Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis, is characterized by chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation. […] It is thought that IBD results from an aberrant and continuing immune response to the microbes in the gut, catalyzed by the genetic susceptibility of the individual. […] Although the etiology of IBD remains largely unknown, it involves a complex interaction between the genetic, environmental or microbial factors and the immune responses. […] Recent research indicated that the individuals genetic susceptibility, external environment, intestinal microbial flora and immune responses are all involved and functionally integrated in the pathogenesis of IBD. […] There is no doubt that environmental factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of IBD.

• #2 Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Innate Immune System

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/2/1526

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) encompasses a group of heterogeneous diseases that entail chronic, relapsing gastrointestinal tract inflammation of inexactly known etiology and pathogenesis. IBD etiology may involve the host immune system, genetic variability, and environmental factors. […] The etiology of IBD remains elusive, but IBD appears to be sustained in genetically susceptible individuals by an impaired immune response against intestinal microorganisms. This abnormal immune response is associated with dysregulation of both innate and adaptive immune responses. […] While generally unknown, the cause of this damage could be related to an infectious agent, a chemical compound, or a metabolic alteration probably related to diet-mediated dysbiosis. The disease is then thought to be perpetuated by deficient resolution of the inflammatory response to this initial injury.

• #3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/inflammatory-bowel-disease

  A family history. Five to 10% of people with IBD have a family history of the condition. Several genes have been identified that are linked to IBD. People who have a first-degree relative (parent, child, sibling) with IBD are 10 to 15 times more likely to develop ulcerative colitis or Crohns disease, compared to the general population. The risk, however, is still low overall.

• #4 What Are the Causes and Risk Factors of IBD? | MyCrohnsAndColitisTeam

  https://www.mycrohnsandcolitisteam.com/resources/what-causes-ibd

  Approximately 1.3 percent of adults in the U.S. reported being diagnosed with Crohns disease or ulcerative colitis in 2015, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). About 10 percent of people diagnosed with either disease have a first-degree relative (parent, child, or sibling) who also has IBD. First-degree relatives of those with IBD are between three and 20 times more likely to develop IBD themselves. However, more than 85 percent of people with IBD have no family history of Crohns or colitis. […] Race and ethnicity may influence IBD predisposition. This means that some groups of people might be more likely to develop IBD than others. […] People living in industrialized countries and urban areas are at greater risk of Crohns disease. Researchers have linked this to dietary factors. Their theory is that a diet high in fat, sugar, or refined foods may play a role in the development of IBD.

• #5 Inflammatory bowel disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a complex disease which arises as a result of the interaction of environmental and genetic factors leading to immunological responses and inflammation in the intestine. […] Emerging evidence indicates that bile acids are important etiological agents in IBD pathogenesis. […] The human microbiota composition is different in patients with IBD compared to healthy individuals. […] Loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in IBD. […] Oxidative stress and DNA damage likely have a role in the pathophysiology of IBD. […] A genetic component to IBD has been recognized for over a century. […] More than 200 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs or „snips”) are now known to be associated with susceptibility to IBD. […] The increased incidence of IBD since World War II has been correlated to the increase in meat consumption worldwide, supporting the claim that animal protein intake is associated with IBD. […] There are many environmental risk factors that have been linked to the increased and decreased risk of IBD, such as smoking, air pollution and greenspace, urbanization and Westernization.

• #6 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/ibd-crohns-disease/inflammatory-bowel-syndrome

  Inflammatory bowel disease causes are complex and not fully understood. […] Whether the immune system’s attack on the digestive tract is autoimmune or aimed at bacteria or other microbes, it’s likely that genes also play a role. […] Evidence to suggest a genetic role for IBD is strong, including family history. […] Scientists have found more than 200 genetic mutations that may increase your risk for IBD. […] Some environmental factors may also play a role in whether you develop IBD and when you have symptoms. […] While foods don’t cause IBD, some people feel worse when they eat or drink certain things. […] Scientists are looking at other factors that might play roles, including eating a lot of highly processed foods and taking birth control pills.

• #7 What causes Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD)? | UNC Multidisciplinary Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Center

  https://www.med.unc.edu/medicine/gi/ibd/what-causes-inflammatory-bowel-diseases-ibd/

  Despite numerous studies, the actual cause of the inflammatory bowel diseases remains elusive. It is likely, however, that these chronically recurring episodes of inflammation in the human bowel are related to a complex interaction between various environmental factors and a hereditary predisposition for these diseases. […] To date, changes in multiple genes (nearly 40) have been discovered that play a greater or lesser role in the development of Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis. […] The most important of these changes of the genetic material in patients with Crohns disease was identified by scientists in 2001. They showed that changes (mutations) in the so-called NOD2/CARD15 gene significantly increase the risk of developing Crohns disease. […] On the other hand, it is clear that this hereditary predisposition alone cannot lead to the outbreak of disease: this requires the presence of further, as yet unidentified factors.

