Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Snakebite Prevention and First Aid | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2002/0401/p1377.html

  Most snakebites occur between April and October, when outdoor activities are popular. You can avoid snakebites by taking the following steps: […] Avoid places where snakes may live. These places include tall grass or brush, rocky areas, fallen logs, bluffs, swamps, marshes, and deep holes in the ground. […] When moving through tall grass or weeds, poke at the ground in front of you with a long stick to scare away snakes. […] Watch where you step and where you sit when outdoors. […] Wear loose, long pants and high, thick leather or rubber boots. […] Shine a flashlight on your path when walking outside at night. […] Never handle a snake, even if you think it is dead. Recently killed snakes may still bite by reflex. […] If you think the bite was from a poisonous snake, get to a hospital as soon as you can. In most of the United States, you should have time to get medical help before the bite is a serious danger to your life. […] If medical help is more than 30 minutes away, tie an elastic wrap two inches above the bite. The wrap should be loose enough to slip a finger underneath it.

• #1 IAMAT | How to prevent snake bites

  https://www.iamat.org/how-to-prevent-snake-bites

  Most parts of the world are inhabited by venomous snakes. Snake-bites are a risk to rural inhabitants whose agricultural and hunting activities expose them and their children to this primeval environmental and occupational disease. […] Awareness of risk is important. Find out in advance about the venomous snake fauna of the areas to be visited. […] Appropriate, well-informed reassurance can improve your enjoyment of travel and banish nightmares. If you’re travelling in a group that includes a designated medical officer, he/she should acquire basic knowledge about prevention and treatment. […] Do the following: Open and shake out sleeping bags, boots and clothing before use to dislodge snakes (and other animals and insects) that may have taken refuge inside. […] Sleep off the ground (hammock or camp bed) or use a sewn-in ground sheet and mosquito-proof tent or sleep under a mosquito net that is well-tucked-in under your sleeping bag. This will protect against night-prowling kraits (Asia) or spitting cobras (Africa) which often bite people while they are asleep on the ground.

• #1 Multimedia

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite

  Most deaths and serious consequences from snake bites are entirely preventable by making safe and effective antivenoms more widely available and accessible, particularly in high-risk areas. […] The availability and accessibility of these antivenoms, along with raising awareness on primary prevention methods among communities and health workers, are the best ways to limit serious consequences and deaths from snakebite envenoming. […] After a bite by a snake suspected of being venomous, follow these steps: […] Avoid traditional first aid methods or herbal medicines. […] Snake antivenoms are effective treatments to prevent or reverse most of the harmful effects of snakebite envenoming and are included in the WHO list of essential medicines.

• #1 Snakebite | Symptoms, Prevention & First Aid | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/snakebite

  Most types of snake-venom poisoning can be treated with the use of antivenins. Prepared by the immunization of animals (especially horses) against the venoms, the effectiveness of the antivenin depends upon its specificity, its antibody content, and the degree of purification or concentration of the product. Although the use of a specific antivenin is preferable in the treatment of a particular snakebite, some antivenins may protect against the venom of various related snakes.

• #1 Snakebite – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakebite

  Prevention of snake bites can involve wearing protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, and not handling snakes. […] Protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, not handling snakes. […] Antivenom is effective at preventing death from bites; however, antivenoms frequently have side effects. […] The type of antivenom needed depends on the type of snake involved. […] In some areas of the world, getting the right type of antivenom is difficult and this partly contributes to why they sometimes do not work. […] An additional issue is the cost of these medications. […] Supporting the person’s breathing is sometimes also required.

• #1 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11066363/

  In a systematic review published in this issue of the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Bonilla-Aldana et al. investigated the prevalence and characteristics of snakebite-related infections. Indeed, snakebite is a frequent, disabling, and sometimes deadly disease. Most snakebites occur in low, and middle-income countries and affect poor communities with limited access to medical care. Antivenom is the cornerstone of snakebite management. However, patients may suffer from infectious complications, influencing their outcomes. Envenoming-related tissue injuries favor microbial proliferation, increasing the likelihood of infection and tissue damage. Considering that microorganisms from the snakes mouth are inoculated at the bite, some authors question the effectiveness of prophylactic antimicrobial use in preventing secondary infection.

• #1 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 110 Issue 5 (2024)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/110/5/article-p845.xml

  According to the new report from Bonilla-Aldana et al., secondary infection after snakebite occurred in 32% in Asia, 21% in the Americas, and 29% in Africa. Therefore, antibiotics are useless in almost 70% of cases. Moreover, many authors have shown that administering prophylactic antibiotics in snake-bitten patients is ineffective in preventing infection, but may promote bacterial resistance. […] To improve management, empiric antibiotics should be directed toward patients at particular risk or suspected of snakebite-related infection. […] International consortiums recommend amoxicillin-clavulanate (AMC) to prevent infection after an animal bite. These recommendations are based on studies involving dog, cat, and human bites, but not snakes. Indeed, snake oral microbiota differ from those of other animals, making AMC ineffective against the involved bacteria most of the time.

• #1 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11066363/

  According to the new report from Bonilla-Aldana et al., secondary infection after snakebite occurred in 32% in Asia, 21% in the Americas, and 29% in Africa. Therefore, antibiotics are useless in almost 70% of cases. Moreover, many authors have shown that administering prophylactic antibiotics in snake-bitten patients is ineffective in preventing infection, but may promote bacterial resistance. […] International consortiums recommend amoxicillin-clavulanate (AMC) to prevent infection after an animal bite. These recommendations are based on studies involving dog, cat, and human bites, but not snakes. Indeed, snake oral microbiota differ from those of other animals, making AMC ineffective against the involved bacteria most of the time. […] In conclusion, the study by Bonilla-Aldana et al. accurately shows the prevalence and microbiological patterns of snakebite-related infections. On the basis of the international literature, there is no evidence for the effectiveness of routinely administered prophylactic treatment. Nevertheless, empiric antibiotics can be used in targeted cases with high suspicion of infection, mainly those with necrosis or local signs suggestive of cellulitis. The most appropriate empiric antibiotics are piperacillin/tazobactam, ciprofloxacin, or a third-generation cephalosporin. First-line AMC should no longer be considered because it is ineffective against most bacteria involved in snakebite-related infection.

• #1 Experiences and practices of traditional healers on snakebite treatment and prevention in rural Malawi | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011653

  Snakebite envenoming remains a public health threat in many tropical countries including Malawi. […] Our study identified five themes: THs knowledge of snakes and treatment, the continuum of care they provide, payment procedures, snakebite prevention, and their relationship with health facilities. […] All THs claimed a vaccine for snakebites that could prevent bites or neutralize the venom. […] We recommend collaboration between HCWs and THs, establishing clear referral pathways for snakebite victims and educating THs on identifying danger signs requiring prompt referral to healthcare facilities. […] Snakebite prevention measures offered by THs were understood as both environmental and individual protecting the home, garden, and individual body. […] In addition, all the studys THs claimed they had a Vaccine for snakebite. The vaccine can be given to someone to prevent being bitten by snakes or if accidentally bitten, assuring that the bite is harmless.

