Alkaptonuria
Epidemiologia

Alkaptonuria jest rzadką, autosomalnie recesywnie dziedziczoną chorobą metaboliczną tyrozyny, charakteryzującą się defektem enzymu homogentyzynianu 1,2-dioxygenazy (HGD), co prowadzi do akumulacji kwasu homogentyzynowego (HGA). Częstość występowania waha się od 1:100 000 do 1:1 000 000, z wyższą częstością w populacjach słowackiej i dominikańskiej (około 1:19 000). Diagnostyka opiera się na wykryciu podwyższonego stężenia HGA w moczu za pomocą chromatografii gazowej i spektrometrii masowej, a potwierdzenie genetyczne nie jest obligatoryjne. Średni wiek rozpoznania wynosi około 50 lat, co wskazuje na opóźnioną diagnozę, mimo obecności choroby od urodzenia. Monitorowanie pacjentów po 40. roku życia obejmuje badania echokardiograficzne, rentgenowskie kręgosłupa i klatki piersiowej oraz tomografię komputerową w celu wykrycia powikłań kardiologicznych, nerkowych i prostatycznych.

Epidemiologia Alkaptonurii

Alkaptonuria jest rzadką chorobą dziedziczoną autosomalnie recesywnie, związaną z zaburzeniem metabolizmu tyrozyny. Występuje na całym świecie, jednak jej częstość jest bardzo zróżnicowana w zależności od populacji 12. Ogólna światowa częstość występowania alkaptonurii szacowana jest na 1:100 000 do 1:250 000, z kolei w Stanach Zjednoczonych wynosi około 1:1 000 000 13. Według AKU Society i DevelopAKUre Consortium, w USA zidentyfikowano 92 pacjentów z alkaptonurią 4.

Występowanie geograficzne

Alkaptonuria charakteryzuje się znacznie wyższą częstością występowania w niektórych krajach. Dwa regiony świata wyróżniają się pod tym względem szczególnie:

  • Słowacja – częstość występowania szacowana na 1:19 000 mieszkańców 52
  • Dominikana – również częstość około 1:19 000 67

8

Co ciekawe, wysoka częstość występowania alkaptonurii w Słowacji nie wynika z pojedynczej mutacji, ale jest spowodowana grupą 12 mutacji w specyficznych „gorących miejscach” genu HGD. Słowackie skupisko prawdopodobnie powstało w małym obszarze w północno-zachodniej części kraju i rozprzestrzeniło się po 1950 roku z powodu migracji 7.

Zwiększona częstość występowania alkaptonurii została również odnotowana w:

  • Jordanii – gdzie niedawne badania wykazały wysoką częstość występowania, zidentyfikowano 64 przypadki w kraju liczącym tylko 5 milionów mieszkańców 9
  • Indiach – szczególnie w niektórych społecznościach romskich 10

Alkaptonuria pozostaje niezwykle rzadka w Azji Wschodniej, w tym na Tajwanie, gdzie zidentyfikowano jedynie pojedyncze przypadki 1112.

Różnice demograficzne

Alkaptonuria występuje u wszystkich ras, jednak obserwuje się nieco większą częstość w populacji afrykańskiej 14. Choroba dotyka zarówno mężczyzn, jak i kobiety w równym stopniu, ponieważ jest dziedziczona autosomalnie recesywnie, jednak nasilenie objawów jest zazwyczaj większe u mężczyzn 1314. Mężczyźni mają tendencję do wcześniejszego występowania objawów i cięższego przebiegu choroby 15.

Nadzór i diagnostyka Alkaptonurii

Nadzór nad alkaptonurią stanowi istotne wyzwanie dla systemów opieki zdrowotnej z powodu rzadkiego występowania choroby i braku powszechnej wiedzy na jej temat 16.