• #8 Major cause of Inflammatory Bowel Disease discovered

  https://crohnsandcolitis.org.uk/news-stories/news-items/major-cause-of-inflammatory-bowel-disease-discovered

  A groundbreaking piece of research has been published this week that could lead to greater understanding of Crohns and Colitis and possibly new treatments in the future. […] Researchers at the Francis Crick Institute have found a major new cause of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). Using genetic analysis, the researchers found a section of genetic code (DNA) that is active in macrophages. Macrophages are a type of immune cell that cause inflammation in people with IBD. The section of DNA that they found is one of the main controllers of macrophages. It boosts a gene called ETS2, which controls the inflammatory chemicals that the macrophages release. So higher levels of ETS2 are associated with more inflammation in the gut. Some people have a version of the genetic code that makes their body more likely to over-respond to an inflammatory stimulus.

• #9 Major cause of inflammatory bowel disease discovered | Crick

  https://www.crick.ac.uk/news-and-reports/2024-06-05_major-cause-of-inflammatory-bowel-disease-discovered

  Researchers at the Francis Crick Institute, working with UCL and Imperial College London, have discovered a new biological pathway that is a principal driver of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and related conditions, and which can be targeted using existing drugs. […] Despite increasing prevalence, current treatments do not work in every patient and attempts to develop new drugs often fail due to our incomplete understanding of what causes IBD. […] The team also discovered that many other genes previously linked to IBD are part of the ETS2 pathway, providing further evidence that it is a major cause of IBD. […] The unusual thing about the disease variant in the ETS2 enhancer is that it is very common, with approximately 95% of people with IBD carrying one or two copies of it. […] „Every year, more than 25,000 people are told that they have Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Crohn’s and Colitis are complex, lifelong conditions for which there is no cure, but research like this is helping us to answer some of the big questions about what causes them.”

• #10 Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/179037-overview

  Several environmental risk factors have been proposed as contributing to the IBD pathogenesis, but the results are inconsistent, and the limitations of the studies preclude drawing firm conclusions. The most consistent association described has been smoking, which increases the risk of Crohn disease. However, current smoking protects against ulcerative colitis, whereas former smoking increases the risk of ulcerative colitis. Dietary factors have also been inconsistently described. In some studies, high fiber intake and high intake of fruits and vegetables appear protective against IBD. […] Persons with IBD have a genetic susceptibility for the disease, and considerable research over the past decade has improved our understanding of the role of these genes. Note that these genes appear to be permissive (ie, allow IBD to occur), but they are not causative (ie, just because the gene is present does not necessarily mean the disease will develop). […] The genetic predisposition for ulcerative colitis appears to be lesser in magnitude than Crohn disease but consists of a set of genetic susceptibilities that shows significant overlap with Crohn disease.

• #11 What Causes Inflammatory Bowel Disease and How Is It Treated? – The Waiting Room

  https://thewaitingroom.karger.com/tell-me-about/what-causes-inflammatory-bowel-disease-and-how-is-it-treated/

  Researchers are trying to find out how important each of these factors is. For example, we know that early exposure to antibiotics increases the risk of developing IBD in later life. […] As modern societies have developed, IBD has become more common, with 100200 cases per 100,000 people in Western countries for both Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis. Why some, but not all, people with the same lifestyle get the disease is not clear. […] There are over 100 genes that increase the likelihood of IBD developing, but these genes are common and are usually not enough on their own to cause the disease. Similarly, the environmental or lifestyle factors that increase the risk of IBD are also common. […] Research has suggested that a coincidence of events is required, a kind of perfect storm, by which environmental and lifestyle factors interact with one or more genes, in the presence of one or more trigger(s) such as smoking or an infection, and these combine to launch the onset of inflammation. […] Almost certainly, there are many other factors that increase the risk of IBD that medical science has not yet discovered.

• #12 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis, is characterized by chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation. […] It is thought that IBD results from an aberrant and continuing immune response to the microbes in the gut, catalyzed by the genetic susceptibility of the individual. […] Although the etiology of IBD remains largely unknown, it involves a complex interaction between the genetic, environmental or microbial factors and the immune responses. […] Recent research indicated that the individuals genetic susceptibility, external environment, intestinal microbial flora and immune responses are all involved and functionally integrated in the pathogenesis of IBD. […] There is no doubt that environmental factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of IBD.