• #1 Snakebites: First aid

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-snake-bites/basics/art-20056681

  Most snakes aren’t dangerous to people. Only about 15% of snakes worldwide and 20% in the United States can inject poison when they bite. These snakes are called venomous. In North America, these include the rattlesnake, coral snake, water moccasin, also called cottonmouth, and copperhead. Their bites can cause serious injuries and sometimes death. […] If a venomous snake bites you, call 911 or your local emergency number right away, especially if the bitten area changes color, swells or is painful. Many emergency rooms have antivenom drugs, which may help you. […] After you call 911 or your local emergency number, if possible, take these steps while waiting for medical help: Move far away from the snake. Stay still and calm. Remove any jewelry, watches or tight clothing before swelling starts. Sit or lie down so that the bite is in a neutral, comfortable position. Clean the bite with soap and water. Cover or wrap it loosely with a clean, dry bandage.

• #1 Snakebites: First aid

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-snake-bites/basics/art-20056681

  Don’t tie off the bite area, called using a tourniquet, or apply ice. Don’t cut the bite or try to remove the venom. Don’t drink caffeine or alcohol. Don’t take pain-relieving medicine, such as aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) or naproxen sodium (Aleve). Doing so can increase your risk of bleeding. Don’t try to catch or trap the snake. Try to remember its color and shape so that you can describe it. If possible, take a picture of the snake from a safe distance. Knowing what kind of snake bit you can help with treatment.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/teams/control-of-neglected-tropical-diseases/snakebite-envenoming/prevention-and-control

  It is feasible that a concerted, multisectoral approach would drive the achievement of substantial reductions in the burden of injury, disability and death caused by snakebite envenoming within as little as a decade. […] WHO is creating a strategic plan for the prevention and control of snakebite envenoming. This requires a comprehensive multisectoral response that addresses the key causes of snakebite envenoming and the determinants of outcomes. […] Simply having the right information to make good health care-seeking decisions can change community responses after snake bites, and education on active personal prevention strategies can empower vulnerable populations to avoid snakebite and reduce its incidence. […] Health centre infrastructure and the availability of antivenom, other drugs and medical consumables also plays a role, as does the level of training and competency of the health workers themselves.

• #1

  https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2013803

  Shri Apurva Chandra, Union Health Secretary launched a National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE) in India, here today. With a vision to reduce snakebite deaths by halve by 2030, NAPSE provides a broad framework for states to develop their own action plan for management, prevention and control of snakebites through the One Health approach. […] These materials will serve as invaluable tools for raising awareness, disseminating critical information, and empowering communities to take proactive measures against snakebite. […] It was informed that a Snakebite Helpline no (15400), a vital resource that provides immediate assistance, guidance, and support to individuals and communities affected by snakebite incidents will be piloted in five States (Puducherry, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Delhi). This initiative aims to ensure prompt access to medical care and information to general public.

• #1

  https://journals.lww.com/ijmr/fulltext/2023/04000/national_programme_for_prevention___control_of.7.aspx

  Snakebite envenomation (SBE) is an acute, life-threatening, time-limiting, medical emergency affecting 1.8-2.7 million people with estimated 138,000 deaths annually across the globe. India contributes an average of 58,000 deaths annually. […] The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), Government of India (GoI), declared the launch of a national programme for prevention and control of SBE in the month of September 2022. The launch of this dedicated national programme for snakebite by the Government of India is a welcome decision. […] The national programme should consider the diversity of venomous snake species and their toxins in different geographical regions in India. […] Hence, the GoI should consider establishing region-specific venom banks and make provision for region-specific ASV during the process of implementation of the national snakebite programme.

• #1 Snakebite Prevention and First Aid | Digital Medic

  https://digitalmedic.stanford.edu/snakebite-prevention-and-first-aid

  An animated video to teach children and their families snakebite prevention and treatment tips. […] The best-known cure for a snakebite? Preventing it in the first place. […] We teamed up with the Eswatini Antivenom Foundation to create an animated video on snakebite prevention and first-aid treatment tips through the eyes of Dudu and Jabu, two children living in rural Eswatini. The video is meant to be shown in primary and secondary schools to teach children and their families how to prepare for snakebite season, which typically runs from September through May of each year.

• #1 Snake Bites – Fit for Travel

  https://www.fitfortravel.nhs.uk/advice/general-travel-health-advice/snake-bites

  There are over 3000 species of snake, most of which are harmless to humans. A minority are venomous and around 250 of these are considered dangerous. […] Most snakebites happen in tropical and sub tropical parts of Africa, the Americas, Asia, the Middle East and Oceania. People in poor agricultural areas are most affected with children, adolescents and young adults at particular risk. […] Snakebite is a medical emergency that requires professional intervention as quickly as possible. […] Prevention advice for travellers […] Snakes are usually shy and unaggressive unless physically threatened. If a snake is encountered back away slowly and cautiously. […] There is no simple rule for distinguishing a venomous snake from a non-venomous one. All snakes can bite and may inflict painful wounds even if non-venomous.

• #1 How You (And Your Dog) Can Avoid Snake Bites And What To Do If You Get One : Shots – Health News : NPR

  https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/05/12/721934569/how-you-and-your-dog-can-avoid-snake-bites-and-what-to-do-if-you-get-bitten

  Copperhead snakes are one of the four kinds of venomous snakes in the United States. […] In most states, this means more greenery, more rabbits, more rodents and more snakes which raises the risk of snake bites for humans and their canine companions. […] „The No. 1 rule when hiking in snake territory is to stay on the trail.” […] „Like humans, dogs are more likely to get bitten when they go off the trail, so it’s best to keep your pup on a leash.” […] „Most people would argue that you should be wearing boots with high sides if you’re in a place with lots of snakes.” […] „This is a hard one in warm climates, but wearing long pants can help since most people get bitten in the lower leg.” […] „Like dogs, kids are curious.” […] „Snake bites can be more dangerous for children than for adults, because they are smaller and are often bitten on the face, which is more serious than a bite on the leg or hand.”

• #1 Snake Bite Prevention & Safety Tips for Your Pets | How to Prevent Snake Bites & Keep Pets Safe – Embrace Pet Insurance

  https://www.embracepetinsurance.com/waterbowl/article/snakebite-safety-prevention

  Did you know that there are approximately 300,000 dogs and cats bitten by venomous snakes each year in the United States? […] If you take your pet hiking with you or enjoy other outdoors activities together, it is important to know how to prevent snake bites and how to react should one occur. […] During walks, keep your pet on a short leash, not off-leash or on a retractable lead. The majority of snake bites occur when a pet is far from his owner. […] Avoid rocky or dense brush and grassy areas. Choose wide trails over narrow ones. […] Tidy up your yard. Keep your grass cut short and eliminate brush, tools, toys, and rock piles. All make excellent snake hiding and sunning spots. […] Keep your yard clean of items which attract rodents (which in turn attract snakes) such as food, fruit, and birdseed.