Wczesna diagnostyka

Wczesne rozpoznanie ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznego leczenia alkaptonurii 1. Mimo to, diagnoza często jest opóźniona:

  • Tylko około 25% pacjentów z alkaptonurią ma charakterystyczne ciemne zabarwienie moczu 5
  • Średni wiek rozpoznania wynosi około 50 lat, choć choroba jest obecna od urodzenia 17
  • Tylko niewielki odsetek pacjentów jest diagnozowany przy urodzeniu 17

Diagnostykę podejrzewa się na podstawie badania klinicznego i potwierdza oznaczeniem kwasu homogentyzynowego (HGA) w moczu przy użyciu chromatografii gazowej i spektrometrii masowej 2. Testy genetyczne ostatecznie potwierdzają rozpoznanie, choć nie są wymagane do postawienia diagnozy 18.

Badania przesiewowe i nadzór kliniczny

Badania przesiewowe i poradnictwo genetyczne powinny być stosowane w celu jak najwcześniejszego rozpoznania choroby w społeczności 1. Jednakże alkaptonuria nie jest obecnie uwzględniana w rutynowych badaniach przesiewowych noworodków 18.

Regularne monitorowanie pacjentów z alkaptonurią jest niezbędne, szczególnie po 40. roku życia, i powinno obejmować 19:

2021

Aktywny nadzór nad powikłaniami kardiologicznymi, nerkowymi i prostatycznymi powinien rozpocząć się po 40. roku życia 2223.

Badania kliniczne i nadzór naukowy

Obecnie prowadzone są badania kliniczne nad alkaptonurią, które koncentrują się głównie na leczeniu nitizynonem (NTBC) 18. Wśród najważniejszych projektów badawczych należy wymienić:

  • DevelopAKUre – europejski projekt zaprojektowany w celu oceny skuteczności nitizinonu 24
  • SOFIA (Subclinical Ochronosis Features In Alkaptonuria) – badanie przekrojowe mające na celu ocenę, czy alkaptonuria postępuje subklinicznie przed rozwojem jawnej ochronozy oraz określenie wieku, w którym powinno rozpocząć się leczenie 24
  • SONIA 2 – badanie kliniczne zakończone w styczniu 2019 roku, które wykazało znaczące zmniejszenie wydalania HGA z moczem po roku leczenia nitizynonem 2526

Mimo wyzwań związanych z prowadzeniem badań klinicznych w przypadku bardzo rzadkich chorób, w 2020 roku udało się uzyskać rozszerzenie wskazań dla nitizinonu na leczenie dorosłych z alkaptonurią 26.

Wyzwania w nadzorze nad alkaptonurią

Nadzór nad alkaptonurią napotyka na szereg wyzwań, które wpływają na skuteczność opieki nad pacjentami 16.

Problemy w dostępie do specjalistycznej opieki

Wielu pacjentów z rozpoznaną alkaptonurią ma trudności z dostępem do efektywnej i skutecznej opieki. Wynika to głównie z braku lokalnej wiedzy specjalistycznej przy tak rzadkiej chorobie, co może prowadzić do niewykrycia powikłań 16.

Nadal brakuje wyraźnie zdefiniowanego schematu terapeutycznego i skutecznego leczenia dla alkaptonurii 27. Jednym z wyzwań jest brak możliwości przewidzenia nasilenia choroby – różni pacjenci wydzielają różne ilości HGA, ale brakuje informacji o przyczynach tych różnic 18.

Aspekty psychospołeczne

Badanie przeprowadzone przez AKU Society wykazało, że pacjenci cierpią z powodu 24:

  • Stałego bólu
  • Trudności w codziennych czynnościach
  • Złej jakości snu
  • Depresji
  • Złej jakości życia
  • Bezrobocia i izolacji społecznej

Obecne leczenie koncentruje się głównie na opiece objawowej, co podkreśla znaczenie zarówno fizjologicznych, jak i psychologicznych aspektów zdrowia w poprawie jakości życia pacjentów z alkaptonurią 28.

Postępy w nadzorze i leczeniu

Udowodniona skuteczność nitizinonu w łagodzeniu lub odwracaniu powikłań związanych z alkaptonurią daje nadzieję na wczesną terapię zapobiegawczą 29. Rozpoczęcie leczenia we wczesnym stadium choroby, na przykład w trzeciej dekadzie życia lub nawet wcześniej, może zapobiec rozwojowi długoterminowych powikłań 30.