• #13 Inflammatory Bowel Disease | British Society for Immunology

  https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/immune-dysfunction/inflammatory-bowel-disease

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), comprising Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is a chronic, relapsing-remitting inflammatory disorder of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. […] The exact cause of IBD is unclear. There appear to be four main factors which influence the disease: host genetic susceptibility, a dysregulated immune response and impairment of intestinal epithelial barrier function, and environmental factors. […] Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified a number of genetic loci associated with IBD, including genes specific to either CD or UC, and some which are common to both. […] Environmental factors such as the commensal microflora, pathogenic infections and metabolic factors are thought to play a role in the development and perpetuation of IBD. […] IBD is an immune-mediated disease, but is not considered to involve autoimmunity. […] IBD is thought to arise when an inappropriate immune response is mounted against commensal bacteria.

• #14 What Causes IBD | IBD | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/inflammatory-bowel-disease/causes/index.html

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) triggers the body’s immune system to mistakenly attack healthy bowel cells. […] IBD appears to result from interactions between genetics and the environment that trigger an immune response. […] The cause of IBD is unclear, but it creates problems with immune function. […] IBD causes the body’s natural defenses (the immune system) to mistakenly attack healthy bowel cells. […] Although the cause of IBD is complicated and not always clear, scientists have identified some patterns. […] A person may develop IBD due to interactions between genetics and the environment, which triggers an immune response. […] More than 200 genetic mutations may play a role in developing IBD. […] Sharing genes with someone like a parent, sibling or child that already has IBD can also increase risk. […] Risk for IBD increases as countries become industrialized. […] Industrialized environments lead to lifestyles that are linked to both increased risk of IBD, and changes in the balance of bacteria in the gut.

• #15 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/inflammatory-bowel-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20353315

  Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are both forms of inflammatory bowel disease. Crohn’s disease most commonly affects the last part of the small intestine, called the ileum, and parts of the colon. Ulcerative colitis affects only the colon. […] Inflammatory bowel disease, also called IBD, is an umbrella term for a group of conditions that cause swelling and inflammation of the tissues in the digestive tract. […] The exact cause of inflammatory bowel disease remains unknown. Previously, diet and stress were suspected, but now, healthcare professionals know that these factors may aggravate IBD but aren’t the cause of it. Several factors likely play a role in its development. […] One possible cause is change in the function of the immune system. When the immune system tries to fight off an invading virus or bacterium, an immune response that is not typical causes the immune system to attack the cells in the digestive tract too.

• #16 Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Innate Immune System

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/2/1526

  The immune system can be classified into innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity, composed of myeloid cells among other elements, initiates rapid and nonspecific responses to conserved structural motifs on microorganisms. […] In IBD, the local release of PAMPs and DAMPs at the site of injury triggers intestinal inflammation. […] IBD patients also have an increased number of pro-inflammatory macrophages, and pediatric IBD patients show accumulation of activated mucosal macrophages. […] The absence of IL-10 in mice provokes a shift from the resident CX3CR1high macrophage phenotype in the colon to a pro-inflammatory phenotype. […] Macrophages promote myofibroblast-mediated fibrosis by producing TGF-β1, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), and fibroblast activation protein (FAP). […] In summary, macrophages play an important role in homeostasis and in the development of IBD, both in mouse models and in patients, by phagocytosing cellular debris, producing multiple cytokines, and regulating tissue repair.

• #17 Pathophysiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Innate Immune System

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/2/1526

  The immune system can be classified into innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity, composed of myeloid cells among other elements, initiates rapid and nonspecific responses to conserved structural motifs on microorganisms. […] In IBD, the local release of PAMPs and DAMPs at the site of injury triggers intestinal inflammation. […] IBD patients also have an increased number of pro-inflammatory macrophages, and pediatric IBD patients show accumulation of activated mucosal macrophages. […] The absence of IL-10 in mice provokes a shift from the resident CX3CR1high macrophage phenotype in the colon to a pro-inflammatory phenotype. […] Macrophages promote myofibroblast-mediated fibrosis by producing TGF-β1, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), and fibroblast activation protein (FAP). […] In summary, macrophages play an important role in homeostasis and in the development of IBD, both in mouse models and in patients, by phagocytosing cellular debris, producing multiple cytokines, and regulating tissue repair.

• #18 Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/179037-overview

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an idiopathic disease caused by a dysregulated immune response to host intestinal microflora. […] Three characteristics define the etiology of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): (1) genetic predisposition; (2) an altered, dysregulated immune response; and (3) an altered response to gut microorganisms. However, the triggering event for the activation of the immune response in IBD has yet to be identified. Possible factors related to this event include a pathogenic organism (as yet unidentified) or an inappropriate response (ie, failure to downgrade the inflammatory response to an antigen, such as an alteration in barrier function). […] No mechanism has been implicated as the primary cause, but many are postulated. The lymphocyte population in persons with IBD is polyclonal, making the search for a single precipitating cause difficult. In any case, an inappropriate activation of the immune system leads to continued inflammation of the intestinal tract, with both an acute (neutrophilic) and chronic (lymphocytic, histiocytic) inflammatory response.

