Choroba creutzfeldta-jakoba
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba (CJD) to prionowa encefalopatia gąbczasta charakteryzująca się konformacyjną zmianą prawidłowego białka prionowego (PrP, 35 kD) w patologiczną formę PrP^Sc, bogatą w β-kartki, odporną na proteazy i tworzącą nierozpuszczalne agregaty amyloidowe w tkance mózgowej. Proces ten prowadzi do neurodegeneracji, utraty neuronów, astrogliozy i wakuolizacji istoty szarej bez istotnej odpowiedzi zapalnej. CJD występuje w formach sporadycznej (85% przypadków), rodzinnej (mutacje w genie PRNP), jatrogennej oraz wariantowej (vCJD, związanej z zakażeniem BSE). Patogeneza obejmuje samopropagację prionów przez nukleację zarodkową, a także udział komórek glejowych – mikrogleju i astrocytów – które, mimo prób fagocytozy PrP, mogą nasilać neurotoksyczność poprzez przewlekły stan zapalny i polaryzację do fenotypu A1. Genetyczny polimorfizm kodonu 129 genu PRNP (M/V) istotnie wpływa na podatność i fenotyp choroby, a różne szczepy prionów determinują heterogenność kliniczną i neuropatologiczną.

Patofizjologia choroby Creutzfeldta-Jakoba

Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba (CJD) to rzadka, śmiertelna choroba neurodegeneracyjna wywoływana przez priony, które są nieprawidłowo sfałdowanymi białkami. CJD należy do grupy chorób zwanych pasażowalnymi encefalopatiami gąbczastymi, które charakteryzują się postępującym uszkodzeniem mózgu i nieuchronnie prowadzą do śmierci po wystąpieniu objawów klinicznych123.

Przekształcenie białka prionowego

Centralnym mechanizmem patogenezy CJD jest przekształcenie prawidłowego komórkowego białka prionowego (PrPC) w nieprawidłową, chorobotwórczą formę zwaną PrPSc (od angielskiego „scrapie” – trzęsawka owiec). To przekształcenie obejmuje zmianę konformacji z dominującej struktury α-helikalnej do struktury bogatej w β-kartki12. Zmiana strukturalna sprawia, że nieprawidłowe białko staje się odporne na działanie proteaz i nierozpuszczalne, co prowadzi do jego agregacji34.

Prawidłowe białko prionowe (PrPC) jest 35kD błonową glikoproteiną, rozpuszczalną w wodzie i wrażliwą na proteazy. Natomiast nieprawidłowa forma PrPSc jest odporna na działanie proteaz i tworzy nierozpuszczalne złogi amyloidu w tkance mózgowej5. Ta zmiana konformacji prowadzi do degeneracji i utraty neuronów poprzez mechanizm, który nie został jeszcze w pełni poznany6.

Mechanizm propagacji prionów

Unikalną cechą chorób prionowych jest ich zdolność do samopropagacji i przenoszenia. Po utworzeniu PrPSc (endogennie lub wprowadzeniu z zewnątrz), patologiczne białko działa jako matryca, przekształcając prawidłowe białka prionowe w nieprawidłowe12. Ten proces rozpoczyna się od utworzenia małego polimeru nieprawidłowo sfałdowanych prionów (zarodka), który następnie przekształca sąsiednie prawidłowe priony w nieprawidłowe3.

Proces propagacji odbywa się przez mechanizm nukleacji zarodkowej, w którym oligomery PrPSc przekształcają monomery PrPC i włączają je do protofibryli i fibryli4. Liczba nieprawidłowo sfałdowanych cząsteczek białka wzrasta wykładniczo, co prowadzi do gromadzenia się dużej ilości nierozpuszczalnych prionów w komórkach nerwowych5. Ta masa nieprawidłowo sfałdowanych białek zakłóca funkcjonowanie komórek i prowadzi do ich śmierci6.

Różne formy choroby Creutzfeldta-Jakoba

Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba występuje w kilku formach, z których każda ma nieco odmienny mechanizm patogenezy1:

  • Sporadyczna CJD (sCJD) – stanowi około 85% wszystkich przypadków. W tej formie PrPSc powstaje spontanicznie z prawidłowego białka prionowego z nieznanych przyczyn12.
  • Rodzinna/genetyczna CJD (fCJD) – spowodowana jest mutacją w genie PRNP, który koduje białko prionowe. Te mutacje powodują, że białko prionowe ma większą tendencję do nieprawidłowego fałdowania się32.
  • Jatrogenna CJD (iCJD) – powstaje w wyniku przypadkowego zakażenia materiałem zawierającym priony podczas procedur medycznych, takich jak przeszczepy tkanek, zabiegi neurochirurgiczne czy podawanie hormonów wzrostu uzyskanych z przysadek osób zmarłych na CJD12.
  • Wariant CJD (vCJD) – związany z spożyciem mięsa zakażonego gąbczastą encefalopatią bydła (BSE, „choroba szalonych krów”)34.

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Mechanizmy neurodegeneracji w chorobie Creutzfeldta-Jakoba

Zmiany neuropatologiczne

Charakterystycznymi zmianami neuropatologicznymi w CJD są12:

  • Zmiany gąbczaste (wakuolizacja) w istocie szarej mózgu
  • Utrata neuronów
  • Astroglioza (rozrost komórek glejowych)
  • Brak odpowiedzi zapalnej
  • Obecność złogów nieprawidłowego białka prionowego opornego na proteazy

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Te zmiany powodują postępującą degenerację tkanki mózgowej, prowadząc do szybko postępującej demencji i innych objawów neurologicznych1. PrPSc gromadzi się głównie w neuronach, ale może być również obecne w innych komórkach układu nerwowego2.

Rola komórek glejowych w patogenezie

W patogenezie CJD ważną rolę odgrywają nie tylko neurony, ale również komórki glejowe1:

  • Mikroglej – próbuje usunąć PrPSc, ale jednocześnie uwalnia cytokiny prozapalne, które mogą prowadzić do apoptozy neuronów23.
  • Astrocyty – również ulegają aktywacji i polaryzują się do neurotoksycznego fenotypu A1, przyczyniając się dodatkowo do uszkodzenia neuronów4.

Aktywacja komórek glejowych może stanowić początkowy mechanizm obronny przeciwko gromadzeniu się PrPSc, biorąc pod uwagę, że mikroglej naturalnie fagocytuje nieprawidłowe białka w mózgu. Jednak ich niezdolność do skutecznego usunięcia PrPSc może wywołać przewlekły stan zapalny w mózgu, przyczyniając się do uszkodzenia neuronów5.

Wpływ układu immunologicznego

Układ odpornościowy odgrywa złożoną rolę w patogenezie chorób prionowych1:

  • Po infekcji, kierowanie prionów do tkanek limfoidalnych jest niezbędne do propagacji choroby do ośrodkowego układu nerwowego2.
  • W mózgu, aktywacja mikrogleju i wynikająca z tego produkcja cytokin nie tylko nasila neuroinflammację i uszkodzenie mózgu, ale może również łagodzić początek chorób prionowych przez fagocytozę i degradację cząstek PrPSc3.
  • Funkcjonalny układ odpornościowy jest wymagany do replikacji prionów i transportu poza OUN4.

Występują różne profile cytokin związane z różnymi szczepami prionów. Zarówno czasowe, jak i przestrzenne wzorce uwalniania cytokin są ściśle powiązane z fazami choroby. Niektóre cytokiny prozapalne, takie jak TNF-α, i ich receptory, jak IL-1R1, zostały wskazane jako potencjalnie przyspieszające progresję chorób prionowych5.

Mechanizmy rozprzestrzeniania się prionów w organizmie

Drogi inwazji układu nerwowego

W przypadku nabytych form CJD, takich jak wariant CJD (vCJD), priony muszą najpierw dostać się do organizmu, a następnie do ośrodkowego układu nerwowego1. W vCJD, który najczęściej jest związany z spożyciem zakażonego mięsa, priony prawdopodobnie przekraczają błonę śluzową poprzez transmembranowe tunelowanie komórek nabłonkowych (komórki M) i wchodzą w kontakt z układem limfoidalnym związanym z błoną śluzową, w tym z kępkami Peyera, gdzie dochodzi do pierwszej akumulacji2.

Następnie priony mogą rozprzestrzeniać się do innych części układu limforetikularnego (LRS), gdzie gromadzą się głównie w komórkach dendrytycznych pęcherzyków chłonnych i zakończeniach nerwów współczulnych w LRS3. Stąd priony docierają do OUN przez nerwy trzewne na poziomie piersiowego odcinka rdzenia kręgowego i przez włókna przywspółczulne łączące się z mózgiem4.

Oprócz drogi krwiopochodnej, priony mogą dotrzeć do mózgu przez nerw błędny (przywspółczulny)5. W wariancie CJD wykazano, że priony mogą również rozprzestrzeniać się przez układ autonomiczny, w tym zwoje współczulne6.

Dystrybucja prionów w tkankach

Podczas gdy w klasycznych formach CJD zakaźne priony są głównie obecne w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym, w wariancie CJD priony można znaleźć również w tkankach obwodowych1. W vCJD zakaźność i akumulacja PrPSc są łatwo wykrywalne poza OUN, prawdopodobnie odzwierciedlając obwodową patogenezę tego zaburzenia po doustnej infekcji BSE2.