Nadal istnieją ważne pytania dotyczące 29:

  • Optymalnego wieku rozpoczęcia leczenia
  • Pożądanej dawki nitizinonu
  • Potrzeby stosowania specjalnej diety

Potrzebne są dalsze badania, aby określić, czy konieczne jest zmniejszenie stężenia HGA w moczu do poziomu występującego u osób zdrowych oraz jakie inne czynniki mogą wpływać na stopień pozostałych szkód spowodowanych przez podwyższone stężenia HGA 30.

Centra specjalistyczne i inicjatywy międzynarodowe

W odpowiedzi na wyzwania związane z opieką nad pacjentami z alkaptonurią, powstają specjalistyczne ośrodki i inicjatywy międzynarodowe 1816.

Centra doskonałości

Obecnie istnieje jedno centrum doskonałości dla alkaptonurii w Liverpoolu w Anglii 18. Brak jest jednak centrów doskonałości w Stanach Zjednoczonych (stan na 2019 rok).

Dzięki pracy organizacji pacjenckich, skutecznie koordynowanych przez AKU Society, odkryto wielu nowych pacjentów. Stworzono nową mapę przeglądową, która odnotowuje 1233 pacjentów z alkaptonurią na całym świecie 1615.

Badania medyczne i publikacje

Według analizy publikacji naukowych, istnieje co najmniej 251 czołowych ekspertów medycznych zajmujących się alkaptonurią w 41 krajach i 16 stanach USA, w tym 69 lekarzy 31. W bazie ClinicalTrials.gov zarejestrowano co najmniej 8 badań klinicznych, w tym 4 zakończone i 2 w trakcie rekrutacji.

Rzadkość choroby i brak poważnej chorobowości we wczesnych latach życia utrudniały postępy w wiedzy potrzebnej do opracowania skutecznych terapii. Choć w literaturze medycznej nadal pojawiają się opisy pojedynczych przypadków, wciąż brakuje dobrych badań opisujących znaczącą liczbę przypadków alkaptonurii 32.

Inicjatywy polityki zdrowotnej

Rządy i władze zdrowotne coraz częściej uznają wezwanie do działania w sprawie chorób rzadkich za priorytet zdrowia publicznego. Polityki mające na celu stymulowanie badań, finansowanie badań klinicznych i oferowanie zachęt do opracowywania leków stają się coraz bardziej popularne 10.

Szczególnie godna pochwały jest europejska strategia koncentrująca się na chorobach rzadkich, która daje nadzieję na finansowanie dla milionów cierpiących na rzadkie choroby 32.