• #19 Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/179037-overview

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an idiopathic disease caused by a dysregulated immune response to host intestinal microflora. […] Three characteristics define the etiology of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): (1) genetic predisposition; (2) an altered, dysregulated immune response; and (3) an altered response to gut microorganisms. However, the triggering event for the activation of the immune response in IBD has yet to be identified. Possible factors related to this event include a pathogenic organism (as yet unidentified) or an inappropriate response (ie, failure to downgrade the inflammatory response to an antigen, such as an alteration in barrier function). […] No mechanism has been implicated as the primary cause, but many are postulated. The lymphocyte population in persons with IBD is polyclonal, making the search for a single precipitating cause difficult. In any case, an inappropriate activation of the immune system leads to continued inflammation of the intestinal tract, with both an acute (neutrophilic) and chronic (lymphocytic, histiocytic) inflammatory response.

• #20 Inflammatory bowel disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a complex disease which arises as a result of the interaction of environmental and genetic factors leading to immunological responses and inflammation in the intestine. […] Emerging evidence indicates that bile acids are important etiological agents in IBD pathogenesis. […] The human microbiota composition is different in patients with IBD compared to healthy individuals. […] Loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in IBD. […] Oxidative stress and DNA damage likely have a role in the pathophysiology of IBD. […] A genetic component to IBD has been recognized for over a century. […] More than 200 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs or „snips”) are now known to be associated with susceptibility to IBD. […] The increased incidence of IBD since World War II has been correlated to the increase in meat consumption worldwide, supporting the claim that animal protein intake is associated with IBD. […] There are many environmental risk factors that have been linked to the increased and decreased risk of IBD, such as smoking, air pollution and greenspace, urbanization and Westernization.

• #21 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  A large number of environmental factors are considered risk factors for IBD, including smoking, diet, drugs, geography, social stress, and psychological element. […] Recent ecological and epidemiologic evidence suggests that air pollution may contribute to the risk of CD and UC. […] The whole human gut microbiome consists of approximately 1150 bacterial species, with each individual host having roughly 160 species. […] Although it is only possible to culture 20%-30% of the gut microbiome, the association between the changes in the microbiome and IBD has been established. […] The investigation of IBD pathogenesis has been dominated for a long time by the studies of mucosal immunity, especially the T cell response. […] Available evidence suggests that the dysfunctions of innate and adaptive immune pathways contribute to the aberrant intestinal inflammatory response in patients with IBD.

• #22 Inflammatory Bowel Disease > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/inflammatory-bowel-disease

  Inflammatory bowel disease is the umbrella term for two conditions that cause chronic inflammation within the digestive system: ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease. […] The exact causes of ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease are unknown, but certain factors make people more likely to develop IBD: […] An overactive immune system. The immune system may respond in an exaggerated way to perceived threats, causing it to attack the digestive system unnecessarily. This may cause inflammation within the intestines. If the digestive system is chronically inflamed, IBD may develop. […] Different gut flora. People with IBD dont have the same proportion of helpful and harmful bacteria in the intestines as healthy individuals. This may cause gut inflammation, influencing the development of disease.

• #23 Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Types, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.miracleshealth.com/blog/how-to-manage-inflammatory-bowel-disease-symptoms-causes-and-solutions

  Smoking is a well-established risk factor for Crohns disease, particularly for those who have a family history of the condition. […] Some studies suggest that living in highly developed countries with high sanitation standards can increase the risk of IBD. […] While stress doesn’t directly cause IBD, it can trigger flare-ups and worsen symptoms. […] IBD can occur at any age, but it often begins in young adults (ages 15 to 30). […] The microbiota in the digestive tract play a crucial role in regulating the immune system. In people with IBD, there is often an imbalance in the microbiota, known as dysbiosis. […] In some cases, certain medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), can trigger IBD flare-ups or worsen existing symptoms. […] Some research suggests that early-life infections, particularly gastrointestinal infections, and the timing of vaccinations might influence the development of IBD later in life, though this connection is still being studied.

• #24 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis, is characterized by chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation. […] It is thought that IBD results from an aberrant and continuing immune response to the microbes in the gut, catalyzed by the genetic susceptibility of the individual. […] Although the etiology of IBD remains largely unknown, it involves a complex interaction between the genetic, environmental or microbial factors and the immune responses. […] Recent research indicated that the individuals genetic susceptibility, external environment, intestinal microbial flora and immune responses are all involved and functionally integrated in the pathogenesis of IBD. […] There is no doubt that environmental factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of IBD.