Badania wykazały obecność prionów vCJD w różnych tkankach obwodowych, takich jak szpik kostny, nerki, gruczoły ślinowe, mięśnie szkieletowe, trzustka, wątroba i serce3. Ta obwodowa akumulacja zakaźności doprowadziła również do pozornie jatrogennego przeniesienia wariantu CJD przy dwóch okazjach, po transfuzji nieleukodeplecjonowanych krwinek czerwonych od dawców, którzy później zmarli z powodu wariantu CJD4.

W sporadycznej CJD wykazano, że PrPSc jest obecne w rzęskach węchowych i centralnej drodze węchowej, ale nie w błonie śluzowej dróg oddechowych5. Wykazano również rozprzestrzenianie się PrPSc z mózgu przez nerw wzrokowy w zarówno sporadycznej, jak i wariantowej CJD6.

Czynniki wpływające na patogenezę

Czynniki genetyczne

Genetyczne determinanty odgrywają kluczową rolę w podatności na CJD i jej patogenezie1. Gen PRNP, kodujący białko prionowe, jest głównym genetycznym determinantem podatności, chociaż kilka badań sugeruje, że również inne geny są ważne2.

Szczególnie ważny jest polimorfizm kodonu 129 genu PRNP, gdzie może występować albo metionina (M), albo walina (V). Ta wariacja ma znaczący wpływ na podatność na CJD i fenotyp choroby34. W przypadku wariantu CJD, prawie wszyscy dotknięci pacjenci byli homozygotami dla metioniny w kodonie 129, co sugeruje, że ta konfiguracja genetyczna zwiększa podatność na tę formę choroby5.

Ponadto, genetyczne formy CJD są związane z określonymi mutacjami w genie PRNP. Na przykład, mutacja V180I prowadzi do formy CJD, która rozwija się w późniejszym wieku, postępuje wolniej i ma mniejsze prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju mioklonii, objawów móżdżkowych, piramidowych i zaburzeń widzenia w porównaniu z klasyczną sporadyczną CJD6.

Heterogenność fenotypowa

Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba charakteryzuje się znaczną heterogennością fenotypową, która jest kontrolowana przez dwa główne determinanty: genotyp kodonu 129 (M/V) genu PRNP oraz typ (1 lub 2) patogennej formy białka prionowego (PrPD)1.

Badania wykazały, że względne proporcje resPrPD-129M i resPrPD-129V mogą determinować heterogenność fenotypową w podtypie sCJDMV22. Na przykład, czysty fenotyp MV2C charakteryzuje się dużą przewagą resPrPD-129M, podczas gdy w czystym fenotypie MV2K dominującą formą resPrPD jest ta zawierająca walinę w pozycji 1293.

Ponadto, w mieszanych wariantach MV2K-C, proporcje allotypowe resPrPD 129 wydają się korelować z reprezentacjami dwóch histotypów4. W podtypie sCJDMV1, który dzieli histotyp z podtypem homozygotycznym MM1, resPrPD-129M i -129V były reprezentowane w w przybliżeniu równych proporcjach5.

Wpływ różnych szczepów prionów

Różne szczepy prionów mogą prowadzić do różnych fenotypów choroby, co prawdopodobnie wynika z różnic w konformacji PrPSc1. Szczepy prionowe różnią się wskaźnikiem glikozylacji, dystrybucją anatomiczną zmian, okresem inkubacji i objawami klinicznymi2.

Wariant CJD jest związany z wzorami glikozylacji PrPSc, które są odmienne od tych obserwowanych w klasycznym CJD3. Badania eksperymentalne wykazały, że wynik międzygatunkowego przenoszenia prionów nie może być przewidziany przez stopień homologii sekwencji PrP między dwoma gatunkami, ale zależy głównie od szczepu prionowego4.

Wzór glikozylacji PrPSc u nornic zakażonych szczepem ME7 różnił się od tego uzyskanego u nornic zakażonych wszystkimi ludzkimi przypadkami, charakteryzując się najwyższą proporcją di-glikozylowanego PrPSc5. Względne ilości trzech głównych prążków obserwowanych na immunoblotcie dalej charakteryzują fragmenty PrPSc specyficzne dla podtypu6.

Implikacje kliniczne i terapeutyczne

Wyzwania diagnostyczne

Diagnostyka CJD stanowi znaczące wyzwanie, ponieważ złotym standardem dla definitywnej diagnozy jest potwierdzenie histopatologiczne1. Jednakże, nowsze testy zapewniają środki do przyżyciowego rozpoznania w sposób mniej inwazyjny niż biopsja mózgu2.

Zmiany w strukturze białka są badane za pomocą immunotestu zależnego od konformacji (CDI). Ten test identyfikuje PrPSc poprzez odsłonięcie specyficznych epitopów białka, które są demaskowane przy postępującej denaturacji, a przeciwciała specyficzne dla tych obszarów wiążą się i wywołują wynik pozytywny. Jest on 100% swoisty dla choroby, a najnowsze dane pokazują czułość, która jest co najmniej równa innym testom diagnostycznym3.

Diagnostyka obrazowa, szczególnie obrazowanie dyfuzyjne (DWI), oferuje ekscytujący nowy i użyteczny sposób śledzenia przebiegu klinicznego i zaczyna pomagać w zrozumieniu patogenezy tej choroby4. Nieprawidłowości mogą być czasami wykrywane na sekwencjach FLAIR, ale są najbardziej widoczne na sekwencjach DWI, dotykając albo prążkowia, kory nowej, albo kombinacji obu5.

Brak skutecznych terapii

Obecnie nie ma leku na CJD, a postępu choroby nie można spowolnić1. Choroba jest śmiertelna, zwykle w ciągu miesięcy lub kilku lat2. Niektóre leki mogą być podawane w celu złagodzenia objawów, ale nie zatrzymują postępu choroby3.

Ponieważ nie ma skutecznego leczenia choroby Creutzfeldta-Jakoba, zapobieganie jej rozprzestrzenianiu się jest niezbędne. Tylko nabyta CJD może być zapobiegana4. Rutynowe procedury czyszczenia i sterylizacji nie niszczą prionów. Jednakże, wybielacz i inne techniki czyszczenia, które specyficznie ukierunkowane są na priony, są skuteczne5.

Potencjalne kierunki badań

Lepsze zrozumienie mechanizmów neurodegeneracji w CJD i innych chorobach prionowych będzie miało duży wpływ na zdrowie ludzi, biorąc pod uwagę, że nakładające się mechanizmy chorobowe leżą u podstaw patogenezy bardziej powszechnych zaburzeń neurodegeneracyjnych, w tym choroby Alzheimera i Parkinsona1.

Mimo że nasze zrozumienie chorób prionowych znacznie wzrosło, wiele ważnych pytań pozostaje bez odpowiedzi, w tym: 1) jaka jest struktura ludzkich prionów; 2) jakie są mechanizmy neurotoksyczności prionów; 3) jakie czynniki kontrolują powstawanie, propagację i usuwanie prionów w mózgu; i 4) w jakim stopniu te zasady mają zastosowanie do innych zaburzeń neurodegeneracyjnych2.

Zidentyfikowanie STX6 jako czynnika ryzyka TWAS/PWAS lokalizującego się w oligodendrocytach dalej implikuje UPR (odpowiedź na nieprawidłowo sfałdowane białka) w ludzkim sCJD. Zaproponowano, że to leży u podstaw definiującej cechy histopatologicznej sCJD: degeneracji gąbczastej. Dlatego identyfikacja PDIA4 w tym badaniu i jego silne powiązania z UPR są zgodne z pojawiającym się tematem w dziedzinie chorób prionowych, że dysregulowana UPR jest czynnikiem napędzającym neurotoksyczność3.

Pojawia się nowa hipoteza, że burza mediatorów zapalnych występująca w COVID-19 może przyspieszać patogenezę CJD, a tym samym szybki postęp neurodegeneracji. Istnieje obserwacyjne poparcie dla tej hipotezy, ponieważ burza zapalna występująca w COVID-19 uwalnia masowe ilości mediatorów zapalnych, które są wystarczające do aktywacji astrocytów A1, co jest bezpośrednio związane z propagacją PrPSc4.