Większe zrozumienie objawów i powikłań alkaptonurii pozwala lekarzom lepiej rozpoznawać chorobę u pacjentów, którzy w przeciwnym razie pozostaliby niezdiagnozowani 10.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Alkaptonuria – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK560571/
    Alkaptonuria is a rare disease with worldwide prevalence. The global prevalence of alkaptonuria is 1 per 100,000 to 250,000. The prevalence of the disease in the United States is 1 case in one million population. According to the AKU Society and the DevelopAKUre Consortium, the number of alkaptonuria patients in the U.S. is 92. It is mainly reported in the Dominican Republic and Slovakia. It appears in all races with slightly more occurrence in the African population. The disease affects both men and women equally, although the disease severity is more in men. […] Early diagnosis is the key to treat alkaptonuria successfully. […] Screening and genetic counseling should take place to diagnose the disease at the earliest in the community.
  • #2 Orphanet: Alkaptonuria
    https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/56
    Birth prevalence is estimated at around 1/250,000 to 1/1,000,000 in most ethnic groups. The condition is more common in Slovakia and the Dominican republic where it affects up to 1 in 19,000 newborns. […] Diagnosis is suspected upon clinical examination and is based on the amount of HGA found in the urine using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. […] Genetic testing confirms the diagnosis.
  • #3 Alkaptonuria | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/17363
    Alkaptonuria is a rare disease with worldwide prevalence. The global prevalence of alkaptonuria is 1 per 100,000 to 250,000. The prevalence of the disease in the United States is 1 case in one million population. According to the AKU Society and the DevelopAKUre Consortium, the number of alkaptonuria patients in the U.S. is 92. It is mainly reported in the Dominican Republic and Slovakia. It appears in all races with slightly more occurrence in the African population. The disease affects both men and women equally, although the disease severity is more in men.
  • #4 Alkaptonuria – MD Searchlight
    https://mdsearchlight.com/genetic-disorders/alkaptonuria/
    Alkaptonuria is a rare disease that affects people all over the world. It’s seen in about 1 out of every 100,000 to 250,000 people globally. In the United States, it’s even rarer, affecting roughly 1 in a million people. According to certain organizations, there are 92 known cases in the U.S. […] Alkaptonuria is a rare, global disease. […] The disease is most commonly reported in the Dominican Republic and Slovakia. […] Alkaptonuria affects all races but is slightly more common in people of African descent. […] Men and women are affected equally, but the disease is generally more severe in men.
  • #5 Ochronosis and Alkaptonuria: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1104184-overview
    Alkaptonuria is a rare autosomal recessive disease with a prevalence of 1 case per 1 million population. Alkaptonuria occurs worldwide, with the highest frequency seen in Slovakia and Dominican Republic, in which the prevalence approaches 1 case per 19,000 inhabitants. […] While alkaptonuria is seen in persons of all races, exogenous ochronosis is more typically seen in African and Afro-Caribbean populations because of the use of skin-bleaching products containing hydroquinone in attempts to lighten the appearance of the skin. […] The incidence of alkaptonuria is equal in males and females. Alkaptonuria is present at birth and is often diagnosed by discoloration of the diapers. Up to 25% of patients with alkaptonuria do not have the characteristic dark urine staining, and many patients remain undiagnosed until adulthood.
  • #6 Alkaptonuria: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock
    https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/alkaptonuria/
    Alkaptonuria is rare, affecting 1 in 250,000 to 1 million people in the United States. Alkaptonuria is more common in certain areas of Slovakia (where it has an incidence of about 1 in 19,000 people) and in the Dominican Republic. […] With appropriate medical management, people with alkaptonuria generally have a normal life expectancy.
  • #7 Alkaptonuria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaptonuria
    In most ethnic groups, the prevalence of alkaptonuria is between 1:100,000 and 1:250,000. […] In Slovakia and the Dominican Republic, the disease is much more common, with prevalence estimated at 1:19,000 people. […] As for Slovakia, this is not the result of a single mutation, but due to a group of 12 mutations in specific „hot spots” of the HGD gene. […] The Slovakian clustering probably arose in a small area in the northwest of the country and spread after the 1950s due to migration.
  • #8 Alkaptonuria
    https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Alkaptonuria.html
    Alkaptonuria is more common in Slovakia and the Dominican Republic than in other countries. […] In Slovakia the disease occurs in 1:19,000 people. In other ethnic groups, the normal prevalence is between 1:100,000 and 1:250,000.
