Patients with genetic risk factors such as alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency may present earlier according to phenotype. […] Smoking: by far the most common, ~90% of all cases. […] Centrilobular or centriacinar emphysema is the most common type and affects the proximal respiratory bronchioles, particularly of the upper zones. It has a strong dose-dependent association with smoking. […] Panlobular or panacinar emphysema affects the entire secondary pulmonary lobule and is more pronounced in the lower zones, matching areas of maximal blood flow. It is seen particularly in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (exacerbated by smoking).

• #30 Emphysema – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/emphysema

  Emphysema is a long-term lung condition that causes shortness of breath due to damaged and enlarged air sacs in the lungs (alveoli). […] Although there are many things that can lead to the development of emphysema, the vast majority of occurrences arise from exposure to cigarette smoke. […] The risk is associated with the number of years and the amount of tobacco the person has been smoking. […] Centriacinar begins in the respiratory bronchioles and spreads mainly in the upper half of the lungs. This is the most common type of emphysema and is usually linked with long-standing cigarette smoking. […] Panacinar commonly resides in the lower half of the lungs and destroys the tissue of the air sacs, causing a distinctive, uniform enlargement of air spaces. It is associated with a genetic disease (homozygous alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency). […] Paraseptal tends to localize around the septa or pleura. It’s often associated with inflammatory processes, such as prior lung infections.

• #31 Emphysema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emphysema

  Emphysema is a lower respiratory tract disease, characterised by enlarged air-filled spaces in the lungs, that can vary in size and may be very large. […] Causes include tobacco smoking, air pollution, and genetics. […] Emphysema usually affects the middle aged or older population because it takes time to develop with the effects of tobacco smoking and other risk factors. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a genetic risk factor that may lead to the condition presenting earlier. […] Centrilobular emphysema is the only type associated with smoking. […] Panlobular emphysema, also called panacinar emphysema, affects all of the alveoli in a lobule, and can involve the whole lung or mainly the lower lobes. […] This type of emphysema is associated with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (A1AD or AATD), and Ritalin lung, and is not related to smoking.

• #32 Emphysema – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/emphysema

  Emphysema is a long-term lung condition that causes shortness of breath due to damaged and enlarged air sacs in the lungs (alveoli). […] Although there are many things that can lead to the development of emphysema, the vast majority of occurrences arise from exposure to cigarette smoke. […] The risk is associated with the number of years and the amount of tobacco the person has been smoking. […] Centriacinar begins in the respiratory bronchioles and spreads mainly in the upper half of the lungs. This is the most common type of emphysema and is usually linked with long-standing cigarette smoking. […] Panacinar commonly resides in the lower half of the lungs and destroys the tissue of the air sacs, causing a distinctive, uniform enlargement of air spaces. It is associated with a genetic disease (homozygous alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency). […] Paraseptal tends to localize around the septa or pleura. It’s often associated with inflammatory processes, such as prior lung infections.

• #33 Pulmonary emphysema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-emphysema?lang=us

  Paraseptal or distal acinar emphysema affects the peripheral parts of the secondary pulmonary lobule and is usually located adjacent to the pleural surfaces. It is also associated with smoking and can lead to the formation of subpleural bullae and spontaneous pneumothorax. […] Prognosis is worse in patients who continue to smoke, are alpha-1-antitrypsin deficient, have low FEV1 at time of diagnosis, or have other comorbidities (e.g. heart failure, respiratory failure, frequent exacerbations).

• #34 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559281/

  COPD is caused by prolonged exposure to harmful particles or gases. Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of COPD worldwide. Other causes may include second-hand smoke, environmental and occupational exposures, and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD). […] In emphysema, an irritant (e.g., smoking) causes an inflammatory response. Neutrophils and macrophages are recruited and release multiple inflammatory mediators. Oxidants and excess proteases leading to the destruction of the air sacs. The protease-mediated destruction of elastin leads to a loss of elastic recoil and results in airway collapse during exhalation. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a rare cause of emphysema which involves a lack of antiproteases and the imbalance leaves the lung parenchyma at risk for protease-mediated damage. AATD is caused by misfolding of the mutated protein which can accumulate in the liver. AATD should be suspected in COPD patients who present with liver damage. As opposed to smoking-related emphysema, AATD primarily involves the lower lobes.