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  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507860/
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rare, fatal degenerative brain disorder caused by prion proteins. […] CJD primarily affects the central nervous system (CNS). […] Normal cellular prion protein (PrPc) transforms into the disease-causing form PrP scrapie (PrPSc) either spontaneously or as a result of PrPSc infection. PrPSc self-propagates and accumulates throughout the brain. The highly chemically stable -pleated aggregates cause derangements in intracellular protein folding, ubiquitination, and trafficking in affected neurons. Additionally, astrocytes may swell and degrade in reaction to prion-induced injury. Neurodegeneration results from these changes. […] A prion protein (PrP) is a normal neuron protein with a predominantly -helical and random coil composition. Proteinaceous infectious particles, also called „prions,” are self-propagating proteins lacking nucleic acid and are mostly comprised of proteinase K-resistant -pleated sheet aggregates. Prions reproduce by associating with normal PrP cellular isoforms, converting -helices into indigestible -pleated sheets. These particles cause CJD and other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies like bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease), kuru, and scrapie.
  • #1 Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease
    CreutzfeldtJakob disease (CJD) is caused by abnormal folding of a protein known as a prion. […] Infectious prions are misfolded proteins that can cause normally folded proteins to also become misfolded. […] The CJD prion is dangerous because it promotes refolding of the cellular prion protein into the diseased state. […] The number of misfolded protein molecules will increase exponentially and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble protein in affected cells. […] This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts neuronal cell function and causes cell death. […] Mutations in the gene for the prion protein can cause a misfolding of the dominantly alpha helical regions into beta pleated sheets. […] Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and induce other prion protein molecules to misfold in a self-sustaining feedback loop.
  • #1 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20371226
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related conditions appear to be caused by changes to a type of protein called a prion. These proteins are typically produced in the body. But when they encounter infectious prions, they fold and become another shape that’s not typical. They can spread and affect processes in the body. […] Prions are proteins that occur naturally in the brains of animals and people. Normally, the proteins are harmless, but when they’re misshapen, they can cause devastating illnesses such as disease in cattle and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans. […] The risk of getting CJD is low. The disease can’t be spread through coughing or sneezing. It also can’t be spread by touching or sexual contact. CJD can develop in three ways: […] Changes in a gene called PRNP that makes prion protein cause the genetic forms of the disease.
  • #1
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd/
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) appears to be caused by an abnormal infectious protein called a prion. These prions accumulate at high levels in the brain and cause irreversible damage to nerve cells. […] The precise cause of sporadic CJD is unclear, but it’s been suggested that a normal brain protein changes abnormally („misfolds”) and turns into a prion. […] Familial CJD is a very rare genetic condition where one of the genes a person inherits from their parent (the prion protein gene) carries a mutation that causes prions to form in their brain during adulthood, triggering the symptoms of CJD.
  • #1
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd/causes/
    The altered gene seems to produce misfolded prions that cause CJD. […] A few other cases of iCJD have occurred after people received transplants of infected dura mater (tissue that covers the brain) or came into contact with surgical instruments that were contaminated with CJD. […] This happened because prions are tougher than viruses or bacteria, so the normal process of sterilising surgical instruments had no effect.
  • #1 Prion-Related Diseases: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1168941-overview
    The prion diseases are a large group of related neurodegenerative conditions, which affect both animals and humans. […] however, increased understanding of their pathogenesis has recently led to the promise of effective therapeutic interventions in the near future. […] The infectious agent in the prion disease is composed mainly or entirely of an abnormal conformation of a host-encoded glycoprotein called the prion protein. The replication of prions involves the recruitment of the normally expressed prion protein, which has mainly an alpha-helical structure, into a disease-specific conformation that is rich in beta-sheet. […] A unifying feature of all the prionoses is their neuropathology. These illnesses tend to affect the gray matter of the central nervous system (CNS), producing neuronal loss, gliosis, and characteristic spongiform change.
  • #1 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD): Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6001-creutzfeldt-jakob-disease
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a severe, degenerative brain condition. It happens when faulty proteins, known as prions, damage your brain. […] With CJD, faulty proteins, known as prions, build up in your brain cells, damaging and destroying those cells. The condition is very severe, and its effects develop and worsen quickly. Its ultimately fatal, and unfortunately, theres no way to cure, treat or even slow down the progress of this disease. […] Faulty proteins in your brain known as prions cause CJD. Proteins are chemical molecules that need to hold a specific shape to work (like how a lock opens for a key with the right shape). […] But prion-based diseases have a key difference. Instead of a slow build-up of faulty proteins, prions convert normal proteins into more prions. As the number of prions grows, they turn more proteins into prions. The more prions there are, the faster the conversion happens. Thats why CJD goes from mild behavior changes to severe symptoms so quickly.
  • #1 A Systematic Review of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Attempts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2035-8377/16/5/79
    Both neurons and glial cells are involved in the pathological processes. Microglial cells attempt to clear PrP^Sc but also release inflammatory cytokines that ignite neuronal apoptosis, while astroglia is also activated and polarizes to the A1 neurotoxic phenotype, supplementally contributing to neuronal damage.
  • #1 Interactions between Cytokines and the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases: Insights and Implications
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/5/413
    Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs), including prion diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease, pose unique challenges to the scientific and medical communities due to their infectious nature, neurodegenerative effects, and the absence of a cure. Central to the progression of TSEs is the conversion of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into its infectious scrapie form (PrPSc), leading to neurodegeneration through a complex interplay involving the immune system. […] The immune system plays a pivotal albeit complex role in the pathogenesis of prion diseases, characterized by a dual functionality: initially, post-infection, prion targeting to lymphoid tissues is essential for the disease’s propagation to the central nervous system; subsequently, within the brain, the activation of microglia and their resultant cytokine production not only exacerbates neuroinflammation and brain damage but may also mitigate the start of prion diseases by phagocytosing and degrading PrPSc particles.
  • #1 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy: Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1169688-overview
    Pathological investigation shows characteristic spongiform change and gliosis in the brain. These changes are most predominant in basal ganglia and cerebellum. […] The amount of infectious agent ingested and host susceptibility, as determined by the human genotype at PRNP codon 129, appear to play important roles in the development of variant CJD. However, how oral consumption of BSE-contaminated beef leads to infection of the CNS is unknown. […] Prions probably cross the mucosa via transmembranous tunneling of the membranous epithelial cells (M-cells) and come in contact with the mucosa-associated lymphoid system, including Peyer patches, where accumulation is found first. […] A functional immune system is required for prion replication and transport outside of the CNS. […] Mechanisms of further prion transport to other compartments of the lymphoreticular system (LRS) are unclear. Prions accumulate in cells of the LRS, most prominently in the follicular dendritic cells and in sympathetic nerve endings in the LRS. Then, prions reach the CNS via splanchnic nerves at the level of the thoracic spinal cord and via parasympathetic fibers connecting with the brain.
  • #1 Pathology of Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/4-431-29402-3_1
    Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a novel form of human prion disease that appears to result from oral infection by the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) agent. […] Variant CJD is also unique in human prion diseases in that infectivity and accumulation of the disease-associated isoform of prion protein are readily detectable outside the central nervous system, perhaps reflecting the peripheral pathogenesis of this disorder following an oral infection with BSE. […] The neuropathological features of variant CJD are unique in terms of the histological features and the biochemical features of the abnormal isoform of prion protein in the brain and in lymphoid tissues. […] This peripheral accumulation of infectivity has also resulted in the apparent iatrogenic transmission of variant CJD on 2 occasions, following a transfusion with non-leucodepleted red blood cells from donors who subsequently died from variant CJD. […] Continuing surveillance of all forms of CJD is required to address this possibility, not just in the UK but in other countries either with or at risk of cases of BSE in the cattle population.
  • #1 Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease
    Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), formerly known as new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (nvCJD) and referred to colloquially as „mad cow disease” or „human mad cow disease” to distinguish it from its BSE counterpart, is a fatal type of brain disease within the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy family. […] It is caused by prions, which are misfolded proteins. […] Spread is believed to be primarily due to eating beef infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). […] Infection is also believed to require a specific genetic susceptibility. […] Despite the consumption of contaminated beef in the UK being high, vCJD has infected a small number of people. One explanation for this can be found in the genetics of people with the disease. The human PRNP protein which is subverted in prion disease can occur with either methionine or valine at amino acid 129, without any apparent physiological difference. […] Only a single person with vCJD tested was found to be heterozygous; most of those affected had two copies of the methionine-containing form. It is not yet known whether those unaffected are actually immune or only have a longer incubation period until symptoms appear.
  • #1 A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-020-00966-x
    One of remarkable features of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) is the great phenotypic variability. […] Understanding the molecular basis of this variability has important implications for the development of therapeutic approaches. […] It is well established that, in many cases, phenotypic heterogeneity of sCJD is under control of two determinants: the genotype at the methionine (M)/valine (V) polymorphic codon 129 of the human prion protein gene and the type, 1 or 2, of the pathogenic and disease-related form of the prion protein, PrPD. […] However, this scenario fails to explain the existence of distinct heterozygous sCJDMV2 subtypes, where heterogeneity occurs without any variation of the 129 allotype and PrPD type. […] Here we used a mass spectrometry based approach to test the hypothesis that phenotypic variability within the sCJDMV2 subtype is at least partly determined by the abundance of 129M and 129V polymorphic forms of proteinase K-resistant PrPD (resPrPD).