• #1 Venomous Snakes at Work | Outdoor | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/outdoor-workers/about/venomous-snakes.html

  Employers can protect their workers from venomous snake bites by training them about: […] How to prevent snake bites. […] If bitten, receiving antivenom as soon as possible helps limbs to recover faster and it lessens the chance that a limb will be disabled after copperhead snake envenomation. […] Do not touch or handle any snake. […] Wear boots and long pants when working outdoors.

• #1 Global Snakebite Initiative USA Foundation

  https://www.globalsnakebite.org/

  The solutions to turn the tide are not complicated. After all, snakebite is preventable and treatable. Join us, as we do our part to bring decades of combined expertise to fill critical gaps by implementing tangible, life-saving programs. Everything we do aligns with the World Health Organization strategy to reduce snakebite death and disability by half, by 2030. […] Lack of access to effective and affordable treatments, prehospital care and transport, poor training of health care workers and insufficient awareness in communities about snakebite prevention and treatment options drives this staggering figure. […] GSI supports WHOs call for improved epidemiological surveillance to improve national, regional and global estimates. […] GSI works to help communities learn how to mitigate the risk of such tragedies, while living safely alongside snakes. Simple messaging and engagement teach those at risk about becoming more aware of their surroundings, making use of protective footwear or gloves, and taking other simple steps to avert accidental bites.

• #1 Snake bite: Prevention is best but antivenom treatment must also be improved

  https://medicalxpress.com/news/2010-01-snake-antivenom-treatment.html

  When a bite occurs, the person needs to be quickly transported to professional medical care. […] Educating paramedical staff about correct prehospital care of bitten patients, including resuscitation techniques, and teaching health workers how and when to treat snakebite with antivenom are also important. […] Antivenom, the only antidote to snake venom, consists of concentrated immunoglobulins from the plasma of domestic animals such as horses or sheep that have been repeatedly immunised with one or more different snake venoms. […] Improvement of the treatment of snake bite requires solutions to many economic, logistical, marketing, distribution, and storage difficulties associated with production and supply of antivenom, and provision of improved training for medical personnel so that the best possible use of antivenom and other treatments is achieved. […] The development of safe, effective, and affordable antivenoms is a priority addressed by WHO. […] Snake bite is a neglected disease that afflicts the most impoverished inhabitants of rural areas in tropical developing countries.

• #2 Snake bite: Prevention is best but antivenom treatment must also be improved

  https://medicalxpress.com/news/2010-01-snake-antivenom-treatment.html

  Snake bite: Prevention is best but antivenom treatment must also be improved […] Around 5.5 million people are bitten by snakes each year, resulting in some 400,000 amputations and between 20,000 and 125,000 deaths. […] A Seminar and linked Viewpoint in this week’s Lancet discuss how educating communities on how to avoid snake bite, or providing them with protective footwear, might reduce the risk. […] Community education to reduce the risk of bites is a better approach than is the eradication of venomous snakes. It should be based on knowledge of the circumstances in which most bites occur, the preferred habitats of dangerous species, and their peak periods of activity—ie, time of day, season, and climate. […] In Burma, use of cheap protective footwear in paddy fields has protected workers from the bite of Russell’s vipers.

• #2 Snake Bites: Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15647-snake-bites

  Can a snake bite be prevented? […] You can take steps to prevent snake bites by: […] Being careful where you put your hands and feet. Dont reach into unknown spaces and holes, or underneath objects without first making sure a snake isnt hiding there. […] Being aware of your surroundings. Dont lie down or sit down in areas where there might be snakes. […] Wearing high-top boots and long pants when walking through or working in areas with dense vegetation. […] Not attempting to capture, handle or keep snakes. […] If you come across a snake, slowly back away from it and avoid touching it.

• #2 Venomous Snakes at Work | Outdoor | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/outdoor-workers/about/venomous-snakes.html

  Employers can protect their workers from venomous snake bites by training them about: […] How to prevent snake bites. […] If bitten, receiving antivenom as soon as possible helps limbs to recover faster and it lessens the chance that a limb will be disabled after copperhead snake envenomation. […] Do not touch or handle any snake. […] Wear boots and long pants when working outdoors.

• #2 IAMAT | How to prevent snake bites

  https://www.iamat.org/how-to-prevent-snake-bites

  Do not disturb, approach, corner, provoke, attack, or attempt to handle snakes, even if they are said to be a harmless species, or appear to be dead (some snakes sham death defensively). […] Do not swim in rivers matted with vegetation in which snakes may be hiding or in muddy estuaries where there are likely to be sea-snakes. […] Reassure the victim. Many bites are by harmless snakes and even the most venomous snakes often bite without injecting harmful amounts of venom (dry bites). […] Transport the victim to medical care as quickly, safely and passively as possible. […] If, when the snake-bite victim reaches the hospital, doctors find evidence of envenoming (envenomation), a specific antidote called antivenom may be needed.

• #2 Snake Envenomation | PreventionWeb

  https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/bi0006

  Snake bite is a neglected public health issue in many tropical and subtropical countries. […] The guidelines for the Prevention and Clinical Management of Snakebite in Africa were developed by the WHO Regional Office of Africa with contributions from technical experts. They are meant to assist health workers to improve medical care for snakebite victims. […] Rational use of snake anti-venom can substantially reduce mortality and morbidity due to snakebites. […] Most deaths and serious consequences of snake bites are entirely preventable by making safe and effective antivenoms more widely available and accessible. […] Snake antivenom immunoglobulins (antivenoms) are the only specific treatment for envenoming by snakebites. Antivenoms can prevent or reverse most of the snakebite envenoming effects and play a crucial role in minimising mortality and morbidity.

• #2 Snakebite – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakebite

  Prevention of snake bites can involve wearing protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, and not handling snakes. […] Protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, not handling snakes. […] Antivenom is effective at preventing death from bites; however, antivenoms frequently have side effects. […] The type of antivenom needed depends on the type of snake involved. […] In some areas of the world, getting the right type of antivenom is difficult and this partly contributes to why they sometimes do not work. […] An additional issue is the cost of these medications. […] Supporting the person’s breathing is sometimes also required.

• #2 Global Snakebite Initiative USA Foundation

  https://www.globalsnakebite.org/

  While new therapeutics for snakebite are on the distant horizon, antivenom is currently the only solution. Antivenoms in all snakebite endemic countries need to be affordable, available, effective and safe. Many more lives are destroyed by a lack of any of these requirements, in addition to a lack of rehabilitation services which in turn drive families deeper into poverty and poor long-term outcomes.