• #35 Pulmonary Emphysema in Animals – Respiratory System – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/respiratory-system/pulmonary-emphysema/pulmonary-emphysema-in-animals

  Pulmonary emphysema is identified by marked overdistention of alveoli along with destruction of supporting alveolar and interstitial structures. […] In animals, pulmonary emphysema typically occurs secondary to a primary obstructive pulmonary disease process. […] the main risk factors are tobacco smoke exposure and alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency. […] Although the pathogenesis of pulmonary emphysema is not fully understood, at least three mechanisms have been suggested: imbalance between endogenous protease and antiprotease activity, resulting in destruction of alveolar walls and interstitial matrix; inappropriate maintenance of lung structure and repair after injury; development secondary to obstruction of airways on expiration due to chronic bronchitis or bronchiolitis or congenital abnormality of the airway wall.

• #36 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559281/

  COPD is caused by prolonged exposure to harmful particles or gases. Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of COPD worldwide. Other causes may include second-hand smoke, environmental and occupational exposures, and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD). […] In emphysema, an irritant (e.g., smoking) causes an inflammatory response. Neutrophils and macrophages are recruited and release multiple inflammatory mediators. Oxidants and excess proteases leading to the destruction of the air sacs. The protease-mediated destruction of elastin leads to a loss of elastic recoil and results in airway collapse during exhalation. […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a rare cause of emphysema which involves a lack of antiproteases and the imbalance leaves the lung parenchyma at risk for protease-mediated damage. AATD is caused by misfolding of the mutated protein which can accumulate in the liver. AATD should be suspected in COPD patients who present with liver damage. As opposed to smoking-related emphysema, AATD primarily involves the lower lobes.

• #37 Emphysema Types, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.medicinenet.com/emphysema_lung_condition/article.htm

  COPD The majority of cases of emphysema are caused by exposure to cigarettes. […] However, the majority of cases of emphysema (COPD) in the United States and other countries are caused by exposure to cigarette smoke. […] People with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency have an inherited autosomal condition that results in an increased breakdown of elastin in the lungs, resulting in COPD (emphysema). […] The response of the body’s immune system leads to the destruction of elastin and other structural elements in the lungs, ultimately producing areas in the lungs that cannot function normally. […] The major factors that increase the risk of developing emphysema are: Smoking: Smoking is one of the major risk factors for developing emphysema; the risk increases as the number of years the person has been smoking increases and is related to the amount of tobacco smoked. […] In the less developed parts of the world, indoor air pollution primarily from open wood flames used for cooking is the primary mechanism for acquiring emphysema.

• #38 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease

  The most common cause of COPD is tobacco smoking. […] Other risk factors include indoor and outdoor air pollution including dust, exposure to occupational irritants such as dust from grains, cadmium dust or fumes, and genetics, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. […] The greatest risk factor for the development of COPD is tobacco smoke. […] However, less than 50 percent of heavy smokers develop COPD, so other factors need to be considered, including exposure to indoor and outdoor pollutants, allergens, occupational exposure, and host factors. […] One of the known causes of COPD is exposure to construction dust. […] The primary risk factor for COPD globally is tobacco smoking with an increased rate of developing COPD shown in smokers and ex-smokers. […] Of those who smoke, about 20% will get COPD, increasing to less than 50% in heavy smokers.

• #39

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-(copd)

  Tobacco smoking accounts for over 70% of COPD cases in high-income countries. In LMIC tobacco smoking accounts for 30-40% of COPD cases, and household air pollution is a major risk factor. […] Smoking and air pollution are the most common causes of COPD. […] Several processes can cause the airways to become narrow and lead to COPD. There may be destruction of parts of the lung, mucus blocking the airways, and inflammation and swelling of the airway lining. […] COPD develops gradually over time, often resulting from a combination of risk factors: tobacco exposure from active smoking or passive exposure to second-hand smoke; occupational exposure to dusts, fumes or chemicals; indoor air pollution: biomass fuel (wood, animal dung, crop residue) or coal is frequently used for cooking and heating in low- and middle-income countries with high levels of smoke exposure; early life events such as poor growth in utero, prematurity, and frequent or severe respiratory infections in childhood that prevent maximum lung growth; asthma in childhood; and a rare genetic condition called alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, which can cause COPD at a young age.

