Fobie
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Fobie są zaburzeniami lękowymi charakteryzującymi się irracjonalnym, nadmiernym lękiem wobec określonych obiektów lub sytuacji, które w rzeczywistości nie stanowią istotnego zagrożenia. Neurobiologicznie kluczową rolę odgrywa ciało migdałowate, wykazujące zwiększoną aktywność podczas ekspozycji na bodźce fobiczne, zwłaszcza prawe ciało migdałowate reagujące na negatywne emocje. U pacjentów z arachnofobią obserwuje się utrzymującą się aktywację ciała migdałowatego i wydzielanie hormonów stresu, co kontrastuje z krótkotrwałą reakcją na bodźce kontrolne. Inne struktury zaangażowane to kora przedczołowa, oczodołowo-czołowa, przedni zakręt obręczy, wyspa oraz stria terminalis, które wykazują nadmierną aktywność podczas długotrwałej ekspozycji na bodźce fobiczne. Dysfunkcje w bocznej korze przedczołowej i korze wzrokowej wiążą się z deficytem kontroli poznawczej i oczekiwaniem uprzedzeniowym (expectancy bias). Patogeneza obejmuje także dysregulację układu współczulnego i endokannabinoidowego, a także rolę kinazy Cdk5 w wygaszaniu wyuczonego strachu. Czynniki genetyczne mają umiarkowany udział, z dziedzicznością około 50% dla zaburzeń lęku społecznego i agorafobii, a mechanizmy epigenetyczne, takie jak redukcja metylotransferazy histonowej PRDM2 w grzbietowo-przyśrodkowej korze przedczołowej, modulują konsolidację pamięci strachu i ekspresję lęku.

Patogeneza Fobii

Fobie stanowią rodzaj zaburzeń lękowych charakteryzujących się nadmiernym, irracjonalnym lękiem przed określonymi obiektami lub sytuacjami, które w rzeczywistości stanowią niewielkie lub żadne zagrożenie, ale wywołują silny niepokój12. Patogeneza fobii jest złożona i obejmuje wiele czynników biologicznych, psychologicznych i środowiskowych, które mogą prowadzić do rozwoju i utrzymywania się tych zaburzeń34. Obecne rozumienie mechanizmów leżących u podłoża fobii jest wynikiem intensywnych badań nad mózgowymi podstawami lęku oraz czynnikami psychologicznymi, które mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju tych zaburzeń5.

Mechanizmy biologiczne fobii

Badania neurobiologiczne znacząco przyczyniły się do zrozumienia podłoża fobii. Kluczową strukturą mózgową zaangażowaną w patogenezę fobii jest ciało migdałowate, które odgrywa centralną rolę w przetwarzaniu strachu67. W przypadku osób cierpiących na fobie, badania z wykorzystaniem funkcjonalnego rezonansu magnetycznego (fMRI) wykazały zwiększoną aktywność ciała migdałowatego podczas ekspozycji na bodźce wywołujące fobię8. Co ciekawe, prawe ciało migdałowate jest bardziej reaktywne w odpowiedzi na negatywne emocje, w tym te związane z fobiami, podczas gdy lewe ciało migdałowate silniej reaguje na przyjemne reakcje emocjonalne9.

Badania neurobiologiczne wykazały istotne różnice w reakcjach mózgowych między osobami z fobią a osobami zdrowymi. U osób z arachnofobią (lękiem przed pająkami) zaobserwowano, że podczas prezentacji obrazu pająka ciało migdałowate reaguje intensywnie i nie przestaje wydzielać hormonów „alarmowych” nawet po racjonalnej ocenie sytuacji. Dla porównania, gdy pokazywano im obraz węża (bodziec kontrolny), reakcja lękowa była krótkotrwała, a ciało migdałowate szybko wyciszało swoją aktywność, gdy wyższe obszary myślowe analizowały zagrożenie i uznawały je za nieistotne10.

Oprócz ciała migdałowatego, w procesie fobii uczestniczą także inne struktury mózgowe. Badania wykazały zwiększoną aktywację w korze przedczołowej i oczodołowo-czołowej, przednim zakręcie obręczy, wyspie oraz ciele migdałowatym u pacjentów z fobią eksponowanych na bodźce związane z ich fobią w porównaniu ze zdrowymi osobami kontrolnymi1112. Stria terminalis, przednia kora obręczy i wyspa wykazują nadmierną aktywację u osób, które doświadczają długotrwałej ekspozycji na bodźce wywołujące fobię13.

U osób cierpiących na fobie zaobserwowano również zmniejszoną aktywność bocznej kory przedczołowej i kory wzrokowej, co jest związane ze zjawiskiem znanym jako „oczekiwanie uprzedzeniowe” (expectancy bias). To zjawisko może być interpretowane jako deficyt kontroli poznawczej w odniesieniu do obiektu wywołującego fobię, co predysponuje osobę cierpiącą na fobię do antycypowania spotkania z obiektem strachu14.

Mechanizmy neurochemiczne

Fobie wiążą się z dysregulacją endogennych biogennych amin15. Aktywacja układu współczulnego jest powszechna w zaburzeniach fobicznych, prowadząc do zwiększenia częstości akcji serca i ciśnienia krwi, a także objawów takich jak drżenie, kołatanie serca, pocenie się, duszność, zawroty głowy i parestezje16.

Nowsze badania wskazują na rolę układu endokannabinoidowego w regulacji lęku i fobii. Naukowcy z Sainsbury Wellcome Centre odkryli, że uczenie się związane z przezwyciężaniem lęku obejmuje zwiększoną aktywność neuronów w brzuszno-bocznym jądrze kolankowatym (vLGN), wywołaną przez uwalnianie endokannabinoidów – wewnętrznych cząsteczek przekaźnikowych znanych z regulacji nastroju i pamięci17. Dysfunkcja szlaków przez vLGN lub zaburzenia plastyczności zależnej od endokannabinoidów mogą przyczyniać się do zaburzeń lękowych, fobii i PTSD18.

Badania wykazały również rolę kinazy Cdk5 w regulacji wygaszania wyuczonego strachu. Inhibicja tej kinazy ułatwia wygaszanie wyuczonego strachu u myszy, co sugeruje potencjalną drogę terapeutyczną w leczeniu zaburzeń emocjonalnych, w tym fobii19.

Czynniki genetyczne

Badania rodzinne i bliźniąt wskazują na istotny udział czynników genetycznych w rozwoju fobii2021. Ryzyko rozwoju fobii specyficznych i fobii społecznej wydaje się być umiarkowanie dziedziczne, przy czym zaburzenie lęku społecznego i agorafobia mają współczynnik dziedziczności około 50%22. Niektóre rodzaje fobii są bardziej prawdopodobne u osób, które mają krewnego z tym samym typem fobii23.

Najnowsze badania molekularne wskazują na rolę mechanizmów epigenetycznych w regulacji procesów pamięci strachu. Badacze wykazali, że redukcja metylotransferazy histonowej PRDM2 w grzbietowo-przyśrodkowej korze przedczołowej zwiększa ekspresję strachu poprzez modulację konsolidacji pamięci strachu24. Zmiany epigenomowe mogą być istotnym mechanizmem w nadmiernej konsolidacji wspomnień lękowych25, co może przyczyniać się do rozwoju fobii.

Teorie psychologiczne w patogenezie fobii

Istnieje kilka teorii psychologicznych wyjaśniających rozwój fobii, od teorii psychodynamicznych do modeli poznawczo-behawioralnych26. Rachman zaproponował trzy drogi rozwoju fobii: warunkowanie klasyczne (bezpośrednia ekspozycja na bodziec fobiczny), nabywanie zastępcze (obserwowanie innych doświadczających bodźca fobicznego) oraz nabywanie informacyjne/instrukcyjne (uczenie się o bodźcu fobicznym od innych)27.

Model warunkowania klasycznego (model Pawłowa) jest jednym z najstarszych i najbardziej wpływowych wyjaśnień mechanizmu nabywania reakcji lękowych w fobiach28. Według tego modelu, fobie powstają, gdy neutralny bodziec zostaje skojarzony z negatywnym lub awersyjnym bodźcem, tworząc warunkową reakcję strachu często obserwowaną u osób z fobią29.

Z perspektywy teorii behawioralnej, fobia jest postrzegana jako wyuczona, warunkowa reakcja wynikająca z wcześniejszego skojarzenia z sytuacją, która miała negatywny ładunek emocjonalny w momencie skojarzenia (np. sytuacje społeczne są unikane, ponieważ początkowo doświadczano w nich intensywnego lęku)30. Nawet jeśli większość spotkań społecznych nie stanowi zagrożenia, reakcja unikania została powiązana z tymi sytuacjami. Leczenie z tej perspektywy ma na celu osłabienie i ostatecznie oddzielenie określonej reakcji od bodźca31.

Teoria psychoanalityczna Freuda sugeruje, że fobie wynikają z lęku wywołanego przez wyparte impulsy id; treść fobii jest symbolem etapu fiksacji psychoseksualnej (np. wąż jako symbol falliczny i etap edypalny)32. Psychoanalityk prawdopodobnie zinterpretowałby lęk społeczny jako objaw głębszego konfliktu – na przykład niskiej samooceny lub nierozwiązanych konfliktów z wewnętrznymi obiektami33.

Według Freuda, mechanizmy obronne takie jak wyparcie i przemieszczenie odgrywają kluczową rolę w rozwoju fobii. Wyparcie polega na blokowaniu zagrażającego wspomnienia, idei lub wydarzenia ze świadomości, zwykle związanego z wstydem, poczuciem winy i złością. Przemieszczenie to nieświadomy mechanizm obronny, w którym lęk związany z wypieraniem wspomnienia, idei lub wydarzenia jest projektowany na inny obiekt lub sytuację – jak wata, pająki czy węże. Może to prowadzić do specyficznej fobii, która w większości przypadków może wydawać się mniej zagrażająca niż radzenie sobie z wypieranymi myślami lub konfliktami34.

Model przygotowania biologicznego

Przygotowanie biologiczne (Biological Preparedness), zaproponowane przez Seligmana (1971), jest ewolucyjnym wyjaśnieniem powstawania fobii35. Teoria ta wyjaśnia fobie jako rezultat adaptacji zaprojektowanych w celu promowania przetrwania i dostosowania u ludzi. Zakłada, że osoby posiadające genetyczną predyspozycję do obawy przed awersyjnymi, toksycznymi lub w inny sposób szkodliwymi bodźcami są lepiej przygotowane do przetrwania niż te, które jej nie mają, tzn. dają sobie lepszą szansę na uniknięcie choroby lub śmierci poprzez unikanie awersyjnych bodźców36.

Model nieassocjacyjny zakłada, że niektóre specyficzne lęki (np. lęk przed wysokością, wodą, pająkami, obcymi i separacją) mają tło ewolucyjne i mogą występować bez doświadczeń uczenia się (np. warunkowania). Według tego poglądu, te specyficzne lęki dotyczą bodźców, które kiedyś stanowiły wyzwanie dla przetrwania naszych prehistorycznych przodków37.

Podejście nieassocjacyjne ma jednak kilka słabych punktów. Po pierwsze, opiera się na negatywnych ustaleniach, tj. niepowodzeniu w udokumentowaniu doświadczeń uczenia się (np. warunkowania, modelowania) w historii dzieci z fobią. Po drugie, w dużej mierze ignoruje czynniki, które okazały się kluczowe dla nabywania wczesnych lęków dziecięcych (np. poziom rozwojowy dziecka, cechy bodźca, takie jak nowość, awersyjność i nieprzewidywalność, oraz wczesne doświadczenia z niekontrolowanymi wydarzeniami)38.

Dysfunkcje mechanizmów strachu w fobiach

Fobie są związane ze znacznymi zmianami w aktywności mózgu, jak wykazały badania obrazowania funkcjonalnego39. W przypadku fobii dochodzi do zaburzenia normalnej reakcji strachu. Strach jest skierowany na obiekt lub sytuację, które nie stanowią rzeczywistego zagrożenia. Choć osoba zdaje sobie sprawę, że strach jest nieracjonalny, nie może powstrzymać reakcji. Z czasem strach nasila się, gdy utrwala się reakcja „strachu przed strachem”40.