• #25 Crohn’s Disease: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9357-crohns-disease

  Crohns disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes your digestive tract to become swollen and irritated. […] Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis are the two most common forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Theres no known single cause of Crohns disease, but its related to a dysfunctional immune response. […] An autoimmune response happens when your immune system launches into overdrive and attacks your bodys own cells. […] Crohns sometimes runs in families. […] Risk factors include: […] Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) runs in families in about 20% of Crohns disease diagnoses. […] Smoking cigarettes increases your risk of Crohns disease. […] Studies suggest that people who have had an appendix surgery may have an increased risk of Crohns. […] People living in developed countries and urban areas have a higher risk than those living in less developed countries and rural areas. […] Your bodys stress response may contribute to flares.

• #26 Inflammatory Bowel Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470312/

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) occurs in genetically susceptible individuals after an inappropriate immune response to the intestinal flora. […] To date, the cause of IBD remains a mystery. Many causes have been implicated, but none is universally present in all patients. The one consistent feature of Crohn disease is that it has a strong link with tobacco. On the other hand, it appears that smoking protects against ulcerative colitis. The role of diet remains debatable. […] The CARD15 gene has been associated with IBD, but because of its polymorphic features, it is not possible to determine which part of the GI tract will be affected. The role of genes in ulcerative colitis is not as strong as in Crohn disease.

• #27 Epidemiology and risk factors for IBD | Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrgastro.2015.34

  Data support an association between smoking and Crohn’s disease whereas smoking cessation, but not current smoking, is associated with an increased risk of ulcerative colitis […] Dietary fibre (particularly fruits and vegetables), saturated fats, depression and impaired sleep, and low vitamin D levels have all been associated with incident IBD […] Interventional studies assessing the effects of modifying these risk factors on natural history and patient outcomes are an important unmet need […] In this Review, the changing epidemiology of IBD, mechanisms behind various environmental associations and interventional studies to modify risk factors and disease course are discussed.

• #28 What Are the Causes and Risk Factors of IBD? | MyCrohnsAndColitisTeam

  https://www.mycrohnsandcolitisteam.com/resources/what-causes-ibd

  Approximately 1.3 percent of adults in the U.S. reported being diagnosed with Crohns disease or ulcerative colitis in 2015, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). About 10 percent of people diagnosed with either disease have a first-degree relative (parent, child, or sibling) who also has IBD. First-degree relatives of those with IBD are between three and 20 times more likely to develop IBD themselves. However, more than 85 percent of people with IBD have no family history of Crohns or colitis. […] Race and ethnicity may influence IBD predisposition. This means that some groups of people might be more likely to develop IBD than others. […] People living in industrialized countries and urban areas are at greater risk of Crohns disease. Researchers have linked this to dietary factors. Their theory is that a diet high in fat, sugar, or refined foods may play a role in the development of IBD.

• #29 Epidemiology and risk factors for IBD | Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrgastro.2015.34

  Data support an association between smoking and Crohn’s disease whereas smoking cessation, but not current smoking, is associated with an increased risk of ulcerative colitis […] Dietary fibre (particularly fruits and vegetables), saturated fats, depression and impaired sleep, and low vitamin D levels have all been associated with incident IBD […] Interventional studies assessing the effects of modifying these risk factors on natural history and patient outcomes are an important unmet need […] In this Review, the changing epidemiology of IBD, mechanisms behind various environmental associations and interventional studies to modify risk factors and disease course are discussed.

• #30 Inflammatory bowel disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease

  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a complex disease which arises as a result of the interaction of environmental and genetic factors leading to immunological responses and inflammation in the intestine. […] Emerging evidence indicates that bile acids are important etiological agents in IBD pathogenesis. […] The human microbiota composition is different in patients with IBD compared to healthy individuals. […] Loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in IBD. […] Oxidative stress and DNA damage likely have a role in the pathophysiology of IBD. […] A genetic component to IBD has been recognized for over a century. […] More than 200 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs or „snips”) are now known to be associated with susceptibility to IBD. […] The increased incidence of IBD since World War II has been correlated to the increase in meat consumption worldwide, supporting the claim that animal protein intake is associated with IBD. […] There are many environmental risk factors that have been linked to the increased and decreased risk of IBD, such as smoking, air pollution and greenspace, urbanization and Westernization.

• #31 Crohn’s Disease | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/crohnsdisease.html

  Crohn’s disease is an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Ulcerative colitis and microscopic colitis are other common types of IBD. […] The cause of Crohn’s disease is unknown. Researchers think that an autoimmune reaction may be one cause. An autoimmune reaction happens when your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body. Genetics may also play a role, since Crohn’s disease can run in families. […] There are certain factors that may raise your risk of Crohn’s disease: Family history of the disease. Having a parent, child, or sibling with the disease puts you at higher risk. Smoking. This may double your risk of developing Crohn’s disease. Certain medicines, such as antibiotics, birth-control pills, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin or ibuprofen. These may slightly increase your chance of developing Crohn’s. A high-fat diet. This may also slightly increase your risk of Crohn’s.