  • #9 A Previously Undiagnosed Case of Alkaptonuria: A Case Report | Volume 28 – Issue 2 – June 2013 | Archives of Rheumatology
    https://www.archivesofrheumatology.org/full-text/515
    Alkaptonuria is a rare metabolic disorder in the phenylalanine and tyrosine catabolic pathway which is characterized by the excessive excretion of homogentisic acid in the urine, ochronosis, and debilitating arthritis of the spine and large joints. […] Although it is a very rare disease in most ethnic groups, it is more common in some countries, such Slovakia and the Dominican Republic. […] The prevalence of AKU is unknown in the Jordanian population. However, recent published studies have reported a high incidence rate in this country. For example, 40 cases with AKU have been reported in the southern region of Jordan, with most of these being undiagnosed or misdiagnosed cases found in specific families. Of these cases, nine were identified in just one family. […] In Jordan, the preliminary results of targeted family screening have identified 64 cases. This large number of AKU patients in a small country with a population of only five million is due to the large number of consanguineous marriages. […] Although AKU is a rare genetic disorder that is found all over the world (1 in 250,000), high incidence rates have been reported in countries such as Slovakia (1 in 19,000) and the Dominican Republic, and so far, 626 patients with AKU have been identified in 40 different countries.
  • #10 Alkaptonuria Therapeutics Market | Growth & Trends 2035
    https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/alkaptonuria-therapeutics-market.html
    With greater understanding of the symptoms and complications of alkaptonuria, doctors can better identify the disease in patients who might otherwise remain undiagnosed. […] As per a recent study published in PubMed Central, the global prevalence of alkaptonuria is estimated to be 1 in 250,000. However, certain exceptions to these include the population of Dominican Republic and Slovakia, where the prevalence of the disease is 1 in 19,000. Studies have also demonstrated high incidence of alkaptonuria in some villages of Jordan and a gypsy community in India. […] Governments and health authorities are increasingly recognizing the call to action for rare diseases as a public health priority. Policies to spur research, fund clinical trials, and offer incentives for drug development are becoming more popular. These policies add to an environment that favors the discovery of new therapies for alkaptonuria and other rare diseases.
  • #11 A novel deep intronic variant strongly associates with Alkaptonuria | npj Genomic Medicine
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41525-021-00252-2
    Alkaptonuria is a rare autosomal recessive inherited disorder of tyrosine metabolism, which causes ochronosis, arthropathy, cardiac valvular calcification, and urolithiasis. The epidemiology of alkaptonuria in East Asia is not clear. […] Alkaptonuria is rare in Taiwan and East Asia, with HGD variants being mostly novel and private. […] The worldwide prevalence of alkaptonuria is estimated to be 1:100,000 to 1:1,000,000, but the disease is more prevalent in Slovakia, Jordan, the Dominican Republic, and India. […] We only identified three cases in our institute, and there is no previous report of AKU in Taiwan. Although we were not able to calculate the prevalence of AKU in Taiwan, the disease must be very rare, as in all of East Asia. […] More efforts involving molecular analysis are expected to contribute to the diagnosis of new cases in this region.
  • #12 A novel deep intronic variant strongly associates with Alkaptonuria.
    https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/items/206aea3d-e8ff-4183-b4cf-e30fe2307a5e
    Alkaptonuria is a rare autosomal recessive inherited disorder of tyrosine metabolism, which causes ochronosis, arthropathy, cardiac valvular calcification, and urolithiasis. The epidemiology of alkaptonuria in East Asia is not clear. […] Alkaptonuria is rare in Taiwan and East Asia, with HGD variants being mostly novel and private.
  • #13 Alkaptonuria (Black Urine Disease): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/941530-overview
    Alkaptonuria is an autosomal recessive genetic trait, although an autosomal dominant transmission pattern in 3 generations in a nonconsanguineous family has been reported. The true frequency of alkaptonuria cannot be given with certainty for numerous reasons. These include the fact that newborn screening for alkaptonuria is much less widely practiced than that for phenylketonuria. […] In certain areas, an incidence rate as high as 1 in every 25,000 live births has been reported; worldwide it is certainly far lower. […] Life expectancy is normal; however, associated morbidity can be significant. Early involvement of the intervertebral discs at the thoracic and lumbar levels is very common, occurring in approximately 50% of affected individuals. […] The distribution of this disease is equal in males and females because it is an autosomal recessive or autosomal dominant trait. […] Because alkaptonuria is a genetic disorder, the deficiency of the HGO enzyme is present from conception. Clinical symptoms, aside from dark-stained diapers, are generally present only after the third decade of life.