Zaburzenia habituacji i wygaszania

Słaba habituacja i słabe wygaszanie są przedstawiane jako dysfunkcyjne mechanizmy przyczyniające się do utrzymywania się fobii niedoświadczalnych i doświadczalnych41. W przypadku fobii niedoświadczalnych (niewynikających z traumatycznego doświadczenia) sugeruje się, że są one wspierane przez dysfunkcję w niezależnych od uczenia się obwodach strachu (tj. obwodach, które obejmują ciało migdałowate i kierują zachowaniem obronnym bez wcześniejszego uczenia się)42. Deficyt w mechanizmie habituacji ciała migdałowatego może przyczyniać się do utrzymywania się fobii niedoświadczalnej43.

Z kolei nieprawidłowości behawioralne związane z fobią opartą na doświadczeniu mogą być wspierane przez dysfunkcje w obwodach i mechanizmach strachu zależnych od uczenia się44. Mechanizmy sensytyzacji strachu mogą przyczyniać się do zmniejszonej habituacji ciała migdałowatego45.

Słabe wygaszanie, spowodowane upośledzeniem mechanizmów depotencjacji w ciele migdałowatym wrażliwych jednostek, jest również hipotetyzowane jako potencjalny czynnik podtrzymujący patologiczną fobię46. Zebrane dane wskazują, że dysfunkcja serotoninergiczna, charakteryzująca pacjentów z fobią, może pośrednio przyczyniać się, poprzez brak aktywacji układu endokannabinoidowego w podstawno-bocznym ciele migdałowatym, do słabego wygaszania, które jest zgłaszane w fobii47.

Nadmierna konsolidacja wspomnień lękowych

Nadmierna konsolidacja wspomnień lękowych jest charakterystyczna dla zaburzeń lękowych, w tym fobii. Badacze wykazali, że zmniejszona ekspresja metylotransferazy histonowej PRDM2 w grzbietowo-przyśrodkowej korze przedczołowej zwiększa ekspresję strachu poprzez modulację konsolidacji pamięci strachu48. Dane te wskazują również, że redukcja Prdm2 w neuronach, które projektują z grzbietowo-przyśrodkowej kory przedczołowej do podstawno-bocznego ciała migdałowatego (dmPFC-BLA) sprzyja zwiększonej ekspresji strachu49.

Odkrycia te są zgodne z wcześniejszymi obserwacjami i dostarczają potencjalnego mechanizmu molekularnego, w jaki sposób mogą powstawać niewłaściwe reakcje strachu50. Wykazano, że redukcja Prdm2 w szlaku dmPFC-BLA jest wystarczająca do wzmocnienia ekspresji warunkowego strachu51.

Dane wskazują również, że redukcja Prdm2 wzmacnia ekspresję strachu poprzez zwiększenie konsolidacji pamięci strachu, procesu, w którym nowo nabyte wspomnienia stabilizują się, tworząc pamięć długotrwałą52. Badacze proponują nowy mechanizm zwiększonej konsolidacji pamięci strachu, w którym zmniejszona ekspresja Prdm2 w neuronach projektujących z dmPFC do BLA prowadzi do zmian translatomicznych, które sprzyjają zwiększonej skuteczności synaptycznej w BLA i zwiększonym odpowiedziom neuronalnym dmPFC-BLA na bodźce związane ze stresem53.

Zmiana neurotransmisji w reakcji na stres i strach

Neurobiolodzy z Uniwersytetu Kalifornijskiego w San Diego zidentyfikowali zmiany w biochemii mózgu i zmapowali obwody neuronalne, które powodują uogólnione doświadczenie strachu54. Badacze odkryli przełącznik indukowany stresem w neuroprzekaźnikach, uznawany za formę plastyczności mózgu, a następnie zbadali pośmiertne ludzkie mózgi osób, które cierpiały na PTSD55.

Naukowcy nie tylko zidentyfikowali lokalizację neuronów, które zmieniły swój przekaźnik, ale także wykazali połączenia tych neuronów z centralnym ciałem migdałowatym i bocznym podwzgórzem, regionami mózgu, które były wcześniej powiązane z generowaniem innych reakcji strachu56. To odkrycie może mieć ważne implikacje dla zrozumienia mechanizmów leżących u podstaw fobii i innych zaburzeń lękowych.

Neuronalne obwody strachu w fobiach

Badania z wykorzystaniem technik neuroobrazowania przyczyniły się do lepszego zrozumienia neuronalnych mechanizmów leżących u podstaw fobii specyficznych, w tym wglądu w rolę ciała migdałowatego, regionu mózgu zaangażowanego w przetwarzanie strachu57.

Rola ciała migdałowatego

Ciało migdałowate wydaje się odgrywać kluczową rolę w neurobiologii zaburzeń lękowych w ogóle, a szczególnie w fobiach specyficznych58. Początkowa hipoteza zakładała, że ciało migdałowate, ze swoją rolą w nadzorze i negatywnym afekcie, wykazywałoby zwiększoną aktywność podczas indukowania strachu59. Kilka badań wykazało większą aktywację tej struktury u pacjentów z fobią specyficzną60.

Klasycznie ciało migdałowate kojarzy się z wywoływaniem reakcji strachu po stymulacji. Ciało migdałowate i inne neurocyrkulacje związane ze strachem mogą dzielić podobną neuroanatomię z neurocyrkulacją lęku61.

Badania prowadzone przez Vadima Bolshakova z Harvard Medical School wykazały, że wyuczony strach zmienia sposób działania mózgów zwierząt, oferując mechanizm utrzymywania się warunkowych lęków. Badacze nauczyli szczury kojarzyć nieszkodliwy bodziec, ton, z bolesnym zdarzeniem, wstrząsem w ich łapy. Odkryli, że neurony w ciele migdałowatym gryzoni wykazywały niezwykłą wrażliwość na ton, tak dużą, że neurony nadal się wyładowywały po usunięciu bodźca62.

Inne struktury mózgowe zaangażowane w fobie

Inne struktury, które wykazywały nadaktywność u osób z fobią eksponowanych na bodźce związane z fobią, to przednia wyspa, hipokamp, grzbietowy i dziobowy ACC (anterior cingulate cortex) oraz kora somatosensoryczna i ciemieniowo-potyliczna63. Zwiększona aktywacja w przedniej wyspie obserwowana w badaniach nad fobią specyficzną jest zgodna z rolą przypisywaną tej strukturze, która może być związana z reprezentacją wewnętrznych stanów cielesnych64.

Różne techniki stosowane w badaniach neuroobrazowych wykazały spójne wyniki dotyczące roli ciała migdałowatego, wyspy, kory obręczy, kory przedczołowej i oczodołowo-czołowej, wzmacniając tym samym hipotezę, że istnieje specyficzny obwód mózgowy, składający się z obszarów korowych i limbicznych, zaangażowany w zaburzenie z powodu dysfunkcji65.

Badacze z Sainsbury Wellcome Centre (SWC) na UCL odkryli mechanizmy mózgowe, które umożliwiają zwierzętom przezwyciężanie instynktownych lęków. Badanie ujawniło dwa kluczowe komponenty w tym procesie uczenia się: (1) określone regiony kory wzrokowej okazały się niezbędne do procesu uczenia się oraz (2) struktura mózgowa zwana brzuszno-bocznym jądrem kolankowatym (vLGN) przechowuje te wspomnienia indukowane przez uczenie się66. Ten szlak neuronalny może zapewnić połączenie między procesami poznawczymi neokortykalnych a sztywnymi zachowaniami zapośredniczonymi przez pień mózgu, umożliwiając zwierzętom adaptację zachowań instynktownych67.

Czynniki psychologiczne i środowiskowe w patogenezie fobii

Oprócz mechanizmów neurologicznych i genetycznych, czynniki psychologiczne i środowiskowe odgrywają istotną rolę w rozwoju fobii68.

Doświadczenia traumatyczne

Wiele fobii rozpoczyna się z powodu złego doświadczenia lub ataku paniki związanego z określonym obiektem lub sytuacją69. Szczególnie silne negatywne doświadczenia, takie jak uwięzienie w windzie lub atak zwierzęcia, mogą prowadzić do rozwoju fobii70.

W przypadku fobii społecznej, doświadczenia traumatyczne w interakcjach społecznych mogą prowadzić do wyuczonego unikania sytuacji społecznych. Osoba może kojarzyć sytuacje społeczne z intensywnym lękiem i dyskomfortem, co prowadzi do unikania tych sytuacji w przyszłości71.

Modelowanie społeczne

Fobie mogą również rozwijać się poprzez modelowanie, czyli obserwowanie i naśladowanie reakcji innych osób72. Dziecko, którego rodzice reagują strachem i niepokojem na określone przedmioty lub sytuacje, prawdopodobnie również będzie reagować strachem na te przedmioty73.

Strach może być przekazywany przez innych. Dziecko, którego rodzice reagują strachem i niepokojem na pewne przedmioty lub sytuacje, prawdopodobnie również będzie reagować strachem na te przedmioty74.

Przekaz informacyjny

Niektóre fobie mogą pojawiać się z powodu rzeczy, o których się dowiadujesz, lub rzeczy, które widzisz lub słyszysz wielokrotnie75. Na przykład, powtarzające się doniesienia medialne o katastrofach lotniczych mogą przyczynić się do rozwoju awiatofobii (lęku przed lataniem).

Oprócz warunkowania zastępczego, inne drogi rozwoju fobii obejmują doświadczenie warunkowania traumatycznego, w którym ludzie mają bezpośrednie doświadczenie z obiektem fobicznym lub sytuacją, co powoduje potężny wyzwalacz, oraz przekaz informacyjny, w którym fobia może rozwinąć się na skutek konsumpcji zagrażających informacji za pośrednictwem mediów, rozmów i innych mechanizmów76.

Rola unikania i wzmacniania fobii

Unikanie jest najczęstszym sposobem radzenia sobie z fobiami. Robiąc to, ich lęk zazwyczaj się pogarsza77. Zachowania unikowe często wzmacniają i utrwalają fobię, tworząc błędne koło lęku i unikania.

W terapii poznawczo-behawioralnej, która jest najczęściej stosowanym podejściem terapeutycznym do leczenia fobii, jednym z głównych celów jest przerwanie tego błędnego koła poprzez stopniową ekspozycję na bodziec fobiczny w kontrolowanym i bezpiecznym środowisku78.

Modele leczenia oparte na rozumieniu patogenezy fobii

Zrozumienie patogenezy fobii doprowadziło do rozwoju różnych metod leczenia, które skupiają się na różnych aspektach zaburzenia79.

Terapia poznawczo-behawioralna

Terapia poznawczo-behawioralna (CBT) oferuje dostosowane podejście do leczenia fobii specyficznych poprzez ukierunkowanie na podstawowe procesy poznawcze przyczyniające się do irracjonalnych lęków. Pierwszym krokiem jest identyfikacja irracjonalnych myśli, które napędzają lęk i strach80.

Stopniowa ekspozycja i desensytyzacja stanowią kolejny kluczowy aspekt CBT w leczeniu fobii. Obejmuje to systematyczne i bezpieczne eksponowanie osób na bodźce budzące lęk w kontrolowany sposób81. Skuteczność terapii ekspozycyjnej opiera się na zasadzie habituacji, w której powtarzana i przedłużona ekspozycja na bodziec budzący lęk prowadzi do zmniejszenia reakcji lękowej82.

Techniki desensytyzacji obejmują również relaksację, w tym powtarzanie wewnętrznego języka, a także mogą wykorzystywać ruch wzajemny zamiast relaksacji83. W leczeniu fobii oczu sugerowano, że rozproszenie uwagi jest ważnym czynnikiem w redukcji objawów fobii oczu. Możliwe jest również, że fobia oczu własnych zawierała unikalne poznanie uczestnika i że trening autoinstruktażowy był skuteczny w modyfikowaniu tych poznań84.