• #2 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11066363/

  According to the new report from Bonilla-Aldana et al., secondary infection after snakebite occurred in 32% in Asia, 21% in the Americas, and 29% in Africa. Therefore, antibiotics are useless in almost 70% of cases. Moreover, many authors have shown that administering prophylactic antibiotics in snake-bitten patients is ineffective in preventing infection, but may promote bacterial resistance. […] International consortiums recommend amoxicillin-clavulanate (AMC) to prevent infection after an animal bite. These recommendations are based on studies involving dog, cat, and human bites, but not snakes. Indeed, snake oral microbiota differ from those of other animals, making AMC ineffective against the involved bacteria most of the time. […] In conclusion, the study by Bonilla-Aldana et al. accurately shows the prevalence and microbiological patterns of snakebite-related infections. On the basis of the international literature, there is no evidence for the effectiveness of routinely administered prophylactic treatment. Nevertheless, empiric antibiotics can be used in targeted cases with high suspicion of infection, mainly those with necrosis or local signs suggestive of cellulitis. The most appropriate empiric antibiotics are piperacillin/tazobactam, ciprofloxacin, or a third-generation cephalosporin. First-line AMC should no longer be considered because it is ineffective against most bacteria involved in snakebite-related infection.

• #2 Routine prophylactic antibiotic use in the management of snakebite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC59881/

  Routine antibiotic prophylaxis following snakebite is not recommended but evidence suggests that it may be common practice in Zimbabwe. […] Routine prophylactic use of antibiotics in snakebite at Parirenyatwa Hospital is common practice. […] The routine prophylactic use of antibiotics in the management of snakebite has been advocated and recommended by some authors. […] However, results of studies have failed to show clinical evidence on the benefit of this prophylactic use of antibiotics and there is a low incidence of wound infection after snakebite. […] In view of this, the routine use of antibiotics is generally not advocated and can be considered inappropriate, save for cases of snakebite associated with local tissue necrosis or gangrene, abscess formation, or bullae. […] Studies in Zimbabwe have shown that antibiotics are the most frequently used medication in the management of snakebite with some authors suggesting that in most instances the use of antibiotics for snakebite was inappropriate and irrational.

• #2 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 110 Issue 5 (2024)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/110/5/article-p845.xml

  According to the new report from Bonilla-Aldana et al., secondary infection after snakebite occurred in 32% in Asia, 21% in the Americas, and 29% in Africa. Therefore, antibiotics are useless in almost 70% of cases. Moreover, many authors have shown that administering prophylactic antibiotics in snake-bitten patients is ineffective in preventing infection, but may promote bacterial resistance. […] To improve management, empiric antibiotics should be directed toward patients at particular risk or suspected of snakebite-related infection. […] International consortiums recommend amoxicillin-clavulanate (AMC) to prevent infection after an animal bite. These recommendations are based on studies involving dog, cat, and human bites, but not snakes. Indeed, snake oral microbiota differ from those of other animals, making AMC ineffective against the involved bacteria most of the time.

• #2 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 110 Issue 5 (2024)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/110/5/article-p845.xml

  In most cases, the pathogenic bacteria are naturally resistant to AMC. […] Accordingly, first-line AMC is not an appropriate option to treat snake-bitten patients, except when guided by microbiological results. […] In conclusion, the study by Bonilla-Aldana et al. accurately shows the prevalence and microbiological patterns of snakebite-related infections. On the basis of the international literature, there is no evidence for the effectiveness of routinely administered prophylactic treatment. Nevertheless, empiric antibiotics can be used in targeted cases with high suspicion of infection, mainly those with necrosis or local signs suggestive of cellulitis. The most appropriate empiric antibiotics are piperacillin/tazobactam, ciprofloxacin, or a third-generation cephalosporin. First-line AMC should no longer be considered because it is ineffective against most bacteria involved in snakebite-related infection.

• #2 Experiences and practices of traditional healers on snakebite treatment and prevention in rural Malawi | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011653

  The THs role in planting medicinal plans was also addressed. […] Snakebite prevention measures offered by THs were understood as both environmental and individual protecting the home, garden, and individual body. […] THs in Neno strongly recommend a collaborative approach with HCWs to ensure that they are educated about danger signs that guarantee a straight referral of snakebite victims to the hospital.

• #2 Bites and Stings

  https://poisoncenters.org/prevention/bites-stings

  If you are bit, do not apply a tourniquet or attempt to suck out or cut out the venom. Call the Poison Help line (1-800-222-1222) right away and seek additional medical help if advised by a poison expert. […] Moreover, not all bites from venomous snakes result in the injection of venom. This is often called a dry bite. By calling a poison center for help right away, the poison experts will advise you the proper first aid for your situation.

• #2 Multimedia

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite

  Most deaths and serious consequences from snake bites are entirely preventable by making safe and effective antivenoms more widely available and accessible, particularly in high-risk areas. […] The availability and accessibility of these antivenoms, along with raising awareness on primary prevention methods among communities and health workers, are the best ways to limit serious consequences and deaths from snakebite envenoming. […] After a bite by a snake suspected of being venomous, follow these steps: […] Avoid traditional first aid methods or herbal medicines. […] Snake antivenoms are effective treatments to prevent or reverse most of the harmful effects of snakebite envenoming and are included in the WHO list of essential medicines.

• #2 Managing snakebite | The BMJ

  https://www.bmj.com/content/376/bmj-2020-057926

  Bites from venomous snakes can result in bleeding, paralysis, long term disability, and death. […] Immobilise the bitten limb when transporting the patient to a medical facility; the universal use of pressure immobilisation is controversial, and tourniquets are not recommended. […] Intravenous antivenom is recommended in patients with systemic symptoms; the dose and type depend on likely snake species, local guidelines, and availability. […] The World Health Organization recognised snakebite as a neglected tropical disease in 2017 and called for concerted global action to reduce deaths and disability. […] A systematic review identified pressure immobilisation with an elastic bandage or pad (at a comfortable pressure) at the bite site as an effective first aid measure to slow venom spread, but the quality of evidence was very low.

• #2 SciELO Brazil – The WHO strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming: a sub-Saharan Africa plan The WHO strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming: a sub-Saharan Africa plan

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jvatitd/a/57cq4M5DKCq9LbtbPs3JrwS/?lang=en

  Snakebite is a critical public health issue in tropical countries, particularly in Africa, where 20% of snakebites globally occur. […] In 2019, thanks to broad institutional and international NGO support, including strong mobilization of African experts and governments, WHO launched a strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming with more ambitious goals. […] The lack of experience in antivenom choice and its use by health authorities, health personnel and population largely explains the shortage in sub-Saharan Africa. […] Providing peripheral health centers with antivenoms would decrease complications and deaths. […] The objectives of the WHO-SBEWG were to: strengthen the patients management, improve the availability of effective AVs, and reduce morbidity and mortality from SBE.