  • #1 The molecular pathology of CJD: old and new variants
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1187129/
    Answers to these questions will be crucial to the development of rational therapeutic strategies for treating prion diseases, the urgency for which is emphasised by recent evidence showing that new variant CJD (vCJD) and BSE are caused by the same prion strain. […] Understanding how a protein only infectious agent could encode such phenotypic information has been of considerable biological interest. […] Support for the contention that strain specificity is encoded by PrP alone was provided by the study of two distinct strains of transmissible mink encephalopathy prions, which can be serially propagated in hamsters, designated hyper (HY) and drowsy (DY). […] New variant CJD is associated with PrPSc glycoform ratios that are distinct from those seen in classic CJD. […] It has been proposed that this may be an intermediate on the pathway to PrPSc formation.
  • #1 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: updated diagnostic criteria, treatment algorithm, and the utility of brain biopsy in: Neurosurgical Focus Volume 39 Issue 5 (2015) Journals
    https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/39/5/article-pE2.xml
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rare neurodegenerative condition with a rapid disease course and a mortality rate of 100%. Several forms of the disease have been described, and the most common is the sporadic type. The most challenging aspect of this disease is its diagnosis—the gold standard for definitive diagnosis is considered to be histopathological confirmation—but newer tests are providing means for an antemortem diagnosis in ways less invasive than brain biopsy. […] The central pathological event is the formation of the abnormal PrPSc from the wild-type, cellular form of PrPC. This is hypothesized to occur in a pathway where PrPSc serves as the template for PrPC to fold abnormally into the pathogenic conformation. This is an autocatalytic process that is poorly understood, but the change in protein shape is the hallmark of the pathology.
  • #1 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/prion-diseases/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd
    Currently, CJD cannot be cured, and its progress cannot be slowed. The disease is fatal, usually within months or a few years. However, certain medications may be given to relieve symptoms. […] Because there is no effective treatment for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, preventing its spread is essential. Only acquired CJD can be prevented.
  • #1 Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration in Human Prion Diseases and Their Intersection with AD/ADRD – CJD Foundation
    https://cjdfoundation.org/etn/mechanisms-of-neurodegeneration-in-human-prion-diseases-and-their-intersection-with-ad-adrd/
    Human prion disorders, such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), are invariably fatal neurodegenerative diseases involving the misfolding, aggregation, and propagation of the cellular prion protein (PrPC). […] Despite its comparative rarity, understanding mechanisms of neurodegeneration in CJD and other prion diseases will have a large impact on human health, given that overlapping disease mechanisms underlie the pathogenesis of more common neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimers and Parkinsons Diseases. […] While our understanding of prion diseases has increased significantly, many important questions remain unanswered, including: 1) what is the structure of human prions; 2) what are the mechanisms of prion neurotoxicity; 3) what factors control prion formation, propagation, and clearance in the brain; and 4) to what extent do these principles apply to other neurodegenerative disorders such as AD/ADRD? […] The conference will probe those questions and facilitate dialogue between experts in prion disease pathogenesis and prion-like mechanisms in AD/ADRD that will be of mutual benefit to both fields.
  • #2 The molecular pathology of CJD: old and new variants
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1187129/
    The occurrence of new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease has dramatically highlighted the need for a precise understanding of the molecular basis of prion propagation. […] The conformational change known to be central to prion propagation, from a predominantly -helical fold to one predominantly comprising -structure, can now be reproduced in vitro, and the ability of -PrP to form fibrillar aggregates provides a plausible molecular mechanism for prion propagation. […] A wealth of experimental evidence now shows that the central feature of prion diseases is indeed the post-translational conversion of a normal host encoded, glycoinositol phospholipid (GPI) anchored sialoglycoprotein, the prion protein (PrPC), to an abnormal form, designated PrPSc. […] In several cases, there have been claims that infectivity can be separated from fibrils, and infectious brain tissue has been shown to contain no detectable protease resistant material.
  • #2 Prion-Related Diseases: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1168941-overview
    The prion diseases are a large group of related neurodegenerative conditions, which affect both animals and humans. […] however, increased understanding of their pathogenesis has recently led to the promise of effective therapeutic interventions in the near future. […] The infectious agent in the prion disease is composed mainly or entirely of an abnormal conformation of a host-encoded glycoprotein called the prion protein. The replication of prions involves the recruitment of the normally expressed prion protein, which has mainly an alpha-helical structure, into a disease-specific conformation that is rich in beta-sheet. […] A unifying feature of all the prionoses is their neuropathology. These illnesses tend to affect the gray matter of the central nervous system (CNS), producing neuronal loss, gliosis, and characteristic spongiform change.
  • #2 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Creutzfeldt-Jakob_disease_pathophysiology
    The majority of cases of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are thought to occur sporadically from prions by an unknown route of transmission. […] The CJD prion promotes refolding of the native proteins into the diseased state. […] The number of misfolded protein molecules increases exponentially, and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble prions in the affected cells. […] This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. […] Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and are produced in a self-sustaining feedback loop, causing exponential spread of the prion.
  • #2 Classic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease | Classic CJD | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/creutzfeldt-jakob/about/index.html
    CJD is caused by a prion, a type of infectious protein. Prions trigger normal proteins in the body to misfold, leading to CJD. […] The vast majority of all CJD cases reported (about 85 percent) are called sporadic. These types of cases occur when prion proteins already in the body misfold for some unknown reason. The result is disease that breaks down the brain’s functions. […] Iatrogenic cases are caused by contact with prions in a healthcare setting or due to biological products. […] Classic CJD is always fatal, usually within a few months. There is unfortunately no therapy that will slow or stop the progression of disease.
  • #2 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20371226
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related conditions appear to be caused by changes to a type of protein called a prion. These proteins are typically produced in the body. But when they encounter infectious prions, they fold and become another shape that’s not typical. They can spread and affect processes in the body. […] Prions are proteins that occur naturally in the brains of animals and people. Normally, the proteins are harmless, but when they’re misshapen, they can cause devastating illnesses such as disease in cattle and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans. […] The risk of getting CJD is low. The disease can’t be spread through coughing or sneezing. It also can’t be spread by touching or sexual contact. CJD can develop in three ways: […] Changes in a gene called PRNP that makes prion protein cause the genetic forms of the disease.
  • #2 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20371226
    A small number of people have developed CJD as a result of medical procedures. These procedures included injections of pituitary human growth hormone from an infected source. […] Cases related to medical procedures are referred to as iatrogenic CJD. […] A small number of people have developed variant CJD from eating contaminated beef. Variant CJD is linked to eating beef from cattle infected with mad cow disease. Mad cow disease is known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
  • #2 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/variant-creutzfeldt-jakob-disease
    Prion diseases are neurodegenerative diseases that have long incubation periods and progress inexorably to death once clinical symptoms appear. […] These human prion diseases share certain common neuropathologic features including neuronal loss, proliferation of glial cells, absence of an inflammatory response, the presence of small vacuoles within the neuropil that produces a spongiform appearance, and the presence of protease-resistant prion protein.
  • #2 Molecular Mechanism of Prion Infectivity – Supattapone Laboratory
    https://geiselmed.dartmouth.edu/supattapone/research/molecular-mechanism-of-prion-infectivity/
    Prions are infectious agents of fatal brain diseases that include: Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease (CJD) and kuru in humans, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cows, Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) in deer and elk, and scrapie in sheep and goats. […] When an animal contracts prion disease, the PrPC molecules in the brain of that animal undergo a conformational change to a pathogenic conformer designated PrPSc. This pathogenic conformer is infectious, promoting conformational change to create more PrPSc molecules, and its formation leads to the death of neurons. […] Currently, the structure and composition of infectious prions, as well as the mechanisms by which these agents replicate and destroy neurons are unknown.
  • #2 A Systematic Review of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Attempts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2035-8377/16/5/79
    Both neurons and glial cells are involved in the pathological processes. Microglial cells attempt to clear PrP^Sc but also release inflammatory cytokines that ignite neuronal apoptosis, while astroglia is also activated and polarizes to the A1 neurotoxic phenotype, supplementally contributing to neuronal damage.
  • #2 Interactions between Cytokines and the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases: Insights and Implications
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/5/413
    Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs), including prion diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease, pose unique challenges to the scientific and medical communities due to their infectious nature, neurodegenerative effects, and the absence of a cure. Central to the progression of TSEs is the conversion of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into its infectious scrapie form (PrPSc), leading to neurodegeneration through a complex interplay involving the immune system. […] The immune system plays a pivotal albeit complex role in the pathogenesis of prion diseases, characterized by a dual functionality: initially, post-infection, prion targeting to lymphoid tissues is essential for the disease’s propagation to the central nervous system; subsequently, within the brain, the activation of microglia and their resultant cytokine production not only exacerbates neuroinflammation and brain damage but may also mitigate the start of prion diseases by phagocytosing and degrading PrPSc particles.
  • #2 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy: Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1169688-overview
    Pathological investigation shows characteristic spongiform change and gliosis in the brain. These changes are most predominant in basal ganglia and cerebellum. […] The amount of infectious agent ingested and host susceptibility, as determined by the human genotype at PRNP codon 129, appear to play important roles in the development of variant CJD. However, how oral consumption of BSE-contaminated beef leads to infection of the CNS is unknown. […] Prions probably cross the mucosa via transmembranous tunneling of the membranous epithelial cells (M-cells) and come in contact with the mucosa-associated lymphoid system, including Peyer patches, where accumulation is found first. […] A functional immune system is required for prion replication and transport outside of the CNS. […] Mechanisms of further prion transport to other compartments of the lymphoreticular system (LRS) are unclear. Prions accumulate in cells of the LRS, most prominently in the follicular dendritic cells and in sympathetic nerve endings in the LRS. Then, prions reach the CNS via splanchnic nerves at the level of the thoracic spinal cord and via parasympathetic fibers connecting with the brain.