Farmakoterapia

W leczeniu fobii stosuje się różne leki, w tym antydepresanty i leki przeciwlękowe85. W przypadku fobii sytuacyjnych, które wywołują intensywny, tymczasowy lęk (na przykład, lęk przed lataniem), krótko działające sedatywno-hipnotyczne leki (benzodiazepiny), takie jak alprazolam (Xanax) lub lorazepam (Ativan), mogą być przepisywane okazjonalnie, w razie potrzeby, aby pomóc zmniejszyć lęk antycypacyjny86.

Ostatnio, powszechne leki na ciśnienie krwi zwane beta-blokerami zostały zastosowane do leczenia lęku związanego z fobiami specyficznymi87. Beta-blokery mogą pomóc w kontrolowaniu fizycznych objawów lęku, takich jak tachykardia, drżenie i pocenie się, co może pomóc osobom z fobią lepiej tolerować ekspozycję na bodziec fobiczny.

Warto jednak zauważyć, że leki nie pomagają osobie przezwyciężyć strach, ale mogą łagodzić niektóre objawy88. Najskuteczniejszym podejściem jest często połączenie farmakoterapii z psychoterapią, szczególnie terapią poznawczo-behawioralną89.

Nowe kierunki terapii

Odkrycia dotyczące mechanizmów mózgowych zaangażowanych w przezwyciężanie lęku otwierają nowe możliwości w leczeniu zaburzeń lękowych, w tym fobii. Badacze sugerują, że ukierunkowanie na obwody vLGN lub zlokalizowane układy endokannabinoidowe może otworzyć nowe drogi leczenia zaburzeń lękowych90.

Badacze z MIT odkryli molekularny mechanizm, który reguluje formowanie się lęków wynikających z traumatycznych wydarzeń. Wykazali, że inhibicja kinazy Cdk5 ułatwia wygaszanie wyuczonego strachu u myszy, co wskazuje na obiecującą drogę terapeutyczną w leczeniu zaburzeń emocjonalnych i budzi nadzieję dla pacjentów cierpiących na PTSD lub fobię91.

Te odkrycia, wraz z postępami w zrozumieniu neurobiologii lęku i fobii, mogą prowadzić do rozwoju bardziej precyzyjnych i skutecznych terapii dla osób cierpiących na te zaburzenia.