• #2

  https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2013803

  The National Action Plan for Snakebite Envenoming (NAPSE) provides a broad framework for management, prevention and control of Snake bite envenoming in India. This NAP-SE echoes the global voice of reducing the deaths due to snakebite envenoming by half and envisages all strategic components, roles and responsibilities of concerned stakeholders. […] The NAP-SE is a guidance document for the states / UTs and stakeholders to develop their own action plan, specific to their needs and aims at systematic reduction of snakebite envenoming risk through sustained availability of anti-snake venom, capacity building, referral mechanism and public education. […] The strategic action for human health component includes ensuring provision of anti snake venom at all health facilities, strengthening surveillance of snake bite cases and deaths in humans, strengthening of emergency care services at District Hospitals/ CHCs including services for ambulance, institutionalization of Regional Venom Centres and inter-sectoral coordination.

• #2

  https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2013803

  Shri Apurva Chandra, Union Health Secretary launched a National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE) in India, here today. With a vision to reduce snakebite deaths by halve by 2030, NAPSE provides a broad framework for states to develop their own action plan for management, prevention and control of snakebites through the One Health approach. […] These materials will serve as invaluable tools for raising awareness, disseminating critical information, and empowering communities to take proactive measures against snakebite. […] It was informed that a Snakebite Helpline no (15400), a vital resource that provides immediate assistance, guidance, and support to individuals and communities affected by snakebite incidents will be piloted in five States (Puducherry, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Delhi). This initiative aims to ensure prompt access to medical care and information to general public.

• #2

  https://journals.lww.com/ijmr/fulltext/2023/04000/national_programme_for_prevention___control_of.7.aspx

  Therefore, the union and State governments should ensure that sufficient doses of ASV are produced and made available in both public and private hospitals. There is a need for regular monitoring of ASV availability and utilization through the national programme. […] The national programme should provide for mechanisms to ensure ethical treatment of the equine and to improve the process of harvesting equine sera in the most productive ways. […] The plan of action for the prevention and control of snakebites in India should be considered as per the objectives of the WHO strategy for the prevention and control of snakebite envenoming. […] To develop a national programme that engages communities, ensures safe and effective treatment, builds health system capacity and promotes intersystem collaborations for reducing the impact of snakebite envenoming in the Indian population is, therefore, most crucial.

• #2 Preventing snake bites

  https://www.reading.ac.uk/research/impact/highlights/preventing-snake-bite?undefined=

  Snakebite is a significant occupational health issue around the world, particularly in developing countries, and is classified as a neglected tropical disease by the World Health Organization. […] Following this work, Dr Vaiyapuri and team are now focusing on raising public awareness about how to avoid snakebites and on first aid if someone is bitten. […] Prevention is better than cure. Four easy steps for government to reduce the economic impact of snakebite and burden on rural communities would be to: Raise awareness through radio and TV campaigns and information in cinemas, theatres, bus and train stations, and other public places. […] Widespread public awareness programmes could significantly reduce the incidence of snakebites and reduce deaths and disabilities. […] How to avoid snakebite: Be vigilant when near bushes or in fields. Wear protective gloves and shoes when working in fields. Supervise children playing outside. Use a torch when walking at night. If you see a snake, don’t touch it. Give it a clear path to leave the area, or call the fire service (101) for help.

• #2 Snakebites in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/snakebites-in-children

  Some snakebites may be hard to prevent. But you can take steps to reduce your child’s risk. These include: […] Teach your child to leave snakes alone. Teach them not to poke snakes with sticks or get close to them. […] Make sure your child stays out of tall grass unless they wear thick leather boots. […] Teach your child to stay on paths when hiking or walking in the woods. […] Don’t allow your child to reach into tall grasses or other places snakes may be. Tell your child not to pick up large rocks or firewood. […] Make sure your child knows to watch for snakes when climbing on rocks. […] If your child spends time in wilderness areas, such as campgrounds or hiking trails, make sure an adult on hand: […] Knows how to identify venomous snakes […] Makes sure there is transportation and medical help available in case of emergency. […] Treat all snakebites as if they were venomous and get to a hospital emergency room as fast as possible. […] Call 911 for emergency help right away. Medicine called antivenin should be given within 4 hours when possible. […] Teach your child to leave snakes alone.

• #2 Snake Bite Prevention for Pets | SPCA of Northern Nevada

  https://spcanevada.org/services/pet-education/pet-safety/snake-bite-prevention-for-pets/

  Rattlesnakes are most active in warmer seasons, from spring to autumn. […] The best way to deal with venomous snakes is to do your best to avoid them in the first place. […] Currently, there is a rattlesnake vaccine available for dogs that produces neutralizing antibodies against Western Diamondback venom. […] Consider talking to your veterinarian about getting your dog vaccinated if you live in an area where Western Diamondbacks are common. […] The most important thing you can do if your pet is bitten by a venomous snake is to get him to a veterinarian as soon as possible. […] Most pets will recover with prompt and appropriate treatment, but snake bites can be fatal. […] If you experience a snake encounter with your pet, make sure to get to the emergency veterinarian and call the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center at (888) 426-4435 right away.

• #2 Snake Bite Prevention & Safety Tips for Your Pets | How to Prevent Snake Bites & Keep Pets Safe – Embrace Pet Insurance

  https://www.embracepetinsurance.com/waterbowl/article/snakebite-safety-prevention

  Snakes can get under fencing that does not have a solid cement base. You may want to install hardware cloth along the entire base of your fence, including across any gated areas. […] If you encounter a snake, calmly and slowly back away from it until you are no longer within striking distance (about half the length of the body). Then carefully leave the area immediately. […] Do your homework and learn what snakes are found in your area. If a bite occurs, being able to recognize what type of snake it was can make a huge difference in your pet’s survival. […] If you live in an area where rattlesnakes are common, you may want to give your dog the rattlesnake vaccine. […] Snakebites are always considered an emergency and every minute matters. A venomous snakebite can be fatal if not treated immediately, and even a bite from a nonvenomous snake can pose danger. […] Don’t forget to keep your own personal safety a priority and never try to handle a snake even if it appears dead. 80% of snakebites affecting humans occur when they are trying to handle or kill a snake.

• #2 Snakebite Treatment & Management: Approach Considerations, Prehospital Care, Emergency Department Care

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/168828-treatment

  Prevention is key; people who live in snake-endemic areas should wear appropriate footwear and avoid placing their hands and feet where they cannot see.