  • #14 Alkaptonuria | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/alkaptonuria.htm
    It occurs in 1:100,000 to 1:250,000 live births in most European countries. There is an exceptionally high incidence in Slovakia at 1:19,000 but only about 10 of the chromosomal variations are present. This suggests inbreeding in a restricted gene pool. There is no difference in incidence between the sexes except that males tend to present sooner with more severe disease.
  • #15
    https://journals.lww.com/cddr/fulltext/2021/05020/alkaptonuria__a_hereditary_disease_which_is.14.aspx
    Alkaptonuria (AKU) is a rare autosomal-recessive disorder of phenylalanine/tyrosine metabolism. […] The worldwide incidence of AKU is 1:250000 with a preponderance in Czechoslovakia and Germany. […] There is no sex predilection, but the disease tends to be severe and earlier in onset in males. […] A new overview map has recently been created that reports 1233 AKU patients worldwide.
  • #16 Alkaptonuria: Current Perspectives | TACG
    https://www.dovepress.com/alkaptonuria-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TACG
    Alkaptonuria (AKU; OMIM 203500) is a classic example of a rare monogenic autosomal-recessive disease, characterized by high circulating homogentisic acid (HGA). AKU is very rare in most ethnic groups (one in 250,000-1,000,000), but in some countries, such as Slovakia and recently Jordan and India, it exhibits increased prevalence. Thanks to the work of patient organizations, effectively coordinated by the AKU Society, many new patients have been discovered. A new overview map has recently been created that reports 1,233 AKU patients worldwide. […] Many people diagnosed with AKU have difficulty accessing efficient and effective care. This is mainly due to a lack of local expertise and knowledge when dealing with such a rare disease, and might result in a failure to detect complications of AKU.
  • #17 PARE0010 Alkaptonuria: An Old Disorder with a Late Diagnosis | Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases
    https://ard.bmj.com/content/74/Suppl_2/1361.2
    Alkaptonuria (AKU) is a very rare disease, since its prevalence is 1-9/1 000 000 (Orphanet) and, at the moment, without a definite cure. […] The mean age of the patient was 50.117.3. Only 5 of them were diagnosed at the birth, the majority of the others (15) received the diagnosis between 40 and 58 years. […] Although the age of the diagnosis is decreased in the new century, too many people suffer without knowing to be affected by AKU.
  • #18 Alkaptonuria – ThinkGenetic Foundation
    https://thinkgenetic.org/diseases/alkaptonuria/
    In the United States, 1 in 250,000- 1 in 500,000 individuals have Alkaptonuria. […] Alkaptonuria is not included in newborn screening as of June, 2016. Parents who are known carriers of the condition can request testing from their doctor for a new baby. Genetic testing is available for Alkaptonuria, but it is not required for the diagnosis. […] There is clinical research currently being conducted for Alkaptonuria as of May 2019. Most of the current research is focused on treating Alkaptonuria with a drug called NTBC. […] Currently, there is no way to predict the severity of the disorder. Different individuals secrete different amounts of HGA, but there is no information on the reason for this. […] There are no centers of excellence for Alkaptonuria in the United States that we are aware of as of May 2019. There is currently one center of excellence for Alkaptonuria in Liverpool, England.
  • #19 Merged Actionability Release – Clinical Genome Resources
    https://actionability.clinicalgenome.org/ac/Adult/ui/stg2SummaryRpt?doc=AC156
    Prevalence of the Genetic Condition The incidence of alkaptonuria (AKU) in the US is estimated at 1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000 live births. Worldwide estimates are similar, around 1:111,000 to 1:1,000,000. AKU occurs with high prevalence in the Dominican Republic and northwestern Slovakia, likely as the result of a founder effect. The prevalence of AKU in Slovakia is estimated as 1:19,000. […] Surveillance Surveillance for cardiac complications every one to two years is advisable after age 40 years and should include: Echocardiography to detect aortic dilation and aortic or mitral valve calcification and stenosis. […] No evidence for the effectiveness of cardiac surveillance was available for AKU. However, recommendations for management of valvular heart disease (VHD) from unspecified etiology indicate that echocardiography is key to confirm the diagnosis of VHD and assess its severity and prognosis.
  • #20 Alkaptonuria: Causes, Symptoms and Diagnosis
    https://www.healthline.com/health/alkaptonuria