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Specific phobias – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/specific-phobias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355156
    Specific phobias are an extreme fear of objects or situations that pose little or no danger but make you highly anxious. […] Phobias can cause strong physical, mental and emotional responses. […] Much is still not known about what causes specific phobias. Causes may include: […] Bad experiences. Many phobias start because of a bad experience or panic attack related to a specific object or situation. […] Genetics or learned behavior. There may be a link between your specific phobia and the phobia or anxiety of your parents. […] Brain function and structure. Those with specific phobias trigger certain parts of the brain, while a person without these phobias does not have the same response in the brain. […] A specific phobia can start when something distressing happens to you, such as being trapped in an elevator or attacked by an animal. […] Avoidance is the most common way people cope with phobias. By doing so, their anxiety typically gets worse.
  • #2 Phobias: What They Are, Causes, Symptoms & Treatments
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24757-phobias
    A phobia is when something causes you to feel fear or anxiety thats so severe it consistently and overwhelmingly disrupts your life. […] Phobias are when your brain takes fear and anxiety to extreme degrees. Under ordinary circumstances, these emotions can be protective and helpful. […] However, several factors and processes may contribute to having a phobia. These include: Traumatic experiences. […] Genetics. Certain types of phobias are more likely to happen in people who have a relative with that type of phobia. […] Informational transmission. Some phobias may happen because of things you learn about or things you see or hear repeatedly. […] Learned fears. People can learn about the phobias or fears of others and may develop a phobia as a result. […] Phobias can have long-term effects on your mental and physical health, especially when you frequently encounter triggers or have especially severe effects.
  • #3 Phobia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia
    Phobias may develop for a variety of reasons. Childhood experiences, past traumatic experiences, brain chemistry, genetics, or learned behavior, can all be reasons why phobias develop. There are even phobias that may run in families and be passed down from one generation to another. […] There are multiple theories about how phobias develop and likely occur due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors. The degree to whether environment or genetic influences have a more significant role varies by condition, with social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia having around a 50% heritability rate. […] Rachman proposed three pathways for the development of phobias: direct or classical conditioning (exposure to phobic stimulus), vicarious acquisition (seeing others experience phobic stimulus), and informational/instructional acquisition (learning about phobic stimulus from others).
  • #4 Specific phobia in adults: Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/specific-phobia-in-adults-epidemiology-clinical-manifestations-course-and-diagnosis
    PATHOGENESIS
  • #5 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/
    Specific phobia is a common anxiety disorder. Patients with specific phobias experience anxiety and panic attacks along with unreasonable fear of exposure or anticipated exposure to a phobic stimulus. The intensity of the fear is often disproportionate to the actual danger posed by the phobic stimulus. […] The evolution of therapeutic approaches, encompassing behavior therapy like systematic desensitization and the prominence of cognitive-behavioral therapy, reflects the ongoing development of interventions grounded in psychological and neurobiological understanding. […] The etiology of most psychiatric conditions involves various degrees and types of biological, psychological, and social contributors. Although psychological factors particularly impact the development of anxiety disorders, there are multiple biological components to pathological anxiety.
  • #6 Phobia pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Phobia_pathophysiology
    Phobias are more often than not linked to the amygdala, an area of the brain located behind the pituitary gland in the limbic system. The amygdala secretes hormones that control fear and aggression, and aids in the interpretation of this emotion in the facial expressions of others. When the fear or aggression response is initiated, the amygdala releases hormones into the body to put the human body into an alert state, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. […] Studies have shown a difference between the response cycles of those facing an object of a phobia and those facing a dangerous object that does not trigger phobia-like responses. In one case, patients with arachnophobia were shown pictures of a spider (the object of fear) and a snake (a control picture, intended to induce the normal response). When flashed up, the arachnophobe responded with brief fear to the snake, but the amygdala quickly shut down when the logical areas of higher thought analyzed the threat and ruled it out as unimportant. However, when shown the spider, the arachnophobe’s amygdala reacted, and then did not stop secreting 'alarm’ hormones, even after they had rationalized the situation they were in. […] For this reason, a phobia is generally classified as a panic disorder by most psychologists, since it involves an unnatural or illogical functioning of the brain.
  • #7 Phobias and Brain Activity
    https://www.neurologylive.com/view/phobias-and-brain-activity
    Phobias are associated with major alterations in brain activity as detected by functional imaging studies. […] Individuals who suffer from phobias have been shown to display increased activity of the amygdala when exposed to phobia-inducing stimuli, noted on functional MRI. The amygdala is known to be associated with emotional reactions. One observation is that the right amygdala is more highly reactive in response to negative emotions, such as those associated with phobias, while the left amygdala is more strongly associated with pleasant emotional reactions. Interestingly, one study suggested that the higher the activation of the right amygdala, the greater the sense of distress induced by the phobia trigger. […] The stria terminalis, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the insula were found to be hyperactivated in individuals who experienced sustained exposure to phobia-inducing pictures in an experimental setting. This suggests that prolonged exposure to phobia-inducing stimuli does not necessarily 'quiet down’ brain activity as would be expected, but actually engages more areas of the brain.
  • #8 Phobias and Brain Activity
    https://www.neurologylive.com/view/phobias-and-brain-activity
    Phobias are associated with major alterations in brain activity as detected by functional imaging studies. […] Individuals who suffer from phobias have been shown to display increased activity of the amygdala when exposed to phobia-inducing stimuli, noted on functional MRI. The amygdala is known to be associated with emotional reactions. One observation is that the right amygdala is more highly reactive in response to negative emotions, such as those associated with phobias, while the left amygdala is more strongly associated with pleasant emotional reactions. Interestingly, one study suggested that the higher the activation of the right amygdala, the greater the sense of distress induced by the phobia trigger. […] The stria terminalis, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the insula were found to be hyperactivated in individuals who experienced sustained exposure to phobia-inducing pictures in an experimental setting. This suggests that prolonged exposure to phobia-inducing stimuli does not necessarily 'quiet down’ brain activity as would be expected, but actually engages more areas of the brain.
  • #9 Phobias and Brain Activity
    https://www.neurologylive.com/view/phobias-and-brain-activity
    Phobias are associated with major alterations in brain activity as detected by functional imaging studies. […] Individuals who suffer from phobias have been shown to display increased activity of the amygdala when exposed to phobia-inducing stimuli, noted on functional MRI. The amygdala is known to be associated with emotional reactions. One observation is that the right amygdala is more highly reactive in response to negative emotions, such as those associated with phobias, while the left amygdala is more strongly associated with pleasant emotional reactions. Interestingly, one study suggested that the higher the activation of the right amygdala, the greater the sense of distress induced by the phobia trigger. […] The stria terminalis, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the insula were found to be hyperactivated in individuals who experienced sustained exposure to phobia-inducing pictures in an experimental setting. This suggests that prolonged exposure to phobia-inducing stimuli does not necessarily 'quiet down’ brain activity as would be expected, but actually engages more areas of the brain.
  • #10 Phobia pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Phobia_pathophysiology
    Phobias are more often than not linked to the amygdala, an area of the brain located behind the pituitary gland in the limbic system. The amygdala secretes hormones that control fear and aggression, and aids in the interpretation of this emotion in the facial expressions of others. When the fear or aggression response is initiated, the amygdala releases hormones into the body to put the human body into an alert state, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. […] Studies have shown a difference between the response cycles of those facing an object of a phobia and those facing a dangerous object that does not trigger phobia-like responses. In one case, patients with arachnophobia were shown pictures of a spider (the object of fear) and a snake (a control picture, intended to induce the normal response). When flashed up, the arachnophobe responded with brief fear to the snake, but the amygdala quickly shut down when the logical areas of higher thought analyzed the threat and ruled it out as unimportant. However, when shown the spider, the arachnophobe’s amygdala reacted, and then did not stop secreting 'alarm’ hormones, even after they had rationalized the situation they were in. […] For this reason, a phobia is generally classified as a panic disorder by most psychologists, since it involves an unnatural or illogical functioning of the brain.
  • #11 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Several biologic theories are postulated for the pathogenesis of phobic disorders, most focusing on the dysregulation of endogenous biogenic amines. Sympathetic nervous system activation is common in phobic disorders, resulting in elevations in heart rate and blood pressure, as well as symptoms such as tremor, palpitations, sweating, dyspnea, dizziness, and paresthesias. […] Genetic factors seem to play a role in both social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and specific phobia. On the basis of family and twin studies, the risks for specific phobia and social anxiety disorder appear to be moderately heritable. […] Preliminary neuroimaging evidence indicates that while different patterns of brain activation might be associated with the different phobias, there is an overall increased activation in the prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and amygdala in phobic patients exposed to phobia-related triggers compared with healthy controls.
  • #12 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    OBJECTIVE: Specific phobia (SP) is characterized by irrational fear associated with avoidance of specific stimuli. In recent years, neuroimaging techniques have been used in an attempt to better understand the neurobiology of anxiety disorders. […] The search showed that studies in this area were published recently and that the neuroanatomic substrate of SP has not yet been consolidated. […] In spite of methodological differences among studies, results converge to a greater activation in the insula, anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, and prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex of patients exposed to phobia-related situations compared to controls. These findings support the hypotheses of the hyperactivation of a neuroanatomic structural network involved in SP. […] Although environmental, constitutional, and genetic factors are believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of the disorder, little attention had been dedicated to the study of SP neurobiology and etiology. The neuroimaging techniques, in particular, have helped to deepen the understanding of the neural circuitry underlying SP.
  • #13 Phobias and Brain Activity
    https://www.neurologylive.com/view/phobias-and-brain-activity
    Phobias are associated with major alterations in brain activity as detected by functional imaging studies. […] Individuals who suffer from phobias have been shown to display increased activity of the amygdala when exposed to phobia-inducing stimuli, noted on functional MRI. The amygdala is known to be associated with emotional reactions. One observation is that the right amygdala is more highly reactive in response to negative emotions, such as those associated with phobias, while the left amygdala is more strongly associated with pleasant emotional reactions. Interestingly, one study suggested that the higher the activation of the right amygdala, the greater the sense of distress induced by the phobia trigger. […] The stria terminalis, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the insula were found to be hyperactivated in individuals who experienced sustained exposure to phobia-inducing pictures in an experimental setting. This suggests that prolonged exposure to phobia-inducing stimuli does not necessarily 'quiet down’ brain activity as would be expected, but actually engages more areas of the brain.
  • #14 Phobias and Brain Activity
    https://www.neurologylive.com/view/phobias-and-brain-activity
    Researchers have found that among people who suffer from phobias, expectancy bias is highly associated with under activity of the lateral prefrontal cortex and the visual cortex. Based on the known roles of these areas, study authors explained this finding as a deficiency of cognitive control in relation to the phobia-inducing object, which serves to prime an individual suffering from phobia to anticipate an encounter with the object of distress.
  • #15 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Several biologic theories are postulated for the pathogenesis of phobic disorders, most focusing on the dysregulation of endogenous biogenic amines. Sympathetic nervous system activation is common in phobic disorders, resulting in elevations in heart rate and blood pressure, as well as symptoms such as tremor, palpitations, sweating, dyspnea, dizziness, and paresthesias. […] Genetic factors seem to play a role in both social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and specific phobia. On the basis of family and twin studies, the risks for specific phobia and social anxiety disorder appear to be moderately heritable. […] Preliminary neuroimaging evidence indicates that while different patterns of brain activation might be associated with the different phobias, there is an overall increased activation in the prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and amygdala in phobic patients exposed to phobia-related triggers compared with healthy controls.
  • #16 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Several biologic theories are postulated for the pathogenesis of phobic disorders, most focusing on the dysregulation of endogenous biogenic amines. Sympathetic nervous system activation is common in phobic disorders, resulting in elevations in heart rate and blood pressure, as well as symptoms such as tremor, palpitations, sweating, dyspnea, dizziness, and paresthesias. […] Genetic factors seem to play a role in both social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and specific phobia. On the basis of family and twin studies, the risks for specific phobia and social anxiety disorder appear to be moderately heritable. […] Preliminary neuroimaging evidence indicates that while different patterns of brain activation might be associated with the different phobias, there is an overall increased activation in the prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and amygdala in phobic patients exposed to phobia-related triggers compared with healthy controls.
  • #17 Scientists discover brain mechanism that helps overcome fear | EurekAlert!
    https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1072404
    The researchers also uncovered the cellular and molecular mechanisms behind this process. Learning occurs through increased neural activity in specific vLGN neurons, triggered by the release of endocannabinoids brain-internal messenger molecules known to regulate mood and memory. […] This could open new avenues for treating fear disorders by targeting vLGN circuits or localised endocannabinoid systems.
  • #18 Brain Mechanism for Overcoming Instinctive Fears Identified in Mice
    https://www.genengnews.com/topics/translational-medicine/brain-mechanism-for-overcoming-instinctive-fears-identified-in-mice/
    Researchers at the Sainsbury Wellcome Center (SWC) at University College London have uncovered a neural mechanism in the brains of mice that enables the animals to overcome instinctive fears. The investigators suggest the findings could have implications for developing therapeutics for fear-related disorders such as phobias, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] The implications of the discoveries extend beyond the laboratory, the team suggests. Dysfunction of pathways through vLGN or impairments in eCB-dependent plasticity could contribute to fear and anxiety disorders and PTSD, the team suggested. […] Hofer stated, “Our findings could also help advance our understanding of what is going wrong in the brain when fear response regulation is impaired in conditions such as phobias, anxiety and PTSD. While instinctive fear reactions to predators may be less relevant for modern humans, the brain pathway we discovered exists in humans too. This could open new avenues for treating fear disorders by targeting vLGN circuits or localized endocannabinoid systems.”