• #2 Global Snakebite Initiative USA Foundation

  https://www.globalsnakebite.org/

  The solutions to turn the tide are not complicated. After all, snakebite is preventable and treatable. Join us, as we do our part to bring decades of combined expertise to fill critical gaps by implementing tangible, life-saving programs. Everything we do aligns with the World Health Organization strategy to reduce snakebite death and disability by half, by 2030. […] Lack of access to effective and affordable treatments, prehospital care and transport, poor training of health care workers and insufficient awareness in communities about snakebite prevention and treatment options drives this staggering figure. […] GSI supports WHOs call for improved epidemiological surveillance to improve national, regional and global estimates. […] GSI works to help communities learn how to mitigate the risk of such tragedies, while living safely alongside snakes. Simple messaging and engagement teach those at risk about becoming more aware of their surroundings, making use of protective footwear or gloves, and taking other simple steps to avert accidental bites.

• #2 Snake Envenomation | PreventionWeb

  https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/bi0006

  Currently, there is an urgent need to ensure availability of safe, effective and affordable antivenoms, particularly to people in developing countries, and to improve the regulatory control over the manufacture, import and sale of antivenoms. […] The WHO has taken steps to raise the awareness of health authorities and policymakers on this issue. […] A Snakebite Envenoming Working Group established that same year was tasked with informing the development of a strategic WHO road map on snakebites. This strategy focuses on a 50% reduction in mortality and disability caused by snakebite envenoming by 2030.

• #2 The global fight against snake bites

  https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210413-how-rubber-boots-can-save-people-from-snake-bites

  One such example is the Asclepius Snakebite Foundation, an international group of researchers and medical professionals who train local doctors and nurses in Africa to manage snake bites alongside public health initiatives to help protect people from being bitten. […] The hope is eventually these could lead to drugs that can be easily stored and carried in first-aid kits as a way of reducing the potency of snake venom to buy victims some time.

• #3 Snake Bites – Fit for Travel

  https://www.fitfortravel.nhs.uk/advice/general-travel-health-advice/snake-bites

  If travelling in an area where there are venomous snakes, make a note of where the nearest treatment centre is. […] Take care when walking in grassland or woodland. Be careful at night: use a torch. Snakes are hard to see and are more likely to bite if someone stands on them or gets too close. […] Wear boots and long trousers, gaiters may provide additional protection Do not go barefoot or wear sandals. […] Be careful around water snakes may be attracted to rivers and pools. […] Avoid climbing on trees or rocks in areas where there may be snakes; avoid putting hands in crevices and holes. […] Farm buildings often attract snakes because of the presence of rodents. Snakes may enter houses to escape flooding during heavy rain and particular care should be taken at such times. If camping where there are snakes:

• #3 Snake Bites – Fit for Travel

  https://www.fitfortravel.nhs.uk/advice/general-travel-health-advice/snake-bites

  Campsites should be kept free of leaves and other debris. […] Check any area where you intend to sit or sleep, every time. […] Use a hammock, or sleep under a mosquito net tucked in underneath the bed to keep snakes out. […] Collecting firewood can be risky check carefully where you are putting your hands. […] Check bedding, clothing and shoes before use. […] Keep bags tightly closed and off the ground when not in use and check before putting hands inside.

• #3 The Americas region records more than 57,000 snake bites each year, causing severe consequences for the victims – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/news/19-9-2024-americas-region-records-more-57000-snake-bites-each-year-causing-severe-consequences

  In the Americas, more than 57,000 people are bitten by snakes each year, with a fatality rate of 0.6% and serious sequelae in over 3% of the victims. […] Snakebite is considered the most lethal of the 20 neglected tropical diseases listed by the World Health Organization (WHO). […] In 2019, the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming was launched. […] The adequate supply of antivenoms is vital to saving lives, preventing disabilities, and ensuring that rural communities have access to effective treatments in case of snakebites. […] More than 95% of snakebite accidents occur on the legs or arms, so it is necessary to take some precautions: Wear closed shoes or high boots. Pay attention to where you step or place your hands. Do not insert your hand into holes in trees or the ground. […] Antivenoms are essential for the effective treatment of snakebites, especially in cases of severe envenomations. Most deaths and severe sequelae are completely preventable with greater availability and accessibility of safe and effective antivenoms.

• #3 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 110 Issue 5 (2024)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/110/5/article-p845.xml

  According to the new report from Bonilla-Aldana et al., secondary infection after snakebite occurred in 32% in Asia, 21% in the Americas, and 29% in Africa. Therefore, antibiotics are useless in almost 70% of cases. Moreover, many authors have shown that administering prophylactic antibiotics in snake-bitten patients is ineffective in preventing infection, but may promote bacterial resistance. […] To improve management, empiric antibiotics should be directed toward patients at particular risk or suspected of snakebite-related infection. […] International consortiums recommend amoxicillin-clavulanate (AMC) to prevent infection after an animal bite. These recommendations are based on studies involving dog, cat, and human bites, but not snakes. Indeed, snake oral microbiota differ from those of other animals, making AMC ineffective against the involved bacteria most of the time.

• #3 Antibiotic Therapy and Prophylaxis for Snake-Bitten Patients in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 110 Issue 5 (2024)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/110/5/article-p845.xml

  In most cases, the pathogenic bacteria are naturally resistant to AMC. […] Accordingly, first-line AMC is not an appropriate option to treat snake-bitten patients, except when guided by microbiological results. […] In conclusion, the study by Bonilla-Aldana et al. accurately shows the prevalence and microbiological patterns of snakebite-related infections. On the basis of the international literature, there is no evidence for the effectiveness of routinely administered prophylactic treatment. Nevertheless, empiric antibiotics can be used in targeted cases with high suspicion of infection, mainly those with necrosis or local signs suggestive of cellulitis. The most appropriate empiric antibiotics are piperacillin/tazobactam, ciprofloxacin, or a third-generation cephalosporin. First-line AMC should no longer be considered because it is ineffective against most bacteria involved in snakebite-related infection.

• #3 Traditional knowledge and phytochemical screening of plants used in snakebite prevention in Benin | Bulletin of the National Research Centre | Full Text

  https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-022-00851-8

  Snake envenomation is a public health problem that has caused many deaths, disabilities and significant physical, psychological and socio-economic losses worldwide. […] In many rural communities, some plants have been utilized for preventing snake envenomation. […] The analysis of the intra-community diversity of antisnake bite plants from socio-cultural and sociolinguistic groups showed a high diversity and strong equi-representativeness of the plants used in the prevention of snakebites in Benin. […] Preliminary qualitative analysis of the bioactive compounds in extracts of the most cited antisnake bite plants revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponosides, mucilages, reducing compounds and triterpenoids. […] The use of plants as prophylactics for snakebites has been historically practiced.

• #3 Multimedia

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite

  Most deaths and serious consequences from snake bites are entirely preventable by making safe and effective antivenoms more widely available and accessible, particularly in high-risk areas. […] The availability and accessibility of these antivenoms, along with raising awareness on primary prevention methods among communities and health workers, are the best ways to limit serious consequences and deaths from snakebite envenoming. […] After a bite by a snake suspected of being venomous, follow these steps: […] Avoid traditional first aid methods or herbal medicines. […] Snake antivenoms are effective treatments to prevent or reverse most of the harmful effects of snakebite envenoming and are included in the WHO list of essential medicines.