  • #2 Pathology of Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/4-431-29402-3_1
    Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a novel form of human prion disease that appears to result from oral infection by the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) agent. […] Variant CJD is also unique in human prion diseases in that infectivity and accumulation of the disease-associated isoform of prion protein are readily detectable outside the central nervous system, perhaps reflecting the peripheral pathogenesis of this disorder following an oral infection with BSE. […] The neuropathological features of variant CJD are unique in terms of the histological features and the biochemical features of the abnormal isoform of prion protein in the brain and in lymphoid tissues. […] This peripheral accumulation of infectivity has also resulted in the apparent iatrogenic transmission of variant CJD on 2 occasions, following a transfusion with non-leucodepleted red blood cells from donors who subsequently died from variant CJD. […] Continuing surveillance of all forms of CJD is required to address this possibility, not just in the UK but in other countries either with or at risk of cases of BSE in the cattle population.
  • #2 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rapidly progressive, fatal and transmissible neurodegenerative disease associated with the accumulation of misfolded prion protein in the CNS. […] Prion disease is thought to arise from the transformation of normal host-encoded prion proteins to aberrantly folded protease resistant isoforms. […] Prion diseases are neurodegenerative illnesses due to the accumulation of small infectious pathogens containing protein but apparently lacking nucleic acid, which have long incubation periods and progress inexorably once clinical symptoms appear. […] The gene prion protein (PRNP = PRioN Protein) is the major genetic determinant of susceptibility; however, several studies now suggest that other genes are also important. […] Iatrogenic transmission of the prion is now an important public health issue but standard disinfection methods do not inactivate the prion.
  • #2 A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-020-00966-x
    This finding suggests an important, previously unrecognized mechanism for phenotypic determination in human prion diseases. […] To bridge this gap, here we have performed detailed characterization of different subtypes of sCJDMV cases, and for each of these cases we have used a mass-spectrometry based approach to determine the relative proportion of resPrPD-129M and -129V. […] This analysis revealed a novel, versatile mechanism by which residue 129 polymorphism of resPrPD determines phenotypic heterogeneity, resulting in multiple variants within the MV2 subtype of sCJD. […] The pure MV2C phenotype is characterized by large predominance of resPrPD-129M. […] By contrast, in the pure MV2K phenotype, the predominant form of resPrPD contains Val at position 129, with resPrPD-129M accounting only for ~23% of total resPrPD.
  • #2 The molecular pathology of CJD: old and new variants
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1187129/
    Answers to these questions will be crucial to the development of rational therapeutic strategies for treating prion diseases, the urgency for which is emphasised by recent evidence showing that new variant CJD (vCJD) and BSE are caused by the same prion strain. […] Understanding how a protein only infectious agent could encode such phenotypic information has been of considerable biological interest. […] Support for the contention that strain specificity is encoded by PrP alone was provided by the study of two distinct strains of transmissible mink encephalopathy prions, which can be serially propagated in hamsters, designated hyper (HY) and drowsy (DY). […] New variant CJD is associated with PrPSc glycoform ratios that are distinct from those seen in classic CJD. […] It has been proposed that this may be an intermediate on the pathway to PrPSc formation.
  • #2 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: updated diagnostic criteria, treatment algorithm, and the utility of brain biopsy in: Neurosurgical Focus Volume 39 Issue 5 (2015) Journals
    https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/39/5/article-pE2.xml
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rare neurodegenerative condition with a rapid disease course and a mortality rate of 100%. Several forms of the disease have been described, and the most common is the sporadic type. The most challenging aspect of this disease is its diagnosis—the gold standard for definitive diagnosis is considered to be histopathological confirmation—but newer tests are providing means for an antemortem diagnosis in ways less invasive than brain biopsy. […] The central pathological event is the formation of the abnormal PrPSc from the wild-type, cellular form of PrPC. This is hypothesized to occur in a pathway where PrPSc serves as the template for PrPC to fold abnormally into the pathogenic conformation. This is an autocatalytic process that is poorly understood, but the change in protein shape is the hallmark of the pathology.
  • #2 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/prion-diseases/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd
    Currently, CJD cannot be cured, and its progress cannot be slowed. The disease is fatal, usually within months or a few years. However, certain medications may be given to relieve symptoms. […] Because there is no effective treatment for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, preventing its spread is essential. Only acquired CJD can be prevented.
  • #2 Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration in Human Prion Diseases and Their Intersection with AD/ADRD – CJD Foundation
    https://cjdfoundation.org/etn/mechanisms-of-neurodegeneration-in-human-prion-diseases-and-their-intersection-with-ad-adrd/
    Human prion disorders, such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), are invariably fatal neurodegenerative diseases involving the misfolding, aggregation, and propagation of the cellular prion protein (PrPC). […] Despite its comparative rarity, understanding mechanisms of neurodegeneration in CJD and other prion diseases will have a large impact on human health, given that overlapping disease mechanisms underlie the pathogenesis of more common neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimers and Parkinsons Diseases. […] While our understanding of prion diseases has increased significantly, many important questions remain unanswered, including: 1) what is the structure of human prions; 2) what are the mechanisms of prion neurotoxicity; 3) what factors control prion formation, propagation, and clearance in the brain; and 4) to what extent do these principles apply to other neurodegenerative disorders such as AD/ADRD? […] The conference will probe those questions and facilitate dialogue between experts in prion disease pathogenesis and prion-like mechanisms in AD/ADRD that will be of mutual benefit to both fields.
  • #3 A Systematic Review of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Attempts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2035-8377/16/5/79
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is a rare neurodegenerative and invariably fatal disease with a fulminant course once the first clinical symptoms emerge. […] The diagnostic criteria have been changed based on the considerable progress made in research on the pathogenesis and on the identification of reliable biomarkers. […] The key events triggering PrP^Sc formation are still incompletely elucidated. External factors (oxidative stress, inflammation, or age), as well as pathogenic PRNP mutations, may all be involved, followed by a failure of the cellular proteostasis machinery in clearing the misfolded protein. […] Growing evidence points toward seeding nucleation as the mechanism leading to prion aggregation, during which, PrP^Sc oligomers convert PrP^C monomers and incorporate them into protofibrils and fibrils.
  • #3 The molecular pathology of CJD: old and new variants
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1187129/
    The occurrence of new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease has dramatically highlighted the need for a precise understanding of the molecular basis of prion propagation. […] The conformational change known to be central to prion propagation, from a predominantly -helical fold to one predominantly comprising -structure, can now be reproduced in vitro, and the ability of -PrP to form fibrillar aggregates provides a plausible molecular mechanism for prion propagation. […] A wealth of experimental evidence now shows that the central feature of prion diseases is indeed the post-translational conversion of a normal host encoded, glycoinositol phospholipid (GPI) anchored sialoglycoprotein, the prion protein (PrPC), to an abnormal form, designated PrPSc. […] In several cases, there have been claims that infectivity can be separated from fibrils, and infectious brain tissue has been shown to contain no detectable protease resistant material.
  • #3 Prion diseases
    https://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5ePrions.html
    Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are caused by abnormal folding of prions (pronounced pree-ons, an acronym for proteinaceous infectious particles). The normal prion protein, which is designated as PrPC, is a 35kD membrane glycoprotein, which is water-soluble and proteinase-sensitive. Abnormal prions, designated as PrPSc, result from a change in the folding pattern of PrPC, which makes it resistant to the action of proteases and causes it to precipitate as insoluble amyloid. This conversion results in neuronal degeneration and loss by an unknown mechanism. […] The unique feature of prion diseases is that they are self-propagating and transmissible. Once PrPSc is generated endogenously or introduced into the body from the environment, it converts normal prions into abnormal ones. This conversion begins with the initial production of a small polymer of misfolded prions, (a seed), perhaps no more than 28 molecules. This seed converts normal adjacent prions into abnormal ones by an unknown mechanism. As more PrPSc polymers are produced, they, in turn, act as seeds, propagating the conversion of normal to abnormal prions.
  • #3
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd/
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) appears to be caused by an abnormal infectious protein called a prion. These prions accumulate at high levels in the brain and cause irreversible damage to nerve cells. […] The precise cause of sporadic CJD is unclear, but it’s been suggested that a normal brain protein changes abnormally („misfolds”) and turns into a prion. […] Familial CJD is a very rare genetic condition where one of the genes a person inherits from their parent (the prion protein gene) carries a mutation that causes prions to form in their brain during adulthood, triggering the symptoms of CJD.
  • #3 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20371226
    A small number of people have developed CJD as a result of medical procedures. These procedures included injections of pituitary human growth hormone from an infected source. […] Cases related to medical procedures are referred to as iatrogenic CJD. […] A small number of people have developed variant CJD from eating contaminated beef. Variant CJD is linked to eating beef from cattle infected with mad cow disease. Mad cow disease is known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
  • #3 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease?lang=us
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is mediated via prions, a type of protein, which manifests in sheep as the disease scrapie, and in cows as bovine spongiform encephalopathy. […] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease leads to spongiform degeneration of the brain, which is thought to be caused by the conversion of normal prion protein to proteinaceous infectious particles that accumulate in and around neurons and lead to cell death.
  • #3 Interactions between Cytokines and the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases: Insights and Implications
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/5/413