  • #19 MIT IDs mechanism behind fear | MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
    https://news.mit.edu/2007/trauma-0715
    CAMBRIDGE, Mass.–Researchers from MIT’s Picower Institute for Learning and Memory have uncovered a molecular mechanism that governs the formation of fears stemming from traumatic events. […] Li-Huei Tsai, Picower Professor of Neuroscience in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, and colleagues show that inhibiting a kinase (kinases are enzymes that change proteins) called Cdk5 facilitates the extinction of fear learned in a particular context. […] „Remarkably, inhibiting Cdk5 facilitated extinction of learned fear in mice. This data points to a promising therapeutic avenue to treat emotional disorders and raises hope for patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder or phobia,” Tsai said. […] Emotional disorders such as post-traumatic stress and panic attacks stem from the inability of the brain to stop experiencing the fear associated with a specific incident or series of incidents.
  • #20 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Several biologic theories are postulated for the pathogenesis of phobic disorders, most focusing on the dysregulation of endogenous biogenic amines. Sympathetic nervous system activation is common in phobic disorders, resulting in elevations in heart rate and blood pressure, as well as symptoms such as tremor, palpitations, sweating, dyspnea, dizziness, and paresthesias. […] Genetic factors seem to play a role in both social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and specific phobia. On the basis of family and twin studies, the risks for specific phobia and social anxiety disorder appear to be moderately heritable. […] Preliminary neuroimaging evidence indicates that while different patterns of brain activation might be associated with the different phobias, there is an overall increased activation in the prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and amygdala in phobic patients exposed to phobia-related triggers compared with healthy controls.
  • #21 Phobia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia
    Phobias may develop for a variety of reasons. Childhood experiences, past traumatic experiences, brain chemistry, genetics, or learned behavior, can all be reasons why phobias develop. There are even phobias that may run in families and be passed down from one generation to another. […] There are multiple theories about how phobias develop and likely occur due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors. The degree to whether environment or genetic influences have a more significant role varies by condition, with social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia having around a 50% heritability rate. […] Rachman proposed three pathways for the development of phobias: direct or classical conditioning (exposure to phobic stimulus), vicarious acquisition (seeing others experience phobic stimulus), and informational/instructional acquisition (learning about phobic stimulus from others).
  • #22 Phobia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia
    Phobias may develop for a variety of reasons. Childhood experiences, past traumatic experiences, brain chemistry, genetics, or learned behavior, can all be reasons why phobias develop. There are even phobias that may run in families and be passed down from one generation to another. […] There are multiple theories about how phobias develop and likely occur due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors. The degree to whether environment or genetic influences have a more significant role varies by condition, with social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia having around a 50% heritability rate. […] Rachman proposed three pathways for the development of phobias: direct or classical conditioning (exposure to phobic stimulus), vicarious acquisition (seeing others experience phobic stimulus), and informational/instructional acquisition (learning about phobic stimulus from others).
  • #23 Phobias: What They Are, Causes, Symptoms & Treatments
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24757-phobias
    A phobia is when something causes you to feel fear or anxiety thats so severe it consistently and overwhelmingly disrupts your life. […] Phobias are when your brain takes fear and anxiety to extreme degrees. Under ordinary circumstances, these emotions can be protective and helpful. […] However, several factors and processes may contribute to having a phobia. These include: Traumatic experiences. […] Genetics. Certain types of phobias are more likely to happen in people who have a relative with that type of phobia. […] Informational transmission. Some phobias may happen because of things you learn about or things you see or hear repeatedly. […] Learned fears. People can learn about the phobias or fears of others and may develop a phobia as a result. […] Phobias can have long-term effects on your mental and physical health, especially when you frequently encounter triggers or have especially severe effects.
  • #24 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Excessive fear is a hallmark of anxiety disorders, a major cause of disease burden worldwide. […] Here, we show that downregulation of the histone methyltransferase PRDM2 in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex enhances fear expression by modulating fear memory consolidation. […] We further show that Prdm2 knock-down (KD) in neurons that project from the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex to the basolateral amygdala (dmPFC-BLA) promotes increased fear expression. […] Together, our findings provide a new molecular mechanism for excessive fear responses, wherein PRDM2 modulates the dmPFC -BLA circuit through specific transcriptomic changes. […] Growing evidence points toward a role of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating fear memory processes. […] We previously found that downregulation of the histone methyltransferase PR containing domain 2 (PRDM2), by a history of alcohol dependence, was associated with increased stress responses.
  • #25 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Our data also indicate that Prdm2 KD potentiates fear expression by increasing fear memory consolidation, a process through which newly acquired memories stabilize to form long-term memory. […] In conclusion, we propose a novel mechanism for increased fear memory consolidation, wherein decreased Prdm2 expression in the dmPFC-BLA projecting neurons results in translatomic changes that promote increased synaptic efficacy in the BLA and increased dmPFC-BLA neuronal responses to stress-associated cues.
  • #26 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Psychological theories range from explaining anxiety as a displacement of an intrapsychic conflict (psychodynamic models) to conditioning (learned) paradigms (cognitive-behavior models). Many of these theories capture portions of the disorder. […] A behaviorist would see phobia as a learned, conditioned response resulting from a past association with a situation that had negative emotional valence at the time of association (eg, social situations are avoided because intense anxiety was originally experienced in that setting). Even if no danger is posed in most social encounters, an avoidance response has been linked to these situations. Treatment from this perspective aims to weaken and eventually separate the specific response from the stimulus. […] A psychoanalyst would likely conceptualize social anxiety as a symptom of a deeper conflictfor instance, low self-esteem or unresolved conflicts with internal objects. The treatment uses exploration with the goal of understanding the underlying conflict.
  • #27 Phobia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia
    Phobias may develop for a variety of reasons. Childhood experiences, past traumatic experiences, brain chemistry, genetics, or learned behavior, can all be reasons why phobias develop. There are even phobias that may run in families and be passed down from one generation to another. […] There are multiple theories about how phobias develop and likely occur due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors. The degree to whether environment or genetic influences have a more significant role varies by condition, with social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia having around a 50% heritability rate. […] Rachman proposed three pathways for the development of phobias: direct or classical conditioning (exposure to phobic stimulus), vicarious acquisition (seeing others experience phobic stimulus), and informational/instructional acquisition (learning about phobic stimulus from others).
  • #28 Phobia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia
    Much of the progress in understanding the acquisition of fear responses in phobias can be attributed to classical conditioning (Pavlovian model). […] The amygdala is an almond-shaped mass of nuclei located deep in the brain’s medial temporal lobe. It processes the events associated with fear and is linked to social phobia and other anxiety disorders. […] The amygdala’s ability to respond to fearful stimuli occurs through fear conditioning. Like classical conditioning, the amygdala learns to associate a conditioned stimulus with a negative or avoidant stimulus, creating a conditioned fear response often seen in phobic individuals. […] Damage to the cortical areas involved in the limbic system, such as the cingulate cortex or frontal lobes, has resulted in extreme emotion changes. […] The amygdala’s role in learned fear includes interactions with other brain regions in the neural circuit of fear.
  • #29 Phobia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia
    Much of the progress in understanding the acquisition of fear responses in phobias can be attributed to classical conditioning (Pavlovian model). […] The amygdala is an almond-shaped mass of nuclei located deep in the brain’s medial temporal lobe. It processes the events associated with fear and is linked to social phobia and other anxiety disorders. […] The amygdala’s ability to respond to fearful stimuli occurs through fear conditioning. Like classical conditioning, the amygdala learns to associate a conditioned stimulus with a negative or avoidant stimulus, creating a conditioned fear response often seen in phobic individuals. […] Damage to the cortical areas involved in the limbic system, such as the cingulate cortex or frontal lobes, has resulted in extreme emotion changes. […] The amygdala’s role in learned fear includes interactions with other brain regions in the neural circuit of fear.
  • #30 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Psychological theories range from explaining anxiety as a displacement of an intrapsychic conflict (psychodynamic models) to conditioning (learned) paradigms (cognitive-behavior models). Many of these theories capture portions of the disorder. […] A behaviorist would see phobia as a learned, conditioned response resulting from a past association with a situation that had negative emotional valence at the time of association (eg, social situations are avoided because intense anxiety was originally experienced in that setting). Even if no danger is posed in most social encounters, an avoidance response has been linked to these situations. Treatment from this perspective aims to weaken and eventually separate the specific response from the stimulus. […] A psychoanalyst would likely conceptualize social anxiety as a symptom of a deeper conflictfor instance, low self-esteem or unresolved conflicts with internal objects. The treatment uses exploration with the goal of understanding the underlying conflict.
  • #31 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Psychological theories range from explaining anxiety as a displacement of an intrapsychic conflict (psychodynamic models) to conditioning (learned) paradigms (cognitive-behavior models). Many of these theories capture portions of the disorder. […] A behaviorist would see phobia as a learned, conditioned response resulting from a past association with a situation that had negative emotional valence at the time of association (eg, social situations are avoided because intense anxiety was originally experienced in that setting). Even if no danger is posed in most social encounters, an avoidance response has been linked to these situations. Treatment from this perspective aims to weaken and eventually separate the specific response from the stimulus. […] A psychoanalyst would likely conceptualize social anxiety as a symptom of a deeper conflictfor instance, low self-esteem or unresolved conflicts with internal objects. The treatment uses exploration with the goal of understanding the underlying conflict.
  • #32 Anxiety Disorders
    http://www2.hawaii.edu/~heiby/overheads_anxiety.html
    Phobias involve intense anxiety […] Phobias are learned avoidance responses (classical and operant conditioning) […] Phobias may be acquired through modeling […] We are biologically prepared to learn certain fears (e.g. taste with nausea) […] Psychoanalytic theory: phobias result from anxiety produced by repressed id impulses; content is symbol of psychosexual stage of fixation (e.g., snake = phallic symbol and Oedipal stage) […] Behavioral theories: focus on learning as the etiological basis of phobias […] Cognitive theory: Thought processes result in high levels of anxiety […] Biological theory: genes and autonomic nervous system lability.
  • #33 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Psychological theories range from explaining anxiety as a displacement of an intrapsychic conflict (psychodynamic models) to conditioning (learned) paradigms (cognitive-behavior models). Many of these theories capture portions of the disorder. […] A behaviorist would see phobia as a learned, conditioned response resulting from a past association with a situation that had negative emotional valence at the time of association (eg, social situations are avoided because intense anxiety was originally experienced in that setting). Even if no danger is posed in most social encounters, an avoidance response has been linked to these situations. Treatment from this perspective aims to weaken and eventually separate the specific response from the stimulus. […] A psychoanalyst would likely conceptualize social anxiety as a symptom of a deeper conflictfor instance, low self-esteem or unresolved conflicts with internal objects. The treatment uses exploration with the goal of understanding the underlying conflict.
  • #34
    https://www.headspace.com/articles/where-do-phobias-come-from
    Repression involves blocking a threatening memory, idea, or event from consciousness. Thoughts that are repressed are typically associated with shame, guilt, and anger. Displacement is an unconscious defense mechanism where the anxiety of repressing a memory, idea, or event is projected onto another object or situation—like cotton balls, spiders, or snakes. This can result in a specific phobia, which, in most cases, may feel less threatening to deal with than repressed thoughts or conflicts. […] Although there are many critics of psychoanalysis, recent data supports a link between Freud’s theory of unconscious conflict and conscious symptoms experienced by people with anxiety disorders including phobias. […] The object of the phobia is not the original source of the anxiety and may symbolically represent, or be associated with, the complex, conflict, or trauma—a victim of rape who is fearful of snakes; a diabetic who fears needles; and an adult, lacking limits and boundaries as a child, who now fears heights, said Marlo.
  • #35
    https://www.savemyexams.com/dp/psychology/ib/17/sl/revision-notes/abnormal-psychology/etiology-of-abnormal-behaviour-explanations-for-disorders/a-biological-explanation-of-phobias/
    Biological Preparedness (BP), proposed by Seligman (1971) is an evolutionary explanation of how phobias are formed. […] BP explains phobias as being the result of adaptations designed to promote survival and fitness in humans. […] BP assumes that people who have a genetic predisposition to fear aversive, toxic or otherwise harmful stimuli are better prepared to survive than those who do not i.e. they give themselves a better chance of avoiding illness or death by avoiding the aversive stimuli. […] Seligman suggested that a biological preparedness can give a human being an evolutionary advantage over others which translates as more opportunities to procreate and hence continue this genetic predisposition via natural selection. […] The fact that a huge number of people do fear snakes, spiders, heights and the dark may be explained using BP as the determining factor i.e. that they have inherited a predisposition to fear potentially harmful creatures or situations.
  • #36
    https://www.savemyexams.com/dp/psychology/ib/17/sl/revision-notes/abnormal-psychology/etiology-of-abnormal-behaviour-explanations-for-disorders/a-biological-explanation-of-phobias/
    Biological Preparedness (BP), proposed by Seligman (1971) is an evolutionary explanation of how phobias are formed. […] BP explains phobias as being the result of adaptations designed to promote survival and fitness in humans. […] BP assumes that people who have a genetic predisposition to fear aversive, toxic or otherwise harmful stimuli are better prepared to survive than those who do not i.e. they give themselves a better chance of avoiding illness or death by avoiding the aversive stimuli. […] Seligman suggested that a biological preparedness can give a human being an evolutionary advantage over others which translates as more opportunities to procreate and hence continue this genetic predisposition via natural selection. […] The fact that a huge number of people do fear snakes, spiders, heights and the dark may be explained using BP as the determining factor i.e. that they have inherited a predisposition to fear potentially harmful creatures or situations.
  • #37 (PDF) The etiology of specific phobias: A review
    https://www.academia.edu/21409617/The_etiology_of_specific_phobias_A_review