• #3 The dos and don’ts of snake safety | Article | The United States Army

  https://www.army.mil/article/235084/the_dos_and_donts_of_snake_safety

  If you have a pump suction device (such as that made by Sawyer), follow the manufacturer’s directions. […] Do not allow the person to become over-exerted. If necessary, carry the person to safety. […] Do not apply a tourniquet. […] Do not apply ice or cold compresses to a snake bite. […] Do not cut into a snake bite with a knife or razor. […] Do not try to suck out the venom by mouth. […] Do not give the person stimulants or pain medications (to include as aspirin) unless a doctor tells you to do so. […] Do not give the person anything by mouth. […] Do not raise the site of the bite above the level of the person’s heart.

• #3 SciELO Brazil – The WHO strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming: a sub-Saharan Africa plan The WHO strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming: a sub-Saharan Africa plan

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jvatitd/a/57cq4M5DKCq9LbtbPs3JrwS/?lang=en

  Two years later, following WHO-SBEWG recommendations, WHO launched a strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming. […] Promote the accessibility of treatments – antivenoms, antidotes, symptomatic, substitutes and adjuvants – combining safety and efficiency. […] Strengthen health systems in an integrative approach. […] Involve, motivate and help communities at risk to take appropriate measures. […] Specific interventions in SSA should be added to the actions advocated by the WHO roadmap to improve the manufacture of AVs and to rationalize the choice and use. […] Training of health care workers (HCWs) in the management of SBEs, starting with the selection of appropriate AVs on the basis of rational and relevant criteria, is crucial to avoid using ineffective or dangerous AVs.

• #3

  https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2013803

  Shri Apurva Chandra, Union Health Secretary launched a National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE) in India, here today. With a vision to reduce snakebite deaths by halve by 2030, NAPSE provides a broad framework for states to develop their own action plan for management, prevention and control of snakebites through the One Health approach. […] These materials will serve as invaluable tools for raising awareness, disseminating critical information, and empowering communities to take proactive measures against snakebite. […] It was informed that a Snakebite Helpline no (15400), a vital resource that provides immediate assistance, guidance, and support to individuals and communities affected by snakebite incidents will be piloted in five States (Puducherry, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Delhi). This initiative aims to ensure prompt access to medical care and information to general public.

• #3 National snakebite project on capacity building of health system on prevention and management of snakebite envenoming including its complications in selected districts of Maharashtra and Odisha in India: A study protocol | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0281809

  Phase II is to increase awareness and empower the community on prevention, first aid, and early transport of snakebite patients to the nearest health facility. […] Prevention measures to be employed for snakebite prevention in the communities will be as per the Standard Treatment Guidelines, (STG,2017). […] Simple measures including use of bed-net while sleeping, use of torch and stick while walking in the dark, ban on open defecation practices, using knee length footwear in farms can aid in prevention. […] The National Snakebite Project will use a multi-sectoral, multi-stakeholder approach to reduce the burden of SBE. Encouraging community participation, healthcare provider empowerment, and wide-scale IEC activities are the strengths of the study.

• #3 Snake Bites | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/snake-bites

  Some bites, such as those inflicted when your child accidentally steps on a snake in the woods, are nearly impossible to prevent. However, there are precautions that can reduce your child’s chances of being bitten by a snake. These include: Teach your child to leave snakes alone. Many people are bitten because they try to kill a snake or get too close to it. Make sure your child stays out of tall grass unless he/she wears thick leather boots and remains on hiking paths as much as possible. Make sure your child keeps his/her hands and feet out of areas he/she cannot see. He/she should not pick up rocks or firewood unless the child is out of a snake’s striking distance. Teach your child to be cautious and alert when climbing rocks. […] Initial treatment includes: Move your child to a nearby safe area, away from the snake. Call for emergency assistance immediately. Antivenin should be given within four hours when possible. It is not usually effective if given more than 12 hours after the bite. […] Hospital treatment may include the use of antivenin (an antidote to snake venom). Treatment may also include lab work, pain or sedation medications, tetanus booster, antibiotics and supportive care.

• #3 Snake Bite Prevention for Pets | SPCA of Northern Nevada

  https://spcanevada.org/services/pet-education/pet-safety/snake-bite-prevention-for-pets/

  Rattlesnakes are most active in warmer seasons, from spring to autumn. […] The best way to deal with venomous snakes is to do your best to avoid them in the first place. […] Currently, there is a rattlesnake vaccine available for dogs that produces neutralizing antibodies against Western Diamondback venom. […] Consider talking to your veterinarian about getting your dog vaccinated if you live in an area where Western Diamondbacks are common. […] The most important thing you can do if your pet is bitten by a venomous snake is to get him to a veterinarian as soon as possible. […] Most pets will recover with prompt and appropriate treatment, but snake bites can be fatal. […] If you experience a snake encounter with your pet, make sure to get to the emergency veterinarian and call the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center at (888) 426-4435 right away.

• #3 Poison Prevention

  https://www.ncpoisoncontrol.org/poison-prevention

  Wear sturdy shoes or boots when hiking, gardening, or doing other yardwork. Gloves are also recommended when working outside. […] Be mindful that snakes can hide in yard debris and overgrown brush. Keep your yard free from clutter. […] Look where you are stepping when you’re outside including when you’re doing familiar tasks like taking out the trash or getting something in the garage. The majority of venomous snake bites in North Carolina occur near a home. […] If a snake bite victim is having chest pain, difficulty breathing, face swelling, or has lost consciousness, call 9-1-1 immediately. […] Otherwise, call NC Poison Control at 1-800-222-1222 for assistance. The poison control center can help determine if treatment for a snake bite is needed and what treatment would be needed.

• #3 SciELO Brazil – The WHO strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming: a sub-Saharan Africa plan The WHO strategy for prevention and control of snakebite envenoming: a sub-Saharan Africa plan

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jvatitd/a/57cq4M5DKCq9LbtbPs3JrwS/?lang=en

  The ASV recommended the use of effective AVs made with venoms collected from local dangerous species and validated by appropriate clinical trials. […] The rapid management of SBEs – and possibly other medical emergencies – in rural peripheral health centers will prevent many complications and promote the transport of patients under better conditions. […] The global coalition advocated by the WHO roadmap should include all local initiatives, adapting them to the objectives of the roadmap. […] It is time for SSA governments to be involved in the considerable economic burden of SBEs and take appropriate measures funding – at least partially – the AVs. […] The accessibility of the AVs can be improved by developing their manufacture inside SSA, provided the AV quality standards and production sustainability are guaranteed. […] Improving the management of SBEs in SSA will only be possible if the local populations prioritize the issue and push political and health authorities to take appropriate measures.