    PrPSc originates from the self-propagating alteration of PrPC through conformational remodeling, wherein PrPSc induces the misfolding of PrPC via a template-directed mechanism. Acting as a template, PrPSc incorporates PrPC into amyloid aggregates, ultimately leading to neuronal death. […] The accumulation of PrPSc in neurons may trigger an initial activation of glial cells, setting off a series of events that ultimately lead to neuronal death. However, this glial activation might not be evident in the advanced stages of the disease, suggesting a temporal and potentially disease-specific pattern of immune response within the central nervous system. […] In the context of prion diseases, glial activation could represent an initial defense mechanism against the accumulation of PrPSc, given that microglia naturally phagocytize abnormal proteins in the brain. However, their inability to effectively remove PrPSc might trigger chronic brain inflammation. This is due to an overactive immune response, potentially contributing to neuronal damage in TSEs.
  • #3 Interactions between Cytokines and the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases: Insights and Implications
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/5/413
    Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs), including prion diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease, pose unique challenges to the scientific and medical communities due to their infectious nature, neurodegenerative effects, and the absence of a cure. Central to the progression of TSEs is the conversion of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into its infectious scrapie form (PrPSc), leading to neurodegeneration through a complex interplay involving the immune system. […] The immune system plays a pivotal albeit complex role in the pathogenesis of prion diseases, characterized by a dual functionality: initially, post-infection, prion targeting to lymphoid tissues is essential for the disease’s propagation to the central nervous system; subsequently, within the brain, the activation of microglia and their resultant cytokine production not only exacerbates neuroinflammation and brain damage but may also mitigate the start of prion diseases by phagocytosing and degrading PrPSc particles.
  • #3 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy: Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1169688-overview
    Pathological investigation shows characteristic spongiform change and gliosis in the brain. These changes are most predominant in basal ganglia and cerebellum. […] The amount of infectious agent ingested and host susceptibility, as determined by the human genotype at PRNP codon 129, appear to play important roles in the development of variant CJD. However, how oral consumption of BSE-contaminated beef leads to infection of the CNS is unknown. […] Prions probably cross the mucosa via transmembranous tunneling of the membranous epithelial cells (M-cells) and come in contact with the mucosa-associated lymphoid system, including Peyer patches, where accumulation is found first. […] A functional immune system is required for prion replication and transport outside of the CNS. […] Mechanisms of further prion transport to other compartments of the lymphoreticular system (LRS) are unclear. Prions accumulate in cells of the LRS, most prominently in the follicular dendritic cells and in sympathetic nerve endings in the LRS. Then, prions reach the CNS via splanchnic nerves at the level of the thoracic spinal cord and via parasympathetic fibers connecting with the brain.
  • #3 Distribution and Quantitative Estimates of Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Prions in Tissues of Clinical and Asymptomatic Patients – Volume 23, Number 6—June 2017 – Emerging Infectious Diseases journal – CDC
    https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/6/16-1734_article
    Although vCJD prions in a variety tissues, such as bone marrow, kidney, salivary gland, skeletal muscle, pancreas, liver, or heart, might be surprising, each of these tissue has already been demonstrated to accumulate prion infectivity or abnormal prion protein in TSE-infected sheep. […] The presence of abnormal prion protein accumulation in the pituitary gland and other circumventricular organs before deposition of PrPres in surrounding brain has been reported in TSE-infected sheep. However, this phenomenon in animals does not represent the main route for neuroinvasion and is a probable consequence of hematogenous dissemination of the TSE agent through the fenestrated capillary system of the circumventricular organs, which is substantially more permeable than the other capillaries in the brain (blood-brain barrier). […] Irrespective of the actual explanation for these differences, the presence of vCJD agent in peripheral tissues of patients during preclinical and clinical stage of the disease indicates the potential for iatrogenic transmission of this fatal neurologic condition by surgical procedures.
  • #3 A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-020-00966-x
    One of remarkable features of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) is the great phenotypic variability. […] Understanding the molecular basis of this variability has important implications for the development of therapeutic approaches. […] It is well established that, in many cases, phenotypic heterogeneity of sCJD is under control of two determinants: the genotype at the methionine (M)/valine (V) polymorphic codon 129 of the human prion protein gene and the type, 1 or 2, of the pathogenic and disease-related form of the prion protein, PrPD. […] However, this scenario fails to explain the existence of distinct heterozygous sCJDMV2 subtypes, where heterogeneity occurs without any variation of the 129 allotype and PrPD type. […] Here we used a mass spectrometry based approach to test the hypothesis that phenotypic variability within the sCJDMV2 subtype is at least partly determined by the abundance of 129M and 129V polymorphic forms of proteinase K-resistant PrPD (resPrPD).
  • #3 A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-020-00966-x
    This finding suggests an important, previously unrecognized mechanism for phenotypic determination in human prion diseases. […] To bridge this gap, here we have performed detailed characterization of different subtypes of sCJDMV cases, and for each of these cases we have used a mass-spectrometry based approach to determine the relative proportion of resPrPD-129M and -129V. […] This analysis revealed a novel, versatile mechanism by which residue 129 polymorphism of resPrPD determines phenotypic heterogeneity, resulting in multiple variants within the MV2 subtype of sCJD. […] The pure MV2C phenotype is characterized by large predominance of resPrPD-129M. […] By contrast, in the pure MV2K phenotype, the predominant form of resPrPD contains Val at position 129, with resPrPD-129M accounting only for ~23% of total resPrPD.
  • #3 The molecular pathology of CJD: old and new variants
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1187129/
    Answers to these questions will be crucial to the development of rational therapeutic strategies for treating prion diseases, the urgency for which is emphasised by recent evidence showing that new variant CJD (vCJD) and BSE are caused by the same prion strain. […] Understanding how a protein only infectious agent could encode such phenotypic information has been of considerable biological interest. […] Support for the contention that strain specificity is encoded by PrP alone was provided by the study of two distinct strains of transmissible mink encephalopathy prions, which can be serially propagated in hamsters, designated hyper (HY) and drowsy (DY). […] New variant CJD is associated with PrPSc glycoform ratios that are distinct from those seen in classic CJD. […] It has been proposed that this may be an intermediate on the pathway to PrPSc formation.
  • #3 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: updated diagnostic criteria, treatment algorithm, and the utility of brain biopsy in: Neurosurgical Focus Volume 39 Issue 5 (2015) Journals
    https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/39/5/article-pE2.xml
    Both forms have an identical amino acid sequence (primary structure), but the posttranslational changes cause the PrPC (40% alpha helix) to refold into a form with 45% beta-sheet composition. This makes the protein not only highly insoluble, but also resistant to proteinase digestion. The subsequent multimerization accumulates, spreads throughout the brain parenchyma, and induces the classic spongiform change (vacuolation of gray matter) by microglial activation and neuronal loss, leading to progressive neurodegeneration and astrogliosis over time. […] The changes in protein structure are investigated by a conformation-dependent immunoassay (CDI). This test identifies PrPSc by exposing specific epitopes of the protein that are unmasked with progressive denaturation, and antibodies specific to these areas bind and elicit a positive result. It is 100% specific for the disease, and recent data show sensitivity that is at least equal to other diagnostic tests.
  • #3 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/prion-diseases/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd
    Currently, CJD cannot be cured, and its progress cannot be slowed. The disease is fatal, usually within months or a few years. However, certain medications may be given to relieve symptoms. […] Because there is no effective treatment for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, preventing its spread is essential. Only acquired CJD can be prevented.
  • #3 Multiomic Analyses Direct Hypotheses for Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Risk Genes | medRxiv
    https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.07.19.24310476v1.full-text
    This has been proposed to underpin a defining histopathological trait of sCJD: spongiform degeneration. Therefore, the identification of PDIA4 in this study, and its strong links to the UPR, are in keeping with the emerging theme in the prion disease field that a dysregulated UPR is a driver of neurotoxicity. […] Interestingly, SIRPB1, located 3 Mb upstream of PRNP and genetically linked to PRNP, was prioritized as a tier 2 risk gene with there being suggestive evidence for a protein-protein interaction between PRNP and SIRPB1. […] This study has also several limitations. Firstly, our molecular QTL-based analyses were limited to eQTLs and pQTLs; however, the inclusion of other molecular QTLs such as splicing QTLs (sQTLs), methylation QTLs (mQTLs), and histone acetylation QTLs (haQTLs) in future studies could provide additional sCJD risk-associated molecular mechanisms, which can be complementary in terms linking the GWAS signals to similar sets of prioritized risk genes or to other candidates. […] In conclusion, our results are compatible with the leading hypotheses for the three known genetic risk factors for sCJD, with there being robust evidence for increases in STX6 expression driving disease risk, but not for PRNP and GAL3ST1, which are thought to be driven by missense SNPs.
  • #4 Prion diseases
    https://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5ePrions.html
    Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are caused by abnormal folding of prions (pronounced pree-ons, an acronym for proteinaceous infectious particles). The normal prion protein, which is designated as PrPC, is a 35kD membrane glycoprotein, which is water-soluble and proteinase-sensitive. Abnormal prions, designated as PrPSc, result from a change in the folding pattern of PrPC, which makes it resistant to the action of proteases and causes it to precipitate as insoluble amyloid. This conversion results in neuronal degeneration and loss by an unknown mechanism. […] The unique feature of prion diseases is that they are self-propagating and transmissible. Once PrPSc is generated endogenously or introduced into the body from the environment, it converts normal prions into abnormal ones. This conversion begins with the initial production of a small polymer of misfolded prions, (a seed), perhaps no more than 28 molecules. This seed converts normal adjacent prions into abnormal ones by an unknown mechanism. As more PrPSc polymers are produced, they, in turn, act as seeds, propagating the conversion of normal to abnormal prions.
  • #4 A Systematic Review of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Attempts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2035-8377/16/5/79
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is a rare neurodegenerative and invariably fatal disease with a fulminant course once the first clinical symptoms emerge. […] The diagnostic criteria have been changed based on the considerable progress made in research on the pathogenesis and on the identification of reliable biomarkers. […] The key events triggering PrP^Sc formation are still incompletely elucidated. External factors (oxidative stress, inflammation, or age), as well as pathogenic PRNP mutations, may all be involved, followed by a failure of the cellular proteostasis machinery in clearing the misfolded protein. […] Growing evidence points toward seeding nucleation as the mechanism leading to prion aggregation, during which, PrP^Sc oligomers convert PrP^C monomers and incorporate them into protofibrils and fibrils.