    SPECIFIC (formerly „simple,” „monosymptomatic,” or „focal”) phobias are irrational and persistent fears of certain objects or animals. […] The origins of specific phobias are multiply determined and over-determined. Genetic influences, temperamental predispositions, parental psychopathology, parenting practices, and individual conditioning histories converge to occasion the development and maintenance of childhood phobias. […] The non-associative account of phobic etiology assumes that a number of specific fears (e.g., fear of heights, water, spiders, strangers, and separation) have an evolutionary background and may occur in the absence of learning experiences (e.g., conditioning). By this view, these specific fears pertain to stimuli that once posed a challenge to the survival of our prehistoric ancestors.
  • #38 (PDF) The etiology of specific phobias: A review
    https://www.academia.edu/21409617/The_etiology_of_specific_phobias_A_review
    While the non-associative approach has generated interesting findings, several critical points can be raised. First, it capitalizes on negative findings, i.e., the failure to document learning experiences (e.g., conditioning, modeling) in the history of phobic children. Second, it largely ignores factors that have been found to be crucial for the acquisition of early childhood fears (e.g., the developmental level of the child, stimulus characteristics such as novelty, aversiveness, and unpredictability, and early experience with uncontrollable events).
  • #39 Phobias and Brain Activity
    https://www.neurologylive.com/view/phobias-and-brain-activity
    Phobias are associated with major alterations in brain activity as detected by functional imaging studies. […] Individuals who suffer from phobias have been shown to display increased activity of the amygdala when exposed to phobia-inducing stimuli, noted on functional MRI. The amygdala is known to be associated with emotional reactions. One observation is that the right amygdala is more highly reactive in response to negative emotions, such as those associated with phobias, while the left amygdala is more strongly associated with pleasant emotional reactions. Interestingly, one study suggested that the higher the activation of the right amygdala, the greater the sense of distress induced by the phobia trigger. […] The stria terminalis, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the insula were found to be hyperactivated in individuals who experienced sustained exposure to phobia-inducing pictures in an experimental setting. This suggests that prolonged exposure to phobia-inducing stimuli does not necessarily 'quiet down’ brain activity as would be expected, but actually engages more areas of the brain.
  • #40 Fear: Definition, Traits, Causes, Treatment
    https://www.verywellmind.com/the-psychology-of-fear-2671696
    Fear can also be a symptom of some mental health conditions, including panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, phobias, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] A phobia is a twisting of the normal fear response. The fear is directed toward an object or situation that does not present a real danger. Though you recognize that the fear is unreasonable, you can’t help the reaction. Over time, the fear worsens as the fear of fear response takes hold. […] Phobia treatments that are based on the psychology of fear focus on techniques such as systematic desensitization and flooding. Both techniques work with the body’s physiological and psychological responses to reduce fear. […] With flooding, the person is exposed to a vast quantity of the feared object or to a feared situation for a prolonged period in a safe, controlled environment until the fear diminishes. For instance, someone who is afraid of planes might be encouraged to go up anyway.
  • #41 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Fear, which can be expressed innately or after conditioning, is triggered when a danger or a stimulus predicting immediate danger is perceived. […] The neurobiological basis of normal and pathological fear reactions is reviewed in this article. Innate and learned fear mechanisms, particularly those involving the amygdala, are considered. […] Poor habituation and poor extinction are presented as dysfunctional mechanisms contributing to persistence of nonexperiential and experiential phobias, respectively. […] In nonexperiential phobia, it is suggested to be supported by dysfunction in learning-independent fear circuits (i.e., circuits that include the amygdala and drive defensive behavior without prior learning). […] A deficiency in this mechanism (i.e., amygdala habituation) may therefore contribute to the persistence of nonexperiential phobia.
  • #42 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Fear, which can be expressed innately or after conditioning, is triggered when a danger or a stimulus predicting immediate danger is perceived. […] The neurobiological basis of normal and pathological fear reactions is reviewed in this article. Innate and learned fear mechanisms, particularly those involving the amygdala, are considered. […] Poor habituation and poor extinction are presented as dysfunctional mechanisms contributing to persistence of nonexperiential and experiential phobias, respectively. […] In nonexperiential phobia, it is suggested to be supported by dysfunction in learning-independent fear circuits (i.e., circuits that include the amygdala and drive defensive behavior without prior learning). […] A deficiency in this mechanism (i.e., amygdala habituation) may therefore contribute to the persistence of nonexperiential phobia.
  • #43 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Fear, which can be expressed innately or after conditioning, is triggered when a danger or a stimulus predicting immediate danger is perceived. […] The neurobiological basis of normal and pathological fear reactions is reviewed in this article. Innate and learned fear mechanisms, particularly those involving the amygdala, are considered. […] Poor habituation and poor extinction are presented as dysfunctional mechanisms contributing to persistence of nonexperiential and experiential phobias, respectively. […] In nonexperiential phobia, it is suggested to be supported by dysfunction in learning-independent fear circuits (i.e., circuits that include the amygdala and drive defensive behavior without prior learning). […] A deficiency in this mechanism (i.e., amygdala habituation) may therefore contribute to the persistence of nonexperiential phobia.
  • #44 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Behavioral abnormalities relative to experiential-specific phobia may therefore be supported by dysfunctions in these learning-dependent fear circuits and mechanisms. […] Mechanisms of fear sensitization may contribute to decreased amygdala habituation. […] Poor extinction, due to impairment in mechanisms of depotentiation in the amygdala of vulnerable individuals, is also hypothesized as a potential factor maintaining pathological phobia. […] Collectively, these data support the view that serotonergic dysfunction, which characterized phobic patients, may indirectly contribute, via the lack of activation of endocannabinoid system in the basolateral amygdala, in poor extinction that is reported in phobia.
  • #45 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Behavioral abnormalities relative to experiential-specific phobia may therefore be supported by dysfunctions in these learning-dependent fear circuits and mechanisms. […] Mechanisms of fear sensitization may contribute to decreased amygdala habituation. […] Poor extinction, due to impairment in mechanisms of depotentiation in the amygdala of vulnerable individuals, is also hypothesized as a potential factor maintaining pathological phobia. […] Collectively, these data support the view that serotonergic dysfunction, which characterized phobic patients, may indirectly contribute, via the lack of activation of endocannabinoid system in the basolateral amygdala, in poor extinction that is reported in phobia.
  • #46 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Behavioral abnormalities relative to experiential-specific phobia may therefore be supported by dysfunctions in these learning-dependent fear circuits and mechanisms. […] Mechanisms of fear sensitization may contribute to decreased amygdala habituation. […] Poor extinction, due to impairment in mechanisms of depotentiation in the amygdala of vulnerable individuals, is also hypothesized as a potential factor maintaining pathological phobia. […] Collectively, these data support the view that serotonergic dysfunction, which characterized phobic patients, may indirectly contribute, via the lack of activation of endocannabinoid system in the basolateral amygdala, in poor extinction that is reported in phobia.
  • #47 Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5580526/
    Behavioral abnormalities relative to experiential-specific phobia may therefore be supported by dysfunctions in these learning-dependent fear circuits and mechanisms. […] Mechanisms of fear sensitization may contribute to decreased amygdala habituation. […] Poor extinction, due to impairment in mechanisms of depotentiation in the amygdala of vulnerable individuals, is also hypothesized as a potential factor maintaining pathological phobia. […] Collectively, these data support the view that serotonergic dysfunction, which characterized phobic patients, may indirectly contribute, via the lack of activation of endocannabinoid system in the basolateral amygdala, in poor extinction that is reported in phobia.
  • #48 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Excessive fear is a hallmark of anxiety disorders, a major cause of disease burden worldwide. […] Here, we show that downregulation of the histone methyltransferase PRDM2 in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex enhances fear expression by modulating fear memory consolidation. […] We further show that Prdm2 knock-down (KD) in neurons that project from the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex to the basolateral amygdala (dmPFC-BLA) promotes increased fear expression. […] Together, our findings provide a new molecular mechanism for excessive fear responses, wherein PRDM2 modulates the dmPFC -BLA circuit through specific transcriptomic changes. […] Growing evidence points toward a role of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating fear memory processes. […] We previously found that downregulation of the histone methyltransferase PR containing domain 2 (PRDM2), by a history of alcohol dependence, was associated with increased stress responses.
  • #49 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Excessive fear is a hallmark of anxiety disorders, a major cause of disease burden worldwide. […] Here, we show that downregulation of the histone methyltransferase PRDM2 in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex enhances fear expression by modulating fear memory consolidation. […] We further show that Prdm2 knock-down (KD) in neurons that project from the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex to the basolateral amygdala (dmPFC-BLA) promotes increased fear expression. […] Together, our findings provide a new molecular mechanism for excessive fear responses, wherein PRDM2 modulates the dmPFC -BLA circuit through specific transcriptomic changes. […] Growing evidence points toward a role of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating fear memory processes. […] We previously found that downregulation of the histone methyltransferase PR containing domain 2 (PRDM2), by a history of alcohol dependence, was associated with increased stress responses.
  • #50 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Here, we, therefore, hypothesized that Prdm2 deficiency in the dmPFC may contribute to the development of pathological fear by promoting gene expression changes in fear-related brain circuits. […] We found that Prdm2 KD significantly increased the percentage of time spent freezing also at this time point, demonstrating an enduring effect of Prdm2 KD. […] Collectively, these data establish an upregulation of conditioned fear responses following Prdm2 KD, with a time course consistent with an epigenetic reprogramming of the transcriptome. […] Our findings are consistent with these observations and provide a potential molecular mechanism for how maladaptive fear responses may arise. […] We show that Prdm2 KD in the dmPFC-BLA pathway is sufficient to potentiate expression of conditioned fear.
  • #51 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Here, we, therefore, hypothesized that Prdm2 deficiency in the dmPFC may contribute to the development of pathological fear by promoting gene expression changes in fear-related brain circuits. […] We found that Prdm2 KD significantly increased the percentage of time spent freezing also at this time point, demonstrating an enduring effect of Prdm2 KD. […] Collectively, these data establish an upregulation of conditioned fear responses following Prdm2 KD, with a time course consistent with an epigenetic reprogramming of the transcriptome. […] Our findings are consistent with these observations and provide a potential molecular mechanism for how maladaptive fear responses may arise. […] We show that Prdm2 KD in the dmPFC-BLA pathway is sufficient to potentiate expression of conditioned fear.
  • #52 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Our data also indicate that Prdm2 KD potentiates fear expression by increasing fear memory consolidation, a process through which newly acquired memories stabilize to form long-term memory. […] In conclusion, we propose a novel mechanism for increased fear memory consolidation, wherein decreased Prdm2 expression in the dmPFC-BLA projecting neurons results in translatomic changes that promote increased synaptic efficacy in the BLA and increased dmPFC-BLA neuronal responses to stress-associated cues.
  • #53 An epigenetic mechanism for over-consolidation of fear memories | Molecular Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-022-01758-6
    Our data also indicate that Prdm2 KD potentiates fear expression by increasing fear memory consolidation, a process through which newly acquired memories stabilize to form long-term memory. […] In conclusion, we propose a novel mechanism for increased fear memory consolidation, wherein decreased Prdm2 expression in the dmPFC-BLA projecting neurons results in translatomic changes that promote increased synaptic efficacy in the BLA and increased dmPFC-BLA neuronal responses to stress-associated cues.
  • #54 How Fear Unfolds inside Our Brains
    https://today.ucsd.edu/story/how-fear-unfolds-inside-our-brains
    Now, neurobiologists at the University of California San Diego have identified the changes in brain biochemistry and mapped the neural circuitry that cause such a generalized fear experience. […] The stress-induced mechanisms that cause our brain to produce feelings of fear in the absence of threats have been mostly a mystery. […] Our results provide important insights into the mechanisms involved in fear generalization, said Spitzer, a member of UC San Diegos Department of Neurobiology and Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind. […] Building upon this new finding of a stress-induced switch in neurotransmitters, considered a form of brain plasticity, the researchers then examined the postmortem human brains of individuals who had suffered from PTSD. […] Not only did the researchers identify the location of the neurons that switched their transmitter, but they demonstrated the connections of these neurons to the central amygdala and lateral hypothalamus, brain regions that were previously linked to the generation of other fear responses. […] Now that we have a handle on the core of the mechanism by which stress-induced fear happens and the circuitry that implements this fear, interventions can be targeted and specific, said Spitzer.
  • #55 How Fear Unfolds inside Our Brains
    https://today.ucsd.edu/story/how-fear-unfolds-inside-our-brains
    Now, neurobiologists at the University of California San Diego have identified the changes in brain biochemistry and mapped the neural circuitry that cause such a generalized fear experience. […] The stress-induced mechanisms that cause our brain to produce feelings of fear in the absence of threats have been mostly a mystery. […] Our results provide important insights into the mechanisms involved in fear generalization, said Spitzer, a member of UC San Diegos Department of Neurobiology and Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind. […] Building upon this new finding of a stress-induced switch in neurotransmitters, considered a form of brain plasticity, the researchers then examined the postmortem human brains of individuals who had suffered from PTSD. […] Not only did the researchers identify the location of the neurons that switched their transmitter, but they demonstrated the connections of these neurons to the central amygdala and lateral hypothalamus, brain regions that were previously linked to the generation of other fear responses. […] Now that we have a handle on the core of the mechanism by which stress-induced fear happens and the circuitry that implements this fear, interventions can be targeted and specific, said Spitzer.
  • #56 How Fear Unfolds inside Our Brains
    https://today.ucsd.edu/story/how-fear-unfolds-inside-our-brains
    Now, neurobiologists at the University of California San Diego have identified the changes in brain biochemistry and mapped the neural circuitry that cause such a generalized fear experience. […] The stress-induced mechanisms that cause our brain to produce feelings of fear in the absence of threats have been mostly a mystery. […] Our results provide important insights into the mechanisms involved in fear generalization, said Spitzer, a member of UC San Diegos Department of Neurobiology and Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind. […] Building upon this new finding of a stress-induced switch in neurotransmitters, considered a form of brain plasticity, the researchers then examined the postmortem human brains of individuals who had suffered from PTSD. […] Not only did the researchers identify the location of the neurons that switched their transmitter, but they demonstrated the connections of these neurons to the central amygdala and lateral hypothalamus, brain regions that were previously linked to the generation of other fear responses. […] Now that we have a handle on the core of the mechanism by which stress-induced fear happens and the circuitry that implements this fear, interventions can be targeted and specific, said Spitzer.
