Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Bedsores are areas of damaged skin and tissue caused by sustained pressure that reduces blood flow to vulnerable areas of the body. This pressure may be caused from being in a bed or wheelchair for a long time. […] Bedsores can arise over hours or days. Most sores heal with treatment, but some never heal completely. You can take steps to put a stop to bedsores and help them heal. […] Pressure against the skin that limits blood flow to the skin causes bedsores. Limited movement can make skin prone to damage and cause bedsores. […] The three main things that lead to bedsores are: […] Pressure. Constant pressure on any part of the body can lessen the blood flow to tissues. Blood flow is essential to deliver oxygen and other nutrients to tissues. Without these key nutrients, skin and nearby tissues are damaged and might die over time. Limited movement can make skin prone to the damage that the pressure causes.

• #2 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Pressure injuries are localized skin and soft tissue injuries that develop due to prolonged pressure exerted over specific areas of the body, typically bony prominences. […] The development of pressure injuries is complex and multifactorial. External and internal factors co-occur to form these ulcers. Externally, prolonged pressure, friction, shear force, and moisture can lead to tissue deformation and ischemia. Internal factors such as malnutrition, anemia, and endothelial dysfunction can speed up the process of tissue damage. […] Decreased mobility, skin moisture, poor nutritional status, and loss of sensory perception stand out as the most common risk factors. However, researchers have also identified older age, cognitive impairment, and comorbid conditions affecting tissue healing.

• #3 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

• #4 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Bedsores are areas of damaged skin and tissue caused by sustained pressure that reduces blood flow to vulnerable areas of the body. This pressure may be caused from being in a bed or wheelchair for a long time. […] Bedsores can arise over hours or days. Most sores heal with treatment, but some never heal completely. You can take steps to put a stop to bedsores and help them heal. […] Pressure against the skin that limits blood flow to the skin causes bedsores. Limited movement can make skin prone to damage and cause bedsores. […] The three main things that lead to bedsores are: […] Pressure. Constant pressure on any part of the body can lessen the blood flow to tissues. Blood flow is essential to deliver oxygen and other nutrients to tissues. Without these key nutrients, skin and nearby tissues are damaged and might die over time. Limited movement can make skin prone to the damage that the pressure causes.

• #5 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

• #6 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Individuals with SCI are at high risk for developing pressure sores. […] Pressure sores can be life threatening. […] Up to 80% of individuals with SCI will have a pressure sore during their lifetime, and 30% will have more than one pressure sore. […] Most pressure sores are preventable. […] A pressure sore (also called pressure ulcer, decubitus ulcer, decubiti (plural), bedsore or skin breakdown) is an area of the skin or underlying tissue (muscle, bone) that is damaged due to loss of blood flow to the area. […] Unrelieved pressure is the most common cause of pressure sores in SCI. […] The extended pressure cuts off the blood supply to the skin, leading to tissue damage, skin breakdown and a pressure sore. […] Loss of muscle mass. […] Being over- or underweight. […] Decreased circulation.

• #7 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Bedsores are areas of damaged skin and tissue caused by sustained pressure that reduces blood flow to vulnerable areas of the body. This pressure may be caused from being in a bed or wheelchair for a long time. […] Bedsores can arise over hours or days. Most sores heal with treatment, but some never heal completely. You can take steps to put a stop to bedsores and help them heal. […] Pressure against the skin that limits blood flow to the skin causes bedsores. Limited movement can make skin prone to damage and cause bedsores. […] The three main things that lead to bedsores are: […] Pressure. Constant pressure on any part of the body can lessen the blood flow to tissues. Blood flow is essential to deliver oxygen and other nutrients to tissues. Without these key nutrients, skin and nearby tissues are damaged and might die over time. Limited movement can make skin prone to the damage that the pressure causes.

• #8 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Pressure injuries are areas of necrosis and often ulceration (also called pressure ulcers) where soft tissues are compressed between bony prominences and external hard surfaces. They are caused by unrelieved mechanical pressure in combination with friction, shearing forces, and moisture. Risk factors include age 65, impaired circulation and tissue perfusion, immobilization, undernutrition, decreased sensation, and incontinence. […] The main factors contributing to pressure injuries are […] Pressure: When soft tissues are compressed for prolonged periods between bony prominences and external surfaces, microvascular occlusion with tissue ischemia and hypoxia occurs. […] Friction: Friction (rubbing against clothing or bedding) can help trigger skin ulceration by causing local erosion and breaks in the epidermis and superficial dermis.

• #9 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Bedsores are areas of damaged skin and tissue caused by sustained pressure that reduces blood flow to vulnerable areas of the body. This pressure may be caused from being in a bed or wheelchair for a long time. […] Bedsores can arise over hours or days. Most sores heal with treatment, but some never heal completely. You can take steps to put a stop to bedsores and help them heal. […] Pressure against the skin that limits blood flow to the skin causes bedsores. Limited movement can make skin prone to damage and cause bedsores. […] The three main things that lead to bedsores are: […] Pressure. Constant pressure on any part of the body can lessen the blood flow to tissues. Blood flow is essential to deliver oxygen and other nutrients to tissues. Without these key nutrients, skin and nearby tissues are damaged and might die over time. Limited movement can make skin prone to the damage that the pressure causes.