• #32 What Are the Causes and Risk Factors of IBD? | MyCrohnsAndColitisTeam

  https://www.mycrohnsandcolitisteam.com/resources/what-causes-ibd

  Other environmental factors external influences that may affect an individuals health and well-being thought to have a part in the development of IBD include smoking, certain medications, and stress. […] Past or present cigarette smoking makes a person twice as likely to develop Crohns disease. […] Some medications may raise the risk of developing IBD, including: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) Long-term use of NSAIDs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen has been studied to see if these drugs cause or worsen Crohns, though no consistent link has been proved. […] Researchers have disproved the theory that IBD is caused by psychological distress. However, many people with Crohns disease or ulcerative colitis have worse symptoms during times of emotional stress and anxiety.

• #33 Epidemiology and risk factors for IBD | Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrgastro.2015.34

  Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are complex immunologically mediated diseases that arise due to a dysregulated immune response to commensal flora in a genetically susceptible host […] The incidence of IBD has traditionally been highest in North America and Western Europe with many cohorts suggesting a substantial secular increase over the second half of the twentieth century […] However, incidence of IBD is increasing in emerging populations such as Asia, suggesting that changing environmental factors play an important part […] Smoking and appendectomy were initially described to increase the risk of Crohn’s disease and confer protection from ulcerative colitis; however, this relationship seems more complex and could be mediated by genetics […] Diet, lifestyle and behaviour, as well as perturbations of the gut microbiota through use of antibiotics, might also have important roles in disease pathogenesis

• #34 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  A large number of environmental factors are considered risk factors for IBD, including smoking, diet, drugs, geography, social stress, and psychological element. […] Recent ecological and epidemiologic evidence suggests that air pollution may contribute to the risk of CD and UC. […] The whole human gut microbiome consists of approximately 1150 bacterial species, with each individual host having roughly 160 species. […] Although it is only possible to culture 20%-30% of the gut microbiome, the association between the changes in the microbiome and IBD has been established. […] The investigation of IBD pathogenesis has been dominated for a long time by the studies of mucosal immunity, especially the T cell response. […] Available evidence suggests that the dysfunctions of innate and adaptive immune pathways contribute to the aberrant intestinal inflammatory response in patients with IBD.

• #35 Crohn’s Disease: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9357-crohns-disease

  Crohns disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes your digestive tract to become swollen and irritated. […] Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis are the two most common forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Theres no known single cause of Crohns disease, but its related to a dysfunctional immune response. […] An autoimmune response happens when your immune system launches into overdrive and attacks your bodys own cells. […] Crohns sometimes runs in families. […] Risk factors include: […] Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) runs in families in about 20% of Crohns disease diagnoses. […] Smoking cigarettes increases your risk of Crohns disease. […] Studies suggest that people who have had an appendix surgery may have an increased risk of Crohns. […] People living in developed countries and urban areas have a higher risk than those living in less developed countries and rural areas. […] Your bodys stress response may contribute to flares.

• #36 Overview of Inflammatory Bowel Disease – Gastrointestinal Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/inflammatory-bowel-disease-ibd/overview-of-inflammatory-bowel-disease

  Inflammation results from a cell-mediated immune response in the gastrointestinal mucosa. The precise etiology of inflammatory bowel disease is unknown, but evidence suggests that the normal intestinal flora inappropriately trigger an immune reaction in patients with a multifactorial genetic predisposition (perhaps involving abnormal epithelial barriers and mucosal immune defenses). No specific environmental, dietary, or infectious causes have been identified. […] Cigarette smoking seems to contribute to development or exacerbation of Crohn disease but decreases risk of ulcerative colitis. Appendectomy done to treat appendicitis also appears to lower the risk of ulcerative colitis. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may exacerbate IBD. Oral contraceptives may increase the risk of Crohn disease. Some data suggest that perinatal illness and the use of antibiotics in childhood may be associated with an increased risk of IBD. […] For unclear reasons, people who have a higher socioeconomic status may have an increased risk of Crohn disease.

• #37 What Causes Inflammatory Bowel Disease and How Is It Treated? – The Waiting Room

  https://thewaitingroom.karger.com/tell-me-about/what-causes-inflammatory-bowel-disease-and-how-is-it-treated/

  Researchers are trying to find out how important each of these factors is. For example, we know that early exposure to antibiotics increases the risk of developing IBD in later life. […] As modern societies have developed, IBD has become more common, with 100200 cases per 100,000 people in Western countries for both Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis. Why some, but not all, people with the same lifestyle get the disease is not clear. […] There are over 100 genes that increase the likelihood of IBD developing, but these genes are common and are usually not enough on their own to cause the disease. Similarly, the environmental or lifestyle factors that increase the risk of IBD are also common. […] Research has suggested that a coincidence of events is required, a kind of perfect storm, by which environmental and lifestyle factors interact with one or more genes, in the presence of one or more trigger(s) such as smoking or an infection, and these combine to launch the onset of inflammation. […] Almost certainly, there are many other factors that increase the risk of IBD that medical science has not yet discovered.