  • #57 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/
    Behavioral scientists have contributed significantly to uncovering the psychological mechanisms contributing to anxiety. Conditioned responses of learned fear are more significant among anxiety-disordered individuals compared to controls, with an explanation of 2 likely mechanisms: first, there is greater excitatory conditioning to danger cues, and second, there is impaired inhibitory conditioning to safety signals. […] The activation of fear neurocircuitry, with presumed anxiety neurocircuitry overlap, involves the release of various neurochemicals that lead to sympathetic stimulation. Classically characterized as a „fight-or-flight” reaction, this sympathetic response evolved to be adaptive and for a prompt behavioral response to avoid actual or perceived danger. […] The amygdala is classically associated with provoking a fear response when stimulated. The amygdala and other fear-related neurocircuitry may share a similar neuroanatomy to anxiety neurocircuitry. […] Advances in neuroscience and research have contributed to a better understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying specific phobias, including insights into the role of the amygdala, a brain region involved in processing fear.
  • #58 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    The amygdala seems to play a key role in the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in general and particularly in SP. […] The initial hypothesis was that the amygdala, with its role in surveillance and negative affection, would show increased activity during fear inducement. […] Several studies have demonstrated greater activation of this structure in patients with SP. […] Other structures that showed hyperactivity in phobic individuals exposed to phobia-related stimuli were the anterior insula, hippocampus, dorsal and rostral ACC, and somatosensory and occipitoparietal cortex. […] The increased activation in the anterior insula observed in SP studies is consistent with the role attributed to the structure, which may be related to the representation of internal bodily states. […] The different techniques used in neuroimaging studies showed consistent results regarding the role of the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, thus, reinforcing the hypothesis that there is a specific brain circuit, consisting of cortical and limbic areas, that is involved in the disorder due to a dysfunction.
  • #59 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    The amygdala seems to play a key role in the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in general and particularly in SP. […] The initial hypothesis was that the amygdala, with its role in surveillance and negative affection, would show increased activity during fear inducement. […] Several studies have demonstrated greater activation of this structure in patients with SP. […] Other structures that showed hyperactivity in phobic individuals exposed to phobia-related stimuli were the anterior insula, hippocampus, dorsal and rostral ACC, and somatosensory and occipitoparietal cortex. […] The increased activation in the anterior insula observed in SP studies is consistent with the role attributed to the structure, which may be related to the representation of internal bodily states. […] The different techniques used in neuroimaging studies showed consistent results regarding the role of the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, thus, reinforcing the hypothesis that there is a specific brain circuit, consisting of cortical and limbic areas, that is involved in the disorder due to a dysfunction.
  • #60 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    The amygdala seems to play a key role in the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in general and particularly in SP. […] The initial hypothesis was that the amygdala, with its role in surveillance and negative affection, would show increased activity during fear inducement. […] Several studies have demonstrated greater activation of this structure in patients with SP. […] Other structures that showed hyperactivity in phobic individuals exposed to phobia-related stimuli were the anterior insula, hippocampus, dorsal and rostral ACC, and somatosensory and occipitoparietal cortex. […] The increased activation in the anterior insula observed in SP studies is consistent with the role attributed to the structure, which may be related to the representation of internal bodily states. […] The different techniques used in neuroimaging studies showed consistent results regarding the role of the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, thus, reinforcing the hypothesis that there is a specific brain circuit, consisting of cortical and limbic areas, that is involved in the disorder due to a dysfunction.
  • #61 Specific Phobia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499923/
    Behavioral scientists have contributed significantly to uncovering the psychological mechanisms contributing to anxiety. Conditioned responses of learned fear are more significant among anxiety-disordered individuals compared to controls, with an explanation of 2 likely mechanisms: first, there is greater excitatory conditioning to danger cues, and second, there is impaired inhibitory conditioning to safety signals. […] The activation of fear neurocircuitry, with presumed anxiety neurocircuitry overlap, involves the release of various neurochemicals that lead to sympathetic stimulation. Classically characterized as a „fight-or-flight” reaction, this sympathetic response evolved to be adaptive and for a prompt behavioral response to avoid actual or perceived danger. […] The amygdala is classically associated with provoking a fear response when stimulated. The amygdala and other fear-related neurocircuitry may share a similar neuroanatomy to anxiety neurocircuitry. […] Advances in neuroscience and research have contributed to a better understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying specific phobias, including insights into the role of the amygdala, a brain region involved in processing fear.
  • #62 The Chill of Fear | Harvard Medicine Magazine
    https://magazine.hms.harvard.edu/articles/chill-fear
    You do this because you’re afraid. Even without direct evidence of danger, you’re compelled to flee, to protect yourself. […] Investigating what drives that arc of reaction spurs much of today’s research into the molecular mechanisms of the fear response. […] For more than a decade, Vadim Bolshakov, an HMS associate professor of psychiatry and director of McLean Hospitals Cellular Neurobiology Laboratory, has explored fear-driven disorders by investigating their molecular bases in the brains of rats. One early finding from his laboratory showed that learned fear changes the way the animals’ brains operate, offering a mechanism for conditioned fears’ persistence. […] Bolshakov and colleagues taught rats to associate a harmless stimulus, a tone, with a painful event, a shock to their feet. The researchers found that neurons in the rodent amygdala exhibited remarkable sensitivity to the tone, so much so that the neurons continued to fire after the stimulus was removed.
  • #63 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    The amygdala seems to play a key role in the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in general and particularly in SP. […] The initial hypothesis was that the amygdala, with its role in surveillance and negative affection, would show increased activity during fear inducement. […] Several studies have demonstrated greater activation of this structure in patients with SP. […] Other structures that showed hyperactivity in phobic individuals exposed to phobia-related stimuli were the anterior insula, hippocampus, dorsal and rostral ACC, and somatosensory and occipitoparietal cortex. […] The increased activation in the anterior insula observed in SP studies is consistent with the role attributed to the structure, which may be related to the representation of internal bodily states. […] The different techniques used in neuroimaging studies showed consistent results regarding the role of the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, thus, reinforcing the hypothesis that there is a specific brain circuit, consisting of cortical and limbic areas, that is involved in the disorder due to a dysfunction.
  • #64 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    The amygdala seems to play a key role in the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in general and particularly in SP. […] The initial hypothesis was that the amygdala, with its role in surveillance and negative affection, would show increased activity during fear inducement. […] Several studies have demonstrated greater activation of this structure in patients with SP. […] Other structures that showed hyperactivity in phobic individuals exposed to phobia-related stimuli were the anterior insula, hippocampus, dorsal and rostral ACC, and somatosensory and occipitoparietal cortex. […] The increased activation in the anterior insula observed in SP studies is consistent with the role attributed to the structure, which may be related to the representation of internal bodily states. […] The different techniques used in neuroimaging studies showed consistent results regarding the role of the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, thus, reinforcing the hypothesis that there is a specific brain circuit, consisting of cortical and limbic areas, that is involved in the disorder due to a dysfunction.
  • #65 SciELO Brasil – Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature Neuroimaging in specific phobia disorder: a systematic review of the literature
    https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/LsPBjFcQHHdQ6tC3B3C5cYK/?lang=en
    The amygdala seems to play a key role in the neurobiology of anxiety disorders in general and particularly in SP. […] The initial hypothesis was that the amygdala, with its role in surveillance and negative affection, would show increased activity during fear inducement. […] Several studies have demonstrated greater activation of this structure in patients with SP. […] Other structures that showed hyperactivity in phobic individuals exposed to phobia-related stimuli were the anterior insula, hippocampus, dorsal and rostral ACC, and somatosensory and occipitoparietal cortex. […] The increased activation in the anterior insula observed in SP studies is consistent with the role attributed to the structure, which may be related to the representation of internal bodily states. […] The different techniques used in neuroimaging studies showed consistent results regarding the role of the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, thus, reinforcing the hypothesis that there is a specific brain circuit, consisting of cortical and limbic areas, that is involved in the disorder due to a dysfunction.
  • #66 Scientists discover brain mechanism that helps overcome fear | EurekAlert!
    https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1072404
    Researchers at the Sainsbury Wellcome Centre (SWC) at UCL have unveiled the precise brain mechanisms that enable animals to overcome instinctive fears. […] The study revealed two key components in this learning process: (1) specific regions of the visual cortex proved essential for the learning process, and (2) a brain structure called the ventrolateral geniculate nucleus (vLGN) stores these learning-induced memories. […] The implications of this discovery extend beyond the laboratory. Our findings could also help advance our understanding of what is going wrong in the brain when fear response regulation is impaired in conditions such as phobias, anxiety and PTSD. […] This neural pathway can provide a link between cognitive neocortical processes and hard-wired brainstem-mediated behaviours, enabling animals to adapt instinctive behaviours.
  • #67 Scientists discover brain mechanism that helps overcome fear | EurekAlert!
    https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1072404
    Researchers at the Sainsbury Wellcome Centre (SWC) at UCL have unveiled the precise brain mechanisms that enable animals to overcome instinctive fears. […] The study revealed two key components in this learning process: (1) specific regions of the visual cortex proved essential for the learning process, and (2) a brain structure called the ventrolateral geniculate nucleus (vLGN) stores these learning-induced memories. […] The implications of this discovery extend beyond the laboratory. Our findings could also help advance our understanding of what is going wrong in the brain when fear response regulation is impaired in conditions such as phobias, anxiety and PTSD. […] This neural pathway can provide a link between cognitive neocortical processes and hard-wired brainstem-mediated behaviours, enabling animals to adapt instinctive behaviours.
  • #68 Phobias: Causes, Types, Treatment, Symptoms & More
    https://www.healthline.com/health/phobia-simple-specific
    Genetic and environmental factors can cause phobias. […] People with ongoing medical conditions or health concerns often have phobias. […] Phobias have different symptoms from serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. […] Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most commonly used therapeutic treatment for phobias. It involves exposure to the source of the fear in a controlled setting. This treatment can decondition people and reduce anxiety. […] Antidepressants and anti-anxiety medications can help calm emotional and physical reactions to fear.
  • #69 Specific phobias – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/specific-phobias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355156
    Specific phobias are an extreme fear of objects or situations that pose little or no danger but make you highly anxious. […] Phobias can cause strong physical, mental and emotional responses. […] Much is still not known about what causes specific phobias. Causes may include: […] Bad experiences. Many phobias start because of a bad experience or panic attack related to a specific object or situation. […] Genetics or learned behavior. There may be a link between your specific phobia and the phobia or anxiety of your parents. […] Brain function and structure. Those with specific phobias trigger certain parts of the brain, while a person without these phobias does not have the same response in the brain. […] A specific phobia can start when something distressing happens to you, such as being trapped in an elevator or attacked by an animal. […] Avoidance is the most common way people cope with phobias. By doing so, their anxiety typically gets worse.
  • #70 Specific phobias – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/specific-phobias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355156
    Specific phobias are an extreme fear of objects or situations that pose little or no danger but make you highly anxious. […] Phobias can cause strong physical, mental and emotional responses. […] Much is still not known about what causes specific phobias. Causes may include: […] Bad experiences. Many phobias start because of a bad experience or panic attack related to a specific object or situation. […] Genetics or learned behavior. There may be a link between your specific phobia and the phobia or anxiety of your parents. […] Brain function and structure. Those with specific phobias trigger certain parts of the brain, while a person without these phobias does not have the same response in the brain. […] A specific phobia can start when something distressing happens to you, such as being trapped in an elevator or attacked by an animal. […] Avoidance is the most common way people cope with phobias. By doing so, their anxiety typically gets worse.
  • #71 Phobic Disorders: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288016-overview
    Psychological theories range from explaining anxiety as a displacement of an intrapsychic conflict (psychodynamic models) to conditioning (learned) paradigms (cognitive-behavior models). Many of these theories capture portions of the disorder. […] A behaviorist would see phobia as a learned, conditioned response resulting from a past association with a situation that had negative emotional valence at the time of association (eg, social situations are avoided because intense anxiety was originally experienced in that setting). Even if no danger is posed in most social encounters, an avoidance response has been linked to these situations. Treatment from this perspective aims to weaken and eventually separate the specific response from the stimulus. […] A psychoanalyst would likely conceptualize social anxiety as a symptom of a deeper conflictfor instance, low self-esteem or unresolved conflicts with internal objects. The treatment uses exploration with the goal of understanding the underlying conflict.
  • #72 Anxiety Disorders
    http://www2.hawaii.edu/~heiby/overheads_anxiety.html
    Phobias involve intense anxiety […] Phobias are learned avoidance responses (classical and operant conditioning) […] Phobias may be acquired through modeling […] We are biologically prepared to learn certain fears (e.g. taste with nausea) […] Psychoanalytic theory: phobias result from anxiety produced by repressed id impulses; content is symbol of psychosexual stage of fixation (e.g., snake = phallic symbol and Oedipal stage) […] Behavioral theories: focus on learning as the etiological basis of phobias […] Cognitive theory: Thought processes result in high levels of anxiety […] Biological theory: genes and autonomic nervous system lability.
  • #73 Phobias: Specific Phobias Types and Symptoms
    https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/specific-phobias
    The exact cause of specific phobias is not known, but most appear to be associated with a traumatic experience or a learned reaction. For example, a person who has a frightening or threatening experience with an animal, such as an attack or being bitten, can develop a specific phobia. […] Fear can be learned from others, as well. A child whose parents react with fear and anxiety to certain objects or situations is likely to also respond to those objects with fear. […] Treatment usually involves a type of cognitive behavioral therapy, called systematic desensitization or exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy, in which patients are gradually exposed to what frightens them until their fear begins to fade. […] For situational phobias that produce intense, temporary anxiety (for example, a fear of flying), short-acting sedative-hypnotics (benzodiazepines) such as alprazolam (Xanax) or lorazepam (Ativan) may be prescribed on an occasional, as-needed basis to help reduce anticipatory anxiety. […] More recently, common blood pressure drugs called beta-blockers have been used to treat anxiety related to specific phobias.