• #10 Pressure Injuries (Pressure Ulcers) and Wound Care: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/190115-overview

  Impaired mobility is probably the most common reason why patients are exposed to the prolonged uninterrupted pressure that causes pressure injuries. […] Prolonged immobility may lead to muscle and soft tissue atrophy, decreasing the bulk over which bony prominences are supported. […] Contractures and spasticity often contribute to ulcer formation by repeatedly exposing tissues to trauma through flexion of a joint. […] Inability to perceive pain, whether from neurologic impairment or from medication, contributes to pressure injuries by removing one of the most important stimuli for repositioning and pressure relief. […] The quality of the skin also influences whether pressure leads to ulceration. […] Incontinence or the presence of a fistula contributes to ulceration in several ways.

• #11 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #12 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #13 Pressure Ulcers: Prevention, Evaluation, and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/1115/p1186.html/1000

  A pressure ulcer is a localized injury to the skin or underlying tissue, usually over a bony prominence, as a result of unrelieved pressure. […] Pressure ulcers are caused by unrelieved pressure, applied with great force over a short period (or with less force over a longer period), that disrupts blood supply to the capillary network, impeding blood flow and depriving tissues of oxygen and nutrients. This external pressure must be greater than arterial capillary pressure to lead to inflow impairment and resultant local ischemia and tissue damage. […] The most common sites for pressure ulcers are the sacrum, heels, ischial tuberosities, greater trochanters, and lateral malleoli.

• #14 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #15 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-and-risk-factors-of-pressure-ulcers-(bedsores).aspx

  Pressure sores, also known as pressure ulcers or bed sores, are caused by application of extra pressure over patches of skin. […] Pressure ulcers occur due to a lack of blood supply, and thus supply of oxygen and nutrients, to a part of the body that is also affected by pressure. […] Pressure ulcers do not normally affect healthy persons. Healthy individuals usually move their body and change postures unknowingly in order to prevent prolonged pressure on one part. […] Some people are at a heightened risk of getting pressure ulcers. The major risks that lead to pressure sores include: stress, duration of stress, paralysis or spasticity, infections, edema, moisture, lack of nerve supply, and poor nutrition. […] The at-risk individuals include those with problems of mobility who cannot change position by themselves without help, patients who are paralyzed and those with paralysis due to damaged spinal cord, patients who have nerve damage and cannot feel pain over the affected areas, patients who have no control over their bladder or bowels, seriously ill patients or those who have undergone massive or extensive surgery that would require time to heal, patients who have had an earlier pressure ulcer or those who have one other pressure ulcer are likely to develop more, malnutrition, nutritional deficiency and dehydration and lack of adequate water raises risk of pressure sores, those who are obese are also at a heightened risk of pressure sores, new born ill infants who do not move much as well as very old individuals are at risk, major injuries like fracture of hip bone in the elderly, patients with heart failure and other chronic heart diseases that make blood flow sluggish are at risk, those with kidney disease and anemia are also at risk, patients with mental illness or Alzheimers disease are at risk of bed sores, cleansing with soap and water may raise risk of pressure sores, those with a darkly pigmented skin, or skin discoloration, oedematous skin or hard and indurated skin are at risk of pressure sores, skin that is too dry or too wet (from urine or sweat) is at risk of sores.

• #16 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Friction. Friction occurs when the skin rubs against clothing or bedding. It can make fragile skin more vulnerable to injury, especially if the skin also is moist. […] Shear. Shear occurs when two surfaces move in the opposite direction. For example, when a bed is raised at the head, a person can slide down in bed. As the tailbone moves down, the skin over the bone might stay in place, pulling in the opposite direction.

• #17 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Pressure injuries are areas of necrosis and often ulceration (also called pressure ulcers) where soft tissues are compressed between bony prominences and external hard surfaces. They are caused by unrelieved mechanical pressure in combination with friction, shearing forces, and moisture. Risk factors include age 65, impaired circulation and tissue perfusion, immobilization, undernutrition, decreased sensation, and incontinence. […] The main factors contributing to pressure injuries are […] Pressure: When soft tissues are compressed for prolonged periods between bony prominences and external surfaces, microvascular occlusion with tissue ischemia and hypoxia occurs. […] Friction: Friction (rubbing against clothing or bedding) can help trigger skin ulceration by causing local erosion and breaks in the epidermis and superficial dermis.

• #18 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Pressure injuries are areas of necrosis and often ulceration (also called pressure ulcers) where soft tissues are compressed between bony prominences and external hard surfaces. They are caused by unrelieved mechanical