    Alkaptonuria is a rare disease. According to the National Institutes of Health, the condition affects about 1 in 250,000 to 1 million people worldwide, but is more common in Slovakia and the Dominican Republic, affecting about 1 in 19,000 people. […] Family history is very useful in making a diagnosis of alkaptonuria. However, many people dont know they carry the gene. Your parents might be carriers without realizing it. […] Some of these complications can be delayed with regular checkups. Your doctor will want to monitor you regularly. Tests to monitor the progress of your condition might include: spinal X-rays to check for disk degeneration and calcification in your lumbar spine, chest X-rays to monitor your aortic and mitral heart valves, CT (computed tomography) scans to find signs of coronary artery disease.
  • #21 Ocular Manifestations of Alkaptonuria – EyeWiki
    https://eyewiki.org/Ocular_Manifestations_of_Alkaptonuria
    Alkaptonuria (AKU) is a rare autosomal recessive aminoacidopathy that results from the absence of the homogentisate 1,2 dioxygenase enzyme (homogentistic acid oxidase). […] At least 1000 affected individuals have been described in the literature; this is likely an underestimate. The worldwide incidence of AKU is estimated to be between 1 in 250,000 to 1 million people. […] However, it is known that Slovakia and the Dominican Republic are the two countries with the highest reported incidence of alkaptonuria, estimated to be 1 in 19,000 people. […] Surveillance after the fourth decade of life for treatable complications is of vital importance in these patients, such as signs of heart disease, kidney stones, renal insufficiency and prostatolithiasis.
  • #22
    https://journals.lww.com/ijd/fulltext/2011/56020/alkaptonuria.11.aspx
    Alkaptonuria is a rare inherited disorder that occurs due to deficiency of homogentisic acid oxidase, resulting in the triad of dark-colored urine, ochronosis, and ochronotic arthropathy. The incidence of alkaptonuria is 1 in 250000 to 1 in 1000000 live births. […] Only a few cases have been reported from India. […] Active surveillance for cardiac, renal, and prostate complications should be done after the 4th decade.
  • #23 Nephrotic syndrome in a child with alkaptonuria | Pediatric Oncall Journal
    https://www.pediatriconcall.com/pediatric-journal/view-article/1458
    Alkaptonuria is a rare inherited condition of tyrosine metabolism. […] Alkaptonuria is a rare inherited disorder of tyrosine metabolism. […] There is no definitive treatment for alkaptonuria. Surveillance for complications should begin by 4th decade.
  • #24 Clinical Development of Nitisinone for Alkaptonuria | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission
    https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304985/reporting
    AKU is a serious, multisystem disorder of peak adulthood affecting approximately one in every 250,000 people, although some countries such as Slovakia have a higher prevalence rate of around one in 19,000. […] A recent survey by the AKU Society indicated that patients suffered constant pain, difficulty with activities of daily living, poor sleep, depression, poor quality of life, unemployment and isolation. […] Systematic surveillance for treatable complications of the heart, kidney and prostate after the fourth decade of life is important, but not widely adopted by physicians due to lack of knowledge. […] The DevelopAKUre project was designed with the following aims: […] A cross-sectional study (SOFIA: Subclinical Ochronosis Features In Alkaptonuria) to evaluate whether AKU progresses subclinically prior to the development of overt ochronosis. This study aimed to determine at what age treatment should begin.
  • #25 Clinical Development of Nitisinone for Alkaptonuria | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission
    https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304985/reporting
    The goal of the SOFIA study was to determine if the AKU progresses sub-clinically by conducting a cross-sectional study in paediatric and young adult AKU patients without external ochronosis and adults with external ochronosis. […] The SONIA 2 study only completed its clinical phase in January 2019, several days before the official end date of the project. […] Significant reduction of urinary HGA was maintained after one year of treatment with nitisinone.
  • #26 Clinical development innovation in rare diseases: overcoming barriers to successful delivery of a randomised clinical trial in alkaptonuria—a mini-review | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-022-02606-0
    The SONIA 2 study end in February 2019, data analysis was completed and the main publication setting out the results of the study was published in 2020, while at the same time a compilation of documents were sent to the European Medicines Agency for label extension of NIT to cover its use in adults with AKU, also achieved in 2020. […] Carrying out a successful clinical trial in very rare diseases is challenging.
  • #27 Demographic, Phenotypic and Genotypic Features of Alkaptonuria Patients: A Single Centre Experience – The Journal of Pediatric Research
    https://jpedres.org/articles/demographic-phenotypic-and-genotypic-features-of-alkaptonuria-patients-a-single-centre-experience/doi/jpr.20982