  • #74 Phobias: Specific Phobias Types and Symptoms
    https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/specific-phobias
    The exact cause of specific phobias is not known, but most appear to be associated with a traumatic experience or a learned reaction. For example, a person who has a frightening or threatening experience with an animal, such as an attack or being bitten, can develop a specific phobia. […] Fear can be learned from others, as well. A child whose parents react with fear and anxiety to certain objects or situations is likely to also respond to those objects with fear. […] Treatment usually involves a type of cognitive behavioral therapy, called systematic desensitization or exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy, in which patients are gradually exposed to what frightens them until their fear begins to fade. […] For situational phobias that produce intense, temporary anxiety (for example, a fear of flying), short-acting sedative-hypnotics (benzodiazepines) such as alprazolam (Xanax) or lorazepam (Ativan) may be prescribed on an occasional, as-needed basis to help reduce anticipatory anxiety. […] More recently, common blood pressure drugs called beta-blockers have been used to treat anxiety related to specific phobias.
  • #75 Phobias: What They Are, Causes, Symptoms & Treatments
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24757-phobias
    A phobia is when something causes you to feel fear or anxiety thats so severe it consistently and overwhelmingly disrupts your life. […] Phobias are when your brain takes fear and anxiety to extreme degrees. Under ordinary circumstances, these emotions can be protective and helpful. […] However, several factors and processes may contribute to having a phobia. These include: Traumatic experiences. […] Genetics. Certain types of phobias are more likely to happen in people who have a relative with that type of phobia. […] Informational transmission. Some phobias may happen because of things you learn about or things you see or hear repeatedly. […] Learned fears. People can learn about the phobias or fears of others and may develop a phobia as a result. […] Phobias can have long-term effects on your mental and physical health, especially when you frequently encounter triggers or have especially severe effects.
  • #76
    https://www.headspace.com/articles/where-do-phobias-come-from
    Phobias may make no sense on the outside, but once the brain and the alarm center—the amygdala, to be specific—decides that something is dangerous, the whole system goes on alert with a big NO whenever these triggers are heard, seen, or thought of, says Tamar Chansky, psychologist and author of Freeing Yourself from Anxiety and Freeing Your Child from Anxiety. […] In addition to vicarious conditioning, other pathways to developing a phobia include a traumatic conditioning experience, where people have direct experience with a phobic object or situation, which causes a powerful trigger, and informational transmission, where a phobia can develop from consuming threatening information via the media, conversation, and other mechanisms. […] More specifically, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of phobias suggests that people have unconscious impulses or thoughts that cause conflict between the three parts of the human personality or psyche: the id, superego, and ego.
  • #77 Specific phobias – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/specific-phobias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355156
    Specific phobias are an extreme fear of objects or situations that pose little or no danger but make you highly anxious. […] Phobias can cause strong physical, mental and emotional responses. […] Much is still not known about what causes specific phobias. Causes may include: […] Bad experiences. Many phobias start because of a bad experience or panic attack related to a specific object or situation. […] Genetics or learned behavior. There may be a link between your specific phobia and the phobia or anxiety of your parents. […] Brain function and structure. Those with specific phobias trigger certain parts of the brain, while a person without these phobias does not have the same response in the brain. […] A specific phobia can start when something distressing happens to you, such as being trapped in an elevator or attacked by an animal. […] Avoidance is the most common way people cope with phobias. By doing so, their anxiety typically gets worse.
  • #78 Fears vs Phobias: What’s the Difference Between Fear and Phobia?
    https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/mental-health/phobias/fear-vs-phobia/
    Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder that is distinctly different from normal fear. Phobias are defined, according to the DSM-5 (the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition), as fear or anxiety that is persistent (even when the phobic object isn’t there), excessive and out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the object of the phobia. […] Phobias occur when there is dysfunction in the brain circuits responsible for the fear response. They recognize non-dangerous objects or situations as imminent threats and experience excessive fear and anxiety. […] The clinical characteristics of phobias depend on the type of phobia, the degree of severity in a particular individual and the amount that it interferes with the individual’s ability to function normally. However, common to all three types of phobias is extreme fear or anxiety in response to a particular object or situation.
  • #79 Phobias: Causes, Types, Treatment, Symptoms & More
    https://www.healthline.com/health/phobia-simple-specific
    Genetic and environmental factors can cause phobias. […] People with ongoing medical conditions or health concerns often have phobias. […] Phobias have different symptoms from serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. […] Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most commonly used therapeutic treatment for phobias. It involves exposure to the source of the fear in a controlled setting. This treatment can decondition people and reduce anxiety. […] Antidepressants and anti-anxiety medications can help calm emotional and physical reactions to fear.
  • #80 Phobia Treatment
    https://cogbtherapy.com/phobia-treatment-los-angeles
    Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) offers a tailored approach to treat specific phobias by targeting the underlying cognitive processes contributing to irrational fears. The first step involves identifying irrational thoughts that fuel anxiety and fear. […] Gradual exposure and desensitization form another crucial aspect of CBT for phobias. This involves systematically and safely exposing individuals to the feared stimuli in a controlled manner. […] A cornerstone of therapeutic intervention for phobias is cognitive restructuring, a technique that seeks to unravel and transform these counterproductive thought patterns. […] The success of systematic exposure therapy hinges on the principle of habituation, wherein repeated and prolonged exposure to the feared stimulus leads to a reduction in anxiety response.
  • #81 Phobia Treatment
    https://cogbtherapy.com/phobia-treatment-los-angeles
    Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) offers a tailored approach to treat specific phobias by targeting the underlying cognitive processes contributing to irrational fears. The first step involves identifying irrational thoughts that fuel anxiety and fear. […] Gradual exposure and desensitization form another crucial aspect of CBT for phobias. This involves systematically and safely exposing individuals to the feared stimuli in a controlled manner. […] A cornerstone of therapeutic intervention for phobias is cognitive restructuring, a technique that seeks to unravel and transform these counterproductive thought patterns. […] The success of systematic exposure therapy hinges on the principle of habituation, wherein repeated and prolonged exposure to the feared stimulus leads to a reduction in anxiety response.
  • #82 Phobia Treatment
    https://cogbtherapy.com/phobia-treatment-los-angeles
    Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) offers a tailored approach to treat specific phobias by targeting the underlying cognitive processes contributing to irrational fears. The first step involves identifying irrational thoughts that fuel anxiety and fear. […] Gradual exposure and desensitization form another crucial aspect of CBT for phobias. This involves systematically and safely exposing individuals to the feared stimuli in a controlled manner. […] A cornerstone of therapeutic intervention for phobias is cognitive restructuring, a technique that seeks to unravel and transform these counterproductive thought patterns. […] The success of systematic exposure therapy hinges on the principle of habituation, wherein repeated and prolonged exposure to the feared stimulus leads to a reduction in anxiety response.
  • #83 Treatment of Eye Phobias: Therapeutic Mechanism
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjep1953/51/4/51_425/_article/-char/en
    The Present study aimed at clarifying the mechanism of reduction of an eye phobia in a patient whose main complaint was eye phobia. […] In Experiment I, we used desensitization procedures in which the desensitization procedure involved relaxation including repetition of inner language, and in Experiment II, the same, but using reciprocal movement rather than relaxation. […] Therefore, it was suggested that distraction is an important factor in the reduction of the symptoms of eye phobia. […] It is also possible that self eye phobia contained the participant’s unique cognitions, and that self-instruction training was effective in modifying those cognitions.
  • #84 Treatment of Eye Phobias: Therapeutic Mechanism
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjep1953/51/4/51_425/_article/-char/en
    The Present study aimed at clarifying the mechanism of reduction of an eye phobia in a patient whose main complaint was eye phobia. […] In Experiment I, we used desensitization procedures in which the desensitization procedure involved relaxation including repetition of inner language, and in Experiment II, the same, but using reciprocal movement rather than relaxation. […] Therefore, it was suggested that distraction is an important factor in the reduction of the symptoms of eye phobia. […] It is also possible that self eye phobia contained the participant’s unique cognitions, and that self-instruction training was effective in modifying those cognitions.
  • #85 Specific phobia | Gouvernement du Québec
    https://www.quebec.ca/en/health/mental-health/learn-about-mental-health-and-mental-illnesses/best-understanding-mental-illnesses/specific-phobia?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIifzRo6Oa4QIVwSSGCh1xrwPjEAAYASAAEgLHd_D_BwE
    Phobia belongs to the large group of anxiety disorders. Its main form is the specific phobia. It affects about 9% of the population. […] Specific phobia has no clear identified cause. A combination of several factors results in the onset of symptoms. These factors can be biological, hereditary, individual or environmental. […] Phobia is a illness that can be treated. There are known treatments available. Treatments allow people with phobia to regain control of their lives and daily activities. The earlier a person consults, the better their chances of recovery. […] In most cases, phobia is treated effectively by self-care, group psychological education, an intervention, psychotherapy, medication, or by a combination of some of these treatments. […] Anxiety disorder experts generally recommend cognitive behavioural therapy. This type of psychotherapy aims to change the individuals thoughts, core beliefs and problematic behaviour, and replaces them with thoughts and responses appropriate to reality. It helps to find solutions. […] Different medication can be used to treat phobia, including antidepressants and anxiolytics.
  • #86 Phobias: Specific Phobias Types and Symptoms
    https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/specific-phobias
    The exact cause of specific phobias is not known, but most appear to be associated with a traumatic experience or a learned reaction. For example, a person who has a frightening or threatening experience with an animal, such as an attack or being bitten, can develop a specific phobia. […] Fear can be learned from others, as well. A child whose parents react with fear and anxiety to certain objects or situations is likely to also respond to those objects with fear. […] Treatment usually involves a type of cognitive behavioral therapy, called systematic desensitization or exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy, in which patients are gradually exposed to what frightens them until their fear begins to fade. […] For situational phobias that produce intense, temporary anxiety (for example, a fear of flying), short-acting sedative-hypnotics (benzodiazepines) such as alprazolam (Xanax) or lorazepam (Ativan) may be prescribed on an occasional, as-needed basis to help reduce anticipatory anxiety. […] More recently, common blood pressure drugs called beta-blockers have been used to treat anxiety related to specific phobias.
  • #87 Phobias: Specific Phobias Types and Symptoms
    https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/specific-phobias
    The exact cause of specific phobias is not known, but most appear to be associated with a traumatic experience or a learned reaction. For example, a person who has a frightening or threatening experience with an animal, such as an attack or being bitten, can develop a specific phobia. […] Fear can be learned from others, as well. A child whose parents react with fear and anxiety to certain objects or situations is likely to also respond to those objects with fear. […] Treatment usually involves a type of cognitive behavioral therapy, called systematic desensitization or exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy, in which patients are gradually exposed to what frightens them until their fear begins to fade. […] For situational phobias that produce intense, temporary anxiety (for example, a fear of flying), short-acting sedative-hypnotics (benzodiazepines) such as alprazolam (Xanax) or lorazepam (Ativan) may be prescribed on an occasional, as-needed basis to help reduce anticipatory anxiety. […] More recently, common blood pressure drugs called beta-blockers have been used to treat anxiety related to specific phobias.
  • #88 How to to Overcome Phobia or Irrational Fear
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/phobia-5093943
    CBT also teaches strategies for understanding your feelings and coping with the thing you’re afraid of. […] Medication may also be used along with talk therapy. This type of treatment does not help the person overcome the fear, but it can relieve some of the symptoms. […] A phobia is an extreme, irrational fear that is ongoing and can interfere with daily life or lead to anxiety symptoms. […] There are techniques and treatments to overcome and cope with phobias.
  • #89 Specific phobia | Gouvernement du Québec
    https://www.quebec.ca/en/health/mental-health/learn-about-mental-health-and-mental-illnesses/best-understanding-mental-illnesses/specific-phobia?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIifzRo6Oa4QIVwSSGCh1xrwPjEAAYASAAEgLHd_D_BwE
    Phobia belongs to the large group of anxiety disorders. Its main form is the specific phobia. It affects about 9% of the population. […] Specific phobia has no clear identified cause. A combination of several factors results in the onset of symptoms. These factors can be biological, hereditary, individual or environmental. […] Phobia is a illness that can be treated. There are known treatments available. Treatments allow people with phobia to regain control of their lives and daily activities. The earlier a person consults, the better their chances of recovery. […] In most cases, phobia is treated effectively by self-care, group psychological education, an intervention, psychotherapy, medication, or by a combination of some of these treatments. […] Anxiety disorder experts generally recommend cognitive behavioural therapy. This type of psychotherapy aims to change the individuals thoughts, core beliefs and problematic behaviour, and replaces them with thoughts and responses appropriate to reality. It helps to find solutions. […] Different medication can be used to treat phobia, including antidepressants and anxiolytics.
  • #90 Scientists discover brain mechanism that helps overcome fear | EurekAlert!
    https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1072404
    The researchers also uncovered the cellular and molecular mechanisms behind this process. Learning occurs through increased neural activity in specific vLGN neurons, triggered by the release of endocannabinoids brain-internal messenger molecules known to regulate mood and memory. […] This could open new avenues for treating fear disorders by targeting vLGN circuits or localised endocannabinoid systems.
  • #91 MIT IDs mechanism behind fear | MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
    https://news.mit.edu/2007/trauma-0715
    CAMBRIDGE, Mass.–Researchers from MIT’s Picower Institute for Learning and Memory have uncovered a molecular mechanism that governs the formation of fears stemming from traumatic events. […] Li-Huei Tsai, Picower Professor of Neuroscience in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, and colleagues show that inhibiting a kinase (kinases are enzymes that change proteins) called Cdk5 facilitates the extinction of fear learned in a particular context. […] „Remarkably, inhibiting Cdk5 facilitated extinction of learned fear in mice. This data points to a promising therapeutic avenue to treat emotional disorders and raises hope for patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder or phobia,” Tsai said. […] Emotional disorders such as post-traumatic stress and panic attacks stem from the inability of the brain to stop experiencing the fear associated with a specific incident or series of incidents.