  • #4 Pathology of Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/4-431-29402-3_1
    Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a novel form of human prion disease that appears to result from oral infection by the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) agent. […] Variant CJD is also unique in human prion diseases in that infectivity and accumulation of the disease-associated isoform of prion protein are readily detectable outside the central nervous system, perhaps reflecting the peripheral pathogenesis of this disorder following an oral infection with BSE. […] The neuropathological features of variant CJD are unique in terms of the histological features and the biochemical features of the abnormal isoform of prion protein in the brain and in lymphoid tissues. […] This peripheral accumulation of infectivity has also resulted in the apparent iatrogenic transmission of variant CJD on 2 occasions, following a transfusion with non-leucodepleted red blood cells from donors who subsequently died from variant CJD. […] Continuing surveillance of all forms of CJD is required to address this possibility, not just in the UK but in other countries either with or at risk of cases of BSE in the cattle population.
  • #4 A Systematic Review of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Attempts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2035-8377/16/5/79
    Both neurons and glial cells are involved in the pathological processes. Microglial cells attempt to clear PrP^Sc but also release inflammatory cytokines that ignite neuronal apoptosis, while astroglia is also activated and polarizes to the A1 neurotoxic phenotype, supplementally contributing to neuronal damage.
  • #4 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy: Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1169688-overview
    Pathological investigation shows characteristic spongiform change and gliosis in the brain. These changes are most predominant in basal ganglia and cerebellum. […] The amount of infectious agent ingested and host susceptibility, as determined by the human genotype at PRNP codon 129, appear to play important roles in the development of variant CJD. However, how oral consumption of BSE-contaminated beef leads to infection of the CNS is unknown. […] Prions probably cross the mucosa via transmembranous tunneling of the membranous epithelial cells (M-cells) and come in contact with the mucosa-associated lymphoid system, including Peyer patches, where accumulation is found first. […] A functional immune system is required for prion replication and transport outside of the CNS. […] Mechanisms of further prion transport to other compartments of the lymphoreticular system (LRS) are unclear. Prions accumulate in cells of the LRS, most prominently in the follicular dendritic cells and in sympathetic nerve endings in the LRS. Then, prions reach the CNS via splanchnic nerves at the level of the thoracic spinal cord and via parasympathetic fibers connecting with the brain.
  • #4 Deciphering the pathogenesis of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease with codon 129 M/V and type 2 abnormal prion protein | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2051-5960-1-74
    Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is classified according to the genotype at polymorphic codon 129 (M or V) of the prion protein (PrP) gene and the type (1 or 2) of abnormal isoform of PrP (PrPSc) in the brain. […] The most complicated entity in the current classification system is MV2, since it shows wide phenotypic variations, i.e., MV2 cortical form (MV2C), MV2 with kuru plaques (MV2K), or a mixed form (MV2K+C). […] To resolve their complicated pathogenesis, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the three MV2 subgroups based on histopathological, molecular, and transmission properties. […] Taken together, the present study suggests that the phenotypic heterogeneity of MV2 stems from their different PrPSc origin(s). […] The molecular mechanisms of the atypical type 2 PrPSc formation remain elusive. […] The present study resolves the complicated pathogenesis of MV2. The phenotypic heterogeneity of MV2 stems from their different PrPSc origin(s).
  • #4 A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-020-00966-x
    Furthermore, also in the MV2K-C mixed variants, resPrPD 129 allotypic proportions appear to correlate with the representations of the two histotypes. […] Finally, in the sCJDMV1 subtype that shares the histotype with the codon 129 homozygous MM1 subtype, resPrPD-129M and -129V were represented in approximately equal proportions.
  • #4 Efficient Transmission and Characterization of Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease Strains in Bank Voles | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.0020012
    The transmission-barrier effect appears to consist of several different elements: a low efficiency of infection, the selection of agent strains that replicate more rapidly in the new species, and differences in pathogenesis between interspecies and intraspecies transmissions. […] The extent of a transmission barrier can be inferred by the decrease in survival time between the primary transmission and subsequent passage in the new host species. […] The glycoform pattern of PrPSc in voles inoculated with ME7 was different from that obtained in voles inoculated with all human cases, being characterized by the highest proportion of di-glycosylated PrPSc. […] The relative amounts of the three major bands observed on immunoblot further characterize subtype-specific PrPSc fragments. […] Our results provide further evidence that the outcome of interspecies transmission of prions cannot be predicted by the degree of PrP sequence homology between two species, but depends mainly on the prion strain.
  • #4 Progress in Understanding Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease | American Journal of Neuroradiology
    http://www.ajnr.org/content/23/7/1070
    CJD is one of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, a rare but important group of diseases affecting humans and other animals, characterized by fatal progressive neurologic illness, unusual neuropathologic changes, and an unconventional transmissible causal agent. […] In his groundbreaking work for which he won a Nobel Prize, Stanley Prusiner proposed that the transmissible agent in CJD and related diseases was a protein (PrPSC). This protein or prion catalyses the conversion of a normal native protein (PrPC) into the isomeric PrPSC form (the prion hypothesis). The neuropathologic changes of CJD are spongiform change, neuronal loss, and astrocytic proliferation, associated with deposition of the PrPSC protein throughout the brain. […] Despite these limitations, the article by Murata et al is an important one. It is the first substantial study to chart the progression of changes in CJD with serial diffusion-weighted imaging. […] However, diffusion-weighted imaging offers an exciting new and useful way of following the clinical course and is beginning to help our understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease.
  • #4 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/prion-diseases/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd
    Currently, CJD cannot be cured, and its progress cannot be slowed. The disease is fatal, usually within months or a few years. However, certain medications may be given to relieve symptoms. […] Because there is no effective treatment for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, preventing its spread is essential. Only acquired CJD can be prevented.
  • #4 Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in a post-COVID-19 patient: did SARS-CoV-2 accelerate the neurodegeneration? | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text
    https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-023-00666-y
    CreutzfeldtJakob disease (CJD) is a rare, fatal neurodegenerative disorder, with few months as a usual duration from onset to death. […] The pathophysiology behind CJD is the accumulation of abnormal PrPSc proteins in the central nervous system. […] The concurrence of CJD in this post-COVID-19 patient has directed us to a hypothesis that the systemic inflammatory mediators storm occurring with COVID-19 may have accelerated the CJD pathogenesis and hence the rapid progression of neurodegeneration. […] There is an observational support for this hypothesis, as the inflammatory storm occurring in COVID-19 releases massive amounts of inflammatory mediators that are enough for activation A1 astrocytes which is directly related to PrPSc propagation as stated earlier. […] When a patient of sCJD gets infected with SARS-CoV-2, the neurological deterioration gets accelerated, exacerbated, and consequently shortening the overall survival period.
  • #5 Prion diseases
    https://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5ePrions.html
    Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are caused by abnormal folding of prions (pronounced pree-ons, an acronym for proteinaceous infectious particles). The normal prion protein, which is designated as PrPC, is a 35kD membrane glycoprotein, which is water-soluble and proteinase-sensitive. Abnormal prions, designated as PrPSc, result from a change in the folding pattern of PrPC, which makes it resistant to the action of proteases and causes it to precipitate as insoluble amyloid. This conversion results in neuronal degeneration and loss by an unknown mechanism. […] The unique feature of prion diseases is that they are self-propagating and transmissible. Once PrPSc is generated endogenously or introduced into the body from the environment, it converts normal prions into abnormal ones. This conversion begins with the initial production of a small polymer of misfolded prions, (a seed), perhaps no more than 28 molecules. This seed converts normal adjacent prions into abnormal ones by an unknown mechanism. As more PrPSc polymers are produced, they, in turn, act as seeds, propagating the conversion of normal to abnormal prions.
  • #5 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Creutzfeldt-Jakob_disease_pathophysiology
    The majority of cases of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are thought to occur sporadically from prions by an unknown route of transmission. […] The CJD prion promotes refolding of the native proteins into the diseased state. […] The number of misfolded protein molecules increases exponentially, and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble prions in the affected cells. […] This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. […] Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and are produced in a self-sustaining feedback loop, causing exponential spread of the prion.
  • #5 Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease | Calgary Guide
    https://calgaryguide.ucalgary.ca/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease/
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis and clinical findings Author: Skye McIntosh Reviewers: Heather Yong Tony Gu Davis Maclean *Scott Jarvis *Gary Klein *Yan Yu * MD at time of publication Familial (5-15%): Autosomal dominant inheritance of pathologic prion protein (PRNP) genes Sporadic (85%) Pathologic prion protein (PrPSc) form spontaneously from normal prion protein isoforms (PrPc) Acquired (
  • #5 Interactions between Cytokines and the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases: Insights and Implications
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/5/413
    PrPSc originates from the self-propagating alteration of PrPC through conformational remodeling, wherein PrPSc induces the misfolding of PrPC via a template-directed mechanism. Acting as a template, PrPSc incorporates PrPC into amyloid aggregates, ultimately leading to neuronal death. […] The accumulation of PrPSc in neurons may trigger an initial activation of glial cells, setting off a series of events that ultimately lead to neuronal death. However, this glial activation might not be evident in the advanced stages of the disease, suggesting a temporal and potentially disease-specific pattern of immune response within the central nervous system. […] In the context of prion diseases, glial activation could represent an initial defense mechanism against the accumulation of PrPSc, given that microglia naturally phagocytize abnormal proteins in the brain. However, their inability to effectively remove PrPSc might trigger chronic brain inflammation. This is due to an overactive immune response, potentially contributing to neuronal damage in TSEs.
  • #5 Interactions between Cytokines and the Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases: Insights and Implications
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/5/413