• #38 What Causes Inflammatory Bowel Disease and How Is It Treated? – The Waiting Room

  https://thewaitingroom.karger.com/tell-me-about/what-causes-inflammatory-bowel-disease-and-how-is-it-treated/

  The cause(s) of ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease are not fully known, but doctors are beginning to understand how these conditions happen. Early life events combined with a genetic (inherited) predisposition for IBD and various environmental or lifestyle risk factors stir up the immune system into an excessive inflammatory process that causes the tissue damage and symptoms. […] The influence of modern lifestyle and the environment starts at birth and infancy, long before the onset of disease. We know this from studies of migrants. The younger the person is when they move from a region of the world with low levels of IBD to a region with high levels of the disease, the greater the risk of developing IBD in the new region. In addition, the children of migrants have a greater risk of developing IBD than the children of those who do not migrate.

• #39 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  The key factors responsible for IBD include genetic components, environmental elements, microbial flora and immune responses. […] It is hard to dispute the popular belief that IBD arises from an extremely complex interaction among genetic and environmental elements, dysregulated immune responses and alterations of the microbiome, and that none of these factors alone is likely to cause the disease.

• #40 Causes and risk factors of Inflamatory Bowel Disease

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/inflamatory-bowel-disease/causes-and-risk-factors

  Although the exact cause of the disease is still unknown, we do know that different factors are involved in its development: […] IBD is not a hereditary disease, but it does appear in people with a genetic predisposition, in whom interactions with different environmental factors (infections, tobacco, etc.) trigger an abnormal immune response which persists over time. […] Various germs have been connected to the development of inflammatory bowel disease, but none have been confirmed as its cause. Antigens, substances that induce an immune response and which are found in the intestinal lumen (passageways), are believed to be the cause of inflammation of the bowels.

• #41 What Causes Inflammatory Bowel Disease and How Is It Treated? – The Waiting Room

  https://thewaitingroom.karger.com/tell-me-about/what-causes-inflammatory-bowel-disease-and-how-is-it-treated/

  Researchers are trying to find out how important each of these factors is. For example, we know that early exposure to antibiotics increases the risk of developing IBD in later life. […] As modern societies have developed, IBD has become more common, with 100200 cases per 100,000 people in Western countries for both Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis. Why some, but not all, people with the same lifestyle get the disease is not clear. […] There are over 100 genes that increase the likelihood of IBD developing, but these genes are common and are usually not enough on their own to cause the disease. Similarly, the environmental or lifestyle factors that increase the risk of IBD are also common. […] Research has suggested that a coincidence of events is required, a kind of perfect storm, by which environmental and lifestyle factors interact with one or more genes, in the presence of one or more trigger(s) such as smoking or an infection, and these combine to launch the onset of inflammation. […] Almost certainly, there are many other factors that increase the risk of IBD that medical science has not yet discovered.

• #42 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis

  https://www.medicinenet.com/inflammatory_bowel_disease_intestinal_problems/article.htm

  Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) The two most common types of inflammatory bowel disease are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. […] The precise cause of IBD remains unknown. These diseases are believed to be caused by a combination of genetic and non-genetic, or environmental factors (for example, infections) that interact with the body’s immune (defense) system. […] When inflammation is present for a long time (chronic), it sometimes can cause scarring (fibrosis). […] Crohn’s disease is characterized by inflammation that tends to involve the deeper layers of the intestines. […] How colon cancer develops in IBD patients is thought to be different from how it develops in other people. […] The idea is that the mucosal cells are dividing so rapidly that they are liable to make mistakes in their DNA (mutations).

• #43 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis

  https://www.medicinenet.com/inflammatory_bowel_disease_intestinal_problems/article.htm

  In IBD, the constant process of inflammatory injury and repair of the lining of the colon (colonic mucosa) is believed to make the individual more susceptible to cancer. […] The intestinal complications of IBD occur when the intestinal inflammation is severe, extends beyond the inner lining (mucosa) of the intestines, is widespread, and/or is of long duration (chronic). […] Inflammation that extends beyond the inner lining and through the intestinal wall is responsible for strictures (scarring that causes narrowing of the intestinal wall) and fistulas (tubular passageways originating from the bowel wall and connecting to other organs or the skin). […] The majority of IBD patients experience periods during which their disease intensifies (flares) or subsides (remission). […] Some intestinal complications of IBD occur in both ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. […] The differences in intestinal complications between ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease depend on the characteristically dissimilar behaviors of the inflammation associated with these diseases.