    Alkaptonuria (AKU) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder with a prevalence of lower than 1:250.000. […] The mean age of diagnosis of our patients was 9.313.4 years. The ratio of consanguinity between parents was 83.3%. […] AKU generally affects large joints such as the shoulder, hip and knee and arthritis develops in later stages. […] To date, 950 AKU patients have been reported in 61 countries worldwide (AKU Society, www.akusociety.org). The highest number of AKU patients was reported in Slovakia. […] In our study, 8 different AKU mutations with two new mutations were identified. […] There is no definite therapeutic protocol or no effective treatment for this disease.
  • #28 Alkaptonuria, more than just a mere disease – Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice
    https://ruralneuropractice.com/alkaptonuria-more-than-just-a-mere-disease/
    Alkaptonuria (AKU) is often considered an autosomal recessive condition with an estimated frequency ranging from 1:250,000 live births in the USA to 1:19,000 in Slovakia. […] Current treatment focus is on symptomatic care and may include administering analgesics, ascorbic acid, diet restrictions or surveillance. […] This case highlights the importance of psychological factors in AKU patients. […] Quality of life of AKU patients can best be improved by managing both physiological and psychological health. […] Currently, no effective treatment for AKU is known and focus is on symptomatic care. […] Rarity of a progressive disease with no cure, like AKU, calls for a better understanding of diagnosing the disease. […] We recommend more studies to evaluate its value. […] Early diagnosis, understanding of disease prognosis and emphasis on mental health could improve the quality of life of patients affected by this rare disease.
  • #29 Preventive use of nitisinone in alkaptonuria | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01977-0
    Alkaptonuria (AKU, OMIM 203500) is a rare congenital disorder caused by a deficiency of the enzyme homogentisate-1,2,-dioxygenase. The long-term consequences of AKU are joint problems, cardiac valve abnormalities and renal problems. […] The preventive effect of dietary protein restriction to influence the course of the disease has been limited. […] Most of the complications of AKU for joints and heart valves will be developing after the age of 30-40 years, although several patients have been reported with signs of AKU, like ochronosis of eyes and ears, already in the second decade of life. […] The proven efficacy of nitisinone to mitigate or reverse the complications associated with AKU holds promise for early preventive therapy with this medication. […] Important questions such as the optimal age at start of treatment, the desired dose of nitisinone and the need of a diet need to be addressed in our conversations with patients.
  • #30 Preventive use of nitisinone in alkaptonuria | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01977-0
    When started early in the course of the disease, for instance in the third decade or even earlier, treatment with nitisinone perhaps at even lower doses than used in the intervention studies may be able to prevent the development of the long-term consequences as a result of its HGA-reducing properties. […] Future studies are needed to address whether it is mandatory to reduce urinary HGA concentrations to those in normal individuals, and which other factors may determine the degree of residual harm caused by slightly elevated HGA concentrations. […] Thus, treatment with low dose nitisinone may be a game changer in the prevention of AKU-related complications, and allow an individual approach in young AKU patients.
  • #31 Top Published Expert Doctors for Alkaptonuria
    https://findexpertmd.com/d/Alkaptonuria
    251 top medical experts on Alkaptonuria across 41 countries and 16 U.S. states, including 69 MDs (Physicians). This is based on an objective analysis of their Scientific Publications, Clinical Trials, Medicare, and NIH Grants. […] Clinical Trials ClinicalTrials.gov: at least 8 including 4 Completed, 2 Recruiting.
  • #32 Clinical development innovation in rare diseases: overcoming barriers to successful delivery of a randomised clinical trial in alkaptonuria—a mini-review | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-022-02606-0
    Alkaptonuria is a rare inherited disorder for which there was no disease-modifying treatment. […] Alkaptonuria (AKU) (OMIM#203500) is a serious, rare autosomal recessive disorder due to deficiency of homogentisate dioxygenase with resultant accumulation of homogentisic acid (HGA), occurring with a worldwide frequency of 1 in 250,000. […] The rarity and the lack of serious morbidity in early years has hindered the advances in knowledge needed to develop effective therapies; while case reports of single or few cases continue to appear in the medical literature, good studies describing significant numbers of AKU cases remain scant. […] A natural history study re-emphasises the delayed slow inexorable progression of AKU so that the outcomes study was longer. […] Obtaining funding to study and develop effective treatments for rare disease is challenging with over 7000 competing rare disease; we laud European strategy on rare disease focus which offers funding hope for millions of rare disease sufferers.