    The intricate web of interactions between prions, the immune system, and neuroinflammatory processes highlights the complex nature of TSE pathogenesis. The discovery of distinct cytokine profiles associated with different prion strains has opened new avenues for understanding disease progression. It is evident that both temporal and spatial patterns of cytokine release are intricately linked with disease phases. Notably, certain pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, and their receptors, like IL-1R1, have been implicated in accelerating TSE progression, indicating potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
  • #5 Prion-Related Diseases: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1168941-overview
    In addition to hematogenous spread, prions can reach the brain via the parasympathetic vagus nerve. […] However, a more complete understanding of these stages and the cells involved in prion spread from the periphery may allow for development of a pharmacological gatekeeper that can be used to stop the movement of infectivity.
  • #5
    https://omim.org/entry/123400
    Bockman et al. (1985) found that purified fractions from the brains of 2 patients with CJD contained protease-resistant proteins ranging in molecular mass from 10 to 50 kD. […] Based on their studies in PrP-null mice, Collinge et al. (1994) concluded that prion protein is necessary for normal synaptic function. […] Miele et al. (2001) demonstrated that a dramatic decrease in expression of a transcript specific to the erythroid lineage cells (EDRF; 605821) is a common feature of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). […] Head et al. (2003) found that presumptive centrifugal spread of PrP(Sc) from the brain through the optic nerve occurred in both sporadic and variant CJD. […] Zanusso et al. (2003) studied 9 patients with neuropathologically confirmed sporadic CJD and found that PrP(Sc) was present in olfactory cilia and central olfactory pathway, but not in the respiratory mucosa.
  • #5 Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease
    Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), formerly known as new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (nvCJD) and referred to colloquially as „mad cow disease” or „human mad cow disease” to distinguish it from its BSE counterpart, is a fatal type of brain disease within the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy family. […] It is caused by prions, which are misfolded proteins. […] Spread is believed to be primarily due to eating beef infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). […] Infection is also believed to require a specific genetic susceptibility. […] Despite the consumption of contaminated beef in the UK being high, vCJD has infected a small number of people. One explanation for this can be found in the genetics of people with the disease. The human PRNP protein which is subverted in prion disease can occur with either methionine or valine at amino acid 129, without any apparent physiological difference. […] Only a single person with vCJD tested was found to be heterozygous; most of those affected had two copies of the methionine-containing form. It is not yet known whether those unaffected are actually immune or only have a longer incubation period until symptoms appear.
  • #5 A novel mechanism of phenotypic heterogeneity in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-020-00966-x
    Furthermore, also in the MV2K-C mixed variants, resPrPD 129 allotypic proportions appear to correlate with the representations of the two histotypes. […] Finally, in the sCJDMV1 subtype that shares the histotype with the codon 129 homozygous MM1 subtype, resPrPD-129M and -129V were represented in approximately equal proportions.
  • #5 Efficient Transmission and Characterization of Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease Strains in Bank Voles | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.0020012
    The transmission-barrier effect appears to consist of several different elements: a low efficiency of infection, the selection of agent strains that replicate more rapidly in the new species, and differences in pathogenesis between interspecies and intraspecies transmissions. […] The extent of a transmission barrier can be inferred by the decrease in survival time between the primary transmission and subsequent passage in the new host species. […] The glycoform pattern of PrPSc in voles inoculated with ME7 was different from that obtained in voles inoculated with all human cases, being characterized by the highest proportion of di-glycosylated PrPSc. […] The relative amounts of the three major bands observed on immunoblot further characterize subtype-specific PrPSc fragments. […] Our results provide further evidence that the outcome of interspecies transmission of prions cannot be predicted by the degree of PrP sequence homology between two species, but depends mainly on the prion strain.
  • #5 The Radiology Assistant : Dementia – Role of MRI
    https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/dementia/role-of-mri
    CJD is a very rare and incurable neurodegenerative disease, caused by a unique type of infectious agent called a prion. The first symptom of CJD is rapidly progressive dementia, leading to memory loss, personality changes and hallucinations. The disease is characterized by spongiform changes in the cortical and subcortical gray matter, with loss of neurons and replacement by gliosis. […] The abnormalities can sometimes be detected on FLAIR, but are most conspicuous on DWI sequences, affecting either the striatum, the neo-cortex, or a combination of both. […] New variant of CJD is also known as the 'mad cow disease’. In this variant the changes are seen in the posterior part of the thalamus, called the pulvinar.
  • #5 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/prion-diseases/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease-cjd
    Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is a prion disease characterized by progressive deterioration of mental function, leading to dementia, involuntary jerking of muscles (myoclonus), and staggering when walking. […] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a prion disease, which develops when a normal protein called cellular prion protein (PrPC) changes shape (misfolds) and becomes a disease-causing prion. Prions slowly accumulate in the brain and usually cause tiny bubbles to form in brain cells, which gradually die. When enough brain cells malfunction or die, symptoms develop, followed by the person’s death. […] Familial CJD results from a mutation in the gene for PrPC, which causes normal PrPC to change into disease-causing prion. […] Routine cleansing and sterilization procedures do not destroy prions. However, bleach and other cleaning techniques that specifically target prions are effective.
  • #6 Prion diseases
    https://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5ePrions.html
    Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are caused by abnormal folding of prions (pronounced pree-ons, an acronym for proteinaceous infectious particles). The normal prion protein, which is designated as PrPC, is a 35kD membrane glycoprotein, which is water-soluble and proteinase-sensitive. Abnormal prions, designated as PrPSc, result from a change in the folding pattern of PrPC, which makes it resistant to the action of proteases and causes it to precipitate as insoluble amyloid. This conversion results in neuronal degeneration and loss by an unknown mechanism. […] The unique feature of prion diseases is that they are self-propagating and transmissible. Once PrPSc is generated endogenously or introduced into the body from the environment, it converts normal prions into abnormal ones. This conversion begins with the initial production of a small polymer of misfolded prions, (a seed), perhaps no more than 28 molecules. This seed converts normal adjacent prions into abnormal ones by an unknown mechanism. As more PrPSc polymers are produced, they, in turn, act as seeds, propagating the conversion of normal to abnormal prions.
  • #6 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Creutzfeldt-Jakob_disease_pathophysiology
    The majority of cases of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are thought to occur sporadically from prions by an unknown route of transmission. […] The CJD prion promotes refolding of the native proteins into the diseased state. […] The number of misfolded protein molecules increases exponentially, and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble prions in the affected cells. […] This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. […] Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and are produced in a self-sustaining feedback loop, causing exponential spread of the prion.
  • #6
    https://omim.org/entry/123400
    Zanusso et al. (2007) reported an atypical case of sCJD associated with a novel prion protein conformation. […] Prion incubation periods in experimental animals vary inversely with expression level of cellular prion protein. […] Sandberg et al. (2011) demonstrated that prion propagation in brain proceeds via 2 distinct phases: a clinically silent exponential phase not rate-limited by prion protein concentration that rapidly reaches a maximal prion titer, followed by a distinct switch to a plateau phase. […] Collinge et al. (1996) reported that 'new variant’ CJD (vCJD) is associated with the unique and highly consistent appearance of protease-resistant PrP on Western blots involving a characteristic pattern of glycosylation. […] In 3 patients with vCJD, Haik et al. (2003) found pathologic accumulation of PrP(Sc) in neurons of the sympathetic ganglia of the autonomic nervous system, including the celiac, superior mesenteric, and stellate ganglia. […] Tyler (2003) reviewed the clinical findings in cases of variant CJD, which differed dramatically from those in sporadic cases.
  • #6
    https://omim.org/entry/123400
    Bockman et al. (1985) found that purified fractions from the brains of 2 patients with CJD contained protease-resistant proteins ranging in molecular mass from 10 to 50 kD. […] Based on their studies in PrP-null mice, Collinge et al. (1994) concluded that prion protein is necessary for normal synaptic function. […] Miele et al. (2001) demonstrated that a dramatic decrease in expression of a transcript specific to the erythroid lineage cells (EDRF; 605821) is a common feature of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). […] Head et al. (2003) found that presumptive centrifugal spread of PrP(Sc) from the brain through the optic nerve occurred in both sporadic and variant CJD. […] Zanusso et al. (2003) studied 9 patients with neuropathologically confirmed sporadic CJD and found that PrP(Sc) was present in olfactory cilia and central olfactory pathway, but not in the respiratory mucosa.
  • #6 Clinical features of genetic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease with V180I mutation in the prion protein gene | BMJ Open
    https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/4/5/e004968
    Genetic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) due to V180I mutation in the prion protein gene (PRNP) is of great interest because of the differences from sporadic CJD and other genetic prion diseases in terms of clinical features, as well as pathological and biochemical findings. […] Our results indicate that the V180I mutation caused CJD at an older age, with a slower progression and a lower possibility of developing myoclonus, cerebellar, pyramidal signs and visual disturbance compared with classical sporadic CJD with methionine homozygosity at codon 129 of PRNP. […] We conclude that the V180I mutation in PRNP produces a late-developing and slow-developing, less severe form of CJD, whose lesions are uniquely distributed compared with sporadic and other genetic forms of CJD. […] The analysis of the probability of occurrence of neurological symptoms and signs similarly demonstrated reduced severity in patients with V180I-MM compared to those with sCJD-MM1.
  • #6 Efficient Transmission and Characterization of Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease Strains in Bank Voles | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.0020012
    The transmission-barrier effect appears to consist of several different elements: a low efficiency of infection, the selection of agent strains that replicate more rapidly in the new species, and differences in pathogenesis between interspecies and intraspecies transmissions. […] The extent of a transmission barrier can be inferred by the decrease in survival time between the primary transmission and subsequent passage in the new host species. […] The glycoform pattern of PrPSc in voles inoculated with ME7 was different from that obtained in voles inoculated with all human cases, being characterized by the highest proportion of di-glycosylated PrPSc. […] The relative amounts of the three major bands observed on immunoblot further characterize subtype-specific PrPSc fragments. […] Our results provide further evidence that the outcome of interspecies transmission of prions cannot be predicted by the degree of PrP sequence homology between two species, but depends mainly on the prion strain.