• #40 COPD – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/copd/symptoms-causes/syc-20353679

  In about 1% of people with COPD, the condition results from a gene change passed down in families. This is a genetic form of emphysema. This gene lessens the levels of a protein called alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) in the body. AAT is made in the liver and released into the bloodstream to help protect the lungs from damage caused by smoke, fumes and dust. […] Long-term exposure to irritants, such as from smoking, injures the lungs. This damage keeps air from moving in and out of the lungs freely, limiting their ability to provide oxygen to the bloodstream and take away carbon dioxide. The two main conditions that prevent effective airflow in the lungs are: Emphysema. This lung condition causes destruction of the fragile walls and elastic fibers of the alveoli. The damaged inner walls of the alveoli may be destroyed, creating one large air space that is hard to empty compared with the many healthy small ones. The alveoli now have less surface area that can be used to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. Also, old air gets trapped in the large alveoli so there isn’t room for enough new air to get in. […] Other irritants can cause COPD, including cigar smoke, secondhand smoke, pipe smoke, air pollution, and workplace exposure to dust, smoke or fumes.

• #41 Emphysema | Emphysema Symptoms | Emphysema Treatment | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/emphysema.html

  Long-term exposure to other lung irritants, such as secondhand smoke, air pollution, and chemical fumes and dusts from the environment or workplace. […] Age. Most people who have emphysema are at least 40 years old when their symptoms begin. […] Genetics. This includes alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, which is a genetic condition. Also, smokers who get emphysema are more likely to get it if they have a family history of COPD. […] Since smoking causes most cases of emphysema, the best way to prevent it is to not smoke. It’s also important to try to avoid lung irritants such as secondhand smoke, air pollution, chemical fumes, and dusts.

• #42 Emphysema: What Is It, Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/emphysema

  Emphysema is a disease of the lungs. It occurs most often in people who smoke, but it also occurs in people who regularly breathe in irritants. […] Smoking tobacco is the main cause of emphysema. The more you smoke, the higher your risk of developing emphysema. This includes smoking cannabis. […] Exposure to secondhand smoke also increases your risk of developing emphysema. […] Other causes of, as well as potential risk factors for developing emphysema, may include: exposure to high pollution chemical fumes or lung irritants, a genetic condition called alpha-1 deficiency can lead to a rare form of emphysema called alpha-1 deficiency-related emphysema, history of childhood respiratory infections, a compromised immune system, especially as a result of HIV, rare disorders such as Marfan syndrome. […] Since emphysema is mainly caused by smoking tobacco, the best way to prevent it is to refrain from smoking. It’s also important to stay away from harmful chemicals and fumes as well as heavy pollution.

• #43 Emphysema Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options

  https://www.drugs.com/health-guide/emphysema.html

  Emphysema is a progressive disease, which means it continues to get worse. […] Smoking is responsible for the vast majority of cases of emphysema. Exposure to secondhand smoke and airborne toxins also can contribute to emphysema, though to a much lesser degree. […] Both emphysema and chronic bronchitis are caused by damage to the lungs and bronchial tubes. […] A small number of people in the United States develop emphysema from an inherited disease known as alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency. […] Regardless of the cause, lung damage in emphysema cannot be reversed. […] If you smoke, stop. If you don’t smoke, don’t start. By quitting smoking you can either prevent emphysema or slow its progression. […] In people with emphysema who continue to smoke, smoking dramatically increases the severity of the illness. It may reduce life span by 10 years or more.

• #44 Emphysema Stages: Symptoms, Complications, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/emphysema-stages

  Emphysema typically occurs slowly in stages, usually due to years of smoking cigarettes or other types of tobacco. […] Smoking is the most common cause of a serious lung condition called emphysema. […] Smoking cigarettes causes 80 percent of all emphysema. Other causes include: secondhand smoke, marijuana smoke, air pollution, chemical fumes, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, a genetic condition that affects the lungs. […] People over 40 years old, or people who smoked for long periods, are at higher risk for this condition. […] Once developed, emphysema cant be reversed. […] The outlook for people with emphysema depends on the severity of the condition and how early they start treatment. […] Lung damage from emphysema is irreversible. […] People who stop smoking and take steps to protect their lungs from further damage usually have a longer life expectancy.