• #3 Traditional knowledge and phytochemical screening of plants used in snakebite prevention in Benin | Bulletin of the National Research Centre | Full Text

  https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-022-00851-8

  These plants when smoked, planted or sprinkled around farms and homesteads feature as potential irritants capable of repelling or dissuading snakes. […] The inventory of plants used in the treatment or prevention of a disease through ethnobotanical surveys does not necessarily attest to their effectiveness but constitutes a step in the research and development of new herbal remedies. […] The use and promotion of medicinal plants will now have to be based on conclusive pharmacological and phytochemical studies. […] This study has shown that rural population of Benin have rich and diversified knowledge on the use of plant resources to prevent snakebites. […] Qualitative phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponosides, mucilages, reducing compounds and triterpenoids which are potential sources of snake repellents and could explain the antisnake bite activity of these plants.

• #3 Global Snakebite Initiative USA Foundation

  https://www.globalsnakebite.org/

  The solutions to turn the tide are not complicated. After all, snakebite is preventable and treatable. Join us, as we do our part to bring decades of combined expertise to fill critical gaps by implementing tangible, life-saving programs. Everything we do aligns with the World Health Organization strategy to reduce snakebite death and disability by half, by 2030. […] Lack of access to effective and affordable treatments, prehospital care and transport, poor training of health care workers and insufficient awareness in communities about snakebite prevention and treatment options drives this staggering figure. […] GSI supports WHOs call for improved epidemiological surveillance to improve national, regional and global estimates. […] GSI works to help communities learn how to mitigate the risk of such tragedies, while living safely alongside snakes. Simple messaging and engagement teach those at risk about becoming more aware of their surroundings, making use of protective footwear or gloves, and taking other simple steps to avert accidental bites.

• #4 Routine prophylactic antibiotic use in the management of snakebite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC59881/

  Routine antibiotic prophylaxis following snakebite is not recommended but evidence suggests that it may be common practice in Zimbabwe. […] Routine prophylactic use of antibiotics in snakebite at Parirenyatwa Hospital is common practice. […] The routine prophylactic use of antibiotics in the management of snakebite has been advocated and recommended by some authors. […] However, results of studies have failed to show clinical evidence on the benefit of this prophylactic use of antibiotics and there is a low incidence of wound infection after snakebite. […] In view of this, the routine use of antibiotics is generally not advocated and can be considered inappropriate, save for cases of snakebite associated with local tissue necrosis or gangrene, abscess formation, or bullae. […] Studies in Zimbabwe have shown that antibiotics are the most frequently used medication in the management of snakebite with some authors suggesting that in most instances the use of antibiotics for snakebite was inappropriate and irrational.

• #4 Traditional knowledge and phytochemical screening of plants used in snakebite prevention in Benin | Bulletin of the National Research Centre | Full Text

  https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-022-00851-8

  These plants when smoked, planted or sprinkled around farms and homesteads feature as potential irritants capable of repelling or dissuading snakes. […] The inventory of plants used in the treatment or prevention of a disease through ethnobotanical surveys does not necessarily attest to their effectiveness but constitutes a step in the research and development of new herbal remedies. […] The use and promotion of medicinal plants will now have to be based on conclusive pharmacological and phytochemical studies. […] This study has shown that rural population of Benin have rich and diversified knowledge on the use of plant resources to prevent snakebites. […] Qualitative phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponosides, mucilages, reducing compounds and triterpenoids which are potential sources of snake repellents and could explain the antisnake bite activity of these plants.

• #4 Snake Envenomation | PreventionWeb

  https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/bi0006

  Currently, there is an urgent need to ensure availability of safe, effective and affordable antivenoms, particularly to people in developing countries, and to improve the regulatory control over the manufacture, import and sale of antivenoms. […] The WHO has taken steps to raise the awareness of health authorities and policymakers on this issue. […] A Snakebite Envenoming Working Group established that same year was tasked with informing the development of a strategic WHO road map on snakebites. This strategy focuses on a 50% reduction in mortality and disability caused by snakebite envenoming by 2030.

• #4 National snakebite project on capacity building of health system on prevention and management of snakebite envenoming including its complications in selected districts of Maharashtra and Odisha in India: A study protocol | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0281809

  Snakebite envenoming (SBE) is an acute, life-threatening emergency in tropical and subtropical countries. […] Recommended by the National Task Force on snakebite research in India, this protocol describes the National Snakebite Project aiming for capacity building of health systems on prevention and management of snakebite envenomation in Maharashtra and Odisha states. […] The National Snakebite Project will use a multi-sectoral approach to reduce the burden of SBE. It intends to contribute to community empowerment and capacity building of the public healthcare system on the prevention and management of SBE. […] The objectives of the study are: To increase the awareness and empower the community on prevention, first aid, and early transport of snakebite patients to the nearest health facility.

• #4 Experiences and practices of traditional healers on snakebite treatment and prevention in rural Malawi | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011653

  The THs role in planting medicinal plans was also addressed. […] Snakebite prevention measures offered by THs were understood as both environmental and individual protecting the home, garden, and individual body. […] THs in Neno strongly recommend a collaborative approach with HCWs to ensure that they are educated about danger signs that guarantee a straight referral of snakebite victims to the hospital.

• #4 Snake Bite on Dog: Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention – Dr. Buzby’s ToeGrips for Dogs

  https://toegrips.com/snake-bite-on-dog/

  Keeping your dog leashed and on a path may help keep exposure to snakes at a minimum. […] If you see a snake, recall your dog immediately and put him or her on a leash. […] Eliminating these hiding spots can decrease the risk of snakes in your yard. […] Therefore, if you live in (or frequently visit) an area with western diamondback rattlesnakes, please discuss the vaccine with your veterinarian. […] Instead of the snake vaccine, snake avoidance training can be an effective tool for dogs at an increased risk of encountering snakes. […] Finally, if you live in an area that is heavily populated by snakes, it is important to check your dog for snake bites every day. […] Early detection (and early treatment) is just as important as prevention in many cases!

• #5 Snake Bite Prevention for Pets | SPCA of Northern Nevada

  https://spcanevada.org/services/pet-education/pet-safety/snake-bite-prevention-for-pets/

  Rattlesnakes are most active in warmer seasons, from spring to autumn. […] The best way to deal with venomous snakes is to do your best to avoid them in the first place. […] Currently, there is a rattlesnake vaccine available for dogs that produces neutralizing antibodies against Western Diamondback venom. […] Consider talking to your veterinarian about getting your dog vaccinated if you live in an area where Western Diamondbacks are common. […] The most important thing you can do if your pet is bitten by a venomous snake is to get him to a veterinarian as soon as possible. […] Most pets will recover with prompt and appropriate treatment, but snake bites can be fatal. […] If you experience a snake encounter with your pet, make sure to get to the emergency veterinarian and call the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center at (888) 426-4435 right away.

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