• #44 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis

  https://www.medicinenet.com/inflammatory_bowel_disease_intestinal_problems/article.htm

  In IBD, the constant process of inflammatory injury and repair of the lining of the colon (colonic mucosa) is believed to make the individual more susceptible to cancer. […] The intestinal complications of IBD occur when the intestinal inflammation is severe, extends beyond the inner lining (mucosa) of the intestines, is widespread, and/or is of long duration (chronic). […] Inflammation that extends beyond the inner lining and through the intestinal wall is responsible for strictures (scarring that causes narrowing of the intestinal wall) and fistulas (tubular passageways originating from the bowel wall and connecting to other organs or the skin). […] The majority of IBD patients experience periods during which their disease intensifies (flares) or subsides (remission). […] Some intestinal complications of IBD occur in both ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. […] The differences in intestinal complications between ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease depend on the characteristically dissimilar behaviors of the inflammation associated with these diseases.

• #45 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/inflammatory-bowel-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353320

  The main risk factor for cancer would be colorectal or cancer of the large bowel. And that comes, we believe, from the chronic inflammation of the colon. That’s why it’s a good idea to maintain close contact with your treatment team. And that’s why we recommend routine colonoscopies, passing the scope up into the colon, looking for those early changes associated with cancer. […] The association of stress with Crohn’s disease is controversial, but many people who have the disease report symptom flares during high-stress periods.

• #46 Secondary causes of inflammatory bowel diseases

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/abstract/v26/i28/3998.htm

  Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), conventionally consist of Crohns disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis. They occur in individuals with high risk genotype for the disease in the setting of appropriate environmental factors. The pathogenesis of IBD involves a dysregulated autoimmune response to gut dysbiosis, which in turn is triggered due to exposure to various inciting environmental factors. But there is no clearly defined etiology of IBD and this type of disease is termed as idiopathic IBD, classic IBD, or primary IBD. […] We reviewed the current medical literature and found that certain etiological factors may be responsible for the development of IBD or IBD-like conditions, and we consider this form of de novo IBD as secondary IBD. Currently known factors that are potentially responsible for giving rise to secondary IBD are medications; bowel altering surgeries and transplantation of organs, stem cells or fecal microbiome. Medications associated with the development of secondary IBD include; immunomodulators, anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha agents, anti-interleukin agents, interferons, immune stimulating agents and checkpoint inhibitors. Colectomy can in some cases give rise to de novo CD, pouchitis of the ileal pouch, or postcolectomy enteritis syndrome. After solid organ transplantation or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, the recipient may develop de novo IBD or IBD flare. Fecal microbiota transplantation has been widely used to treat patients suffering from recurrent Clostridium difficile infection but can also causes IBD flares.

• #47 Secondary causes of inflammatory bowel diseases

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/abstract/v26/i28/3998.htm

  Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic illnesses of the gastrointestinal tract with no clearly defined etiology and are traditionally termed as primary IBD. It is generally believed that IBD results from abnormal immune response to dysbiosis of gut microbiota in a genetically susceptible individual. IBD or IBD-like conditions may also be caused by well-defined etiologies; such as medical, surgical, and organ transplantation. These conditions are coined as secondary IBD. In this review we attempted to highlight some etiological factors, pathogenetic pathways, and clinical features of secondary IBD.

• #48 Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3886036/

  The key factors responsible for IBD include genetic components, environmental elements, microbial flora and immune responses. […] It is hard to dispute the popular belief that IBD arises from an extremely complex interaction among genetic and environmental elements, dysregulated immune responses and alterations of the microbiome, and that none of these factors alone is likely to cause the disease.

• #49 Major cause of Inflammatory Bowel Disease discovered

  https://crohnsandcolitis.org.uk/news-stories/news-items/major-cause-of-inflammatory-bowel-disease-discovered

  Using genetics as a starting point, weve uncovered a pathway that appears to play a major role in IBD and other inflammatory diseases. Excitingly, weve shown that this can be targeted therapeutically, and were now working on how to ensure this approach is safe and effective for treating people in the future. […] The more we can understand about Inflammatory Bowel Disease, the more likely we are to be able to help patients live well with these conditions. This research is a really exciting step towards the possibility of a world free from Crohn’s and Colitis one day.

• #50 Major cause of inflammatory bowel disease discovered | Imperial News | Imperial College London

  https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/253914/major-cause-inflammatory-bowel-disease-discovered/

  UK researchers have discovered a new biological pathway which drives inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and could be targeted with existing drugs. […] Despite increasing prevalence, current treatments do not work for every patient and attempts to develop new drugs often fail due to our incomplete understanding of what causes IBD. […] A number of other genes previously linked to IBD were also part of the ETS2 pathway, providing further evidence that it is a major cause of IBD. […] Ruth Wakeman, Director of Services, Advocacy and Evidence at Crohn’s Colitis UK said: Every year, more than 25,000 people are told that they have Inflammatory Bowel Disease. […] This research is helping us to answer some of the big questions about what causes them.

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