• #45 What Causes Emphysema and What Can I Do About It?: Medical Associates of North Texas: Internal Medicine

  https://www.mantcare.com/blog/what-causes-emphysema-and-what-can-i-do-about-it

  Emphysema is a chronic lung condition that develops when the air sacs (alveoli) inside your lungs get damaged. […] The main cause of emphysema is cigarette smoke. […] When you smoke cigarettes, the toxins in the tobacco smoke gradually damage the alveoli in your lungs, and this damage makes them less elastic. […] The answer is long-term exposure to airborne irritants. […] Emphysema is a progressive condition, and the damage it causes is irreversible.

• #46 What is Emphysema: Symptoms, Causes, Stages, Complications & Risk Factors

  https://www.maxhealthcare.in/blogs/what-is-emphysema

  Emphysema is primarily caused by long-term exposure to irritants that damage the lungs and impair respiratory function. The primary risk factors and causes of emphysema include: […] Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of emphysema. The harmful chemicals in tobacco smoke can irritate and inflame the airways, leading to the destruction of lung tissue over time. […] Exposure to secondhand smoke, also known as passive smoking, can increase the risk of developing emphysema, particularly in nonsmokers who live or work with smokers. […] Long-term exposure to airborne pollutants and chemical irritants in the workplace, such as dust, fumes, and industrial chemicals, can contribute to the development of emphysema. […] Prolonged exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution, including vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and indoor cooking fumes, can damage lung tissue and increase the risk of emphysema.

• #47 Emphysema: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.health.com/emphysema-overview-7111469

  Emphysema is a chronic, progressive lung disease that affects over 3 million people in the United States alone. […] Long-term exposure to irritants like cigarette smoke and air pollution are the leading causes of emphysema, which causes symptoms like shortness of breath, wheezing, chronic cough, and fatigue. […] Emphysema is a lung disease caused by damage to the alveoli (tiny air sacs) in the lungs. The alveoli become damaged and lose their elasticity by exposure to harmful chemicals and irritants, such as cigarette smoke. […] Cigarette smoke is the leading cause of emphysema, but other irritants are also linked to the disease, including: Pipe, cigar, and cannabis smoking, Exposure to secondhand smoke, Occupational exposure to chemical dust, fumes, and vapors, Environmental air pollution, Asthma, Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency.

• #48 Emphysema: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/copd/guide/emphysema/

  Emphysema is considered one of the most preventable respiratory diseases because cigarette smoking is its leading cause. About 85 to 90 percent of all COPD cases in high-income countries are caused by cigarette smoking, according to the American Lung Association (ALA). […] That said, some people who have COPD never smoked cigarettes, especially in low-income countries. Other risk factors for emphysema include: exposure to air pollution (indoor and outdoor), secondhand smoke, workplace chemicals, dust, and fumes, and a history of childhood respiratory infection. In rare cases, a genetic disorder called alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency can cause COPD. If your body doesn’t make enough of the protein AAT, the lungs can be more easily damaged from smoking and environmental pollution, notes the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI).

• #49 Emphysema: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-emphysema-2249091

  Emphysema is a chronic, progressive lung disease caused by damage to the alveoli, the tiny air sacs in the lung where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. […] Smoking is the most common cause of emphysema, thought to be responsible for 85% to 90% of cases. But there are many other things that can act alone or in conjunction with smoking to cause emphysema. […] While researchers can’t be entirely sure why some people get COPD and others don’t, several risk factors have been identified, including: Secondhand smoke exposure, Occupational exposures to fumes, dust, and vapors, Air pollution, Asthma. […] As many as 5% of people with COPD have a genetic disorder known as alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency. The condition should be suspected when several family members develop emphysema, particularly if none have ever smoked, or diagnosed at a young age, typically considered under age 50.

• #50 COPD – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/copd/symptoms-causes/syc-20353679

  COPD is most often caused by long-term exposure to irritating smoke, fumes, dust or chemicals. The most common cause is cigarette smoke. […] The main cause of COPD in developed countries is tobacco smoking. In the developing world, COPD often occurs in people exposed to fumes from burning fuel for cooking and heating in homes that don’t have good airflow. Long-term exposure to chemical fumes, vapors and dusts in the workplace is another cause of COPD. […] In the vast majority of people with COPD in the United States, the lung damage that leads to COPD is caused by long-term cigarette smoking. But there are likely other factors at play in developing COPD because not everyone who smokes gets COPD. One such factor may be gene changes that make some people more likely to develop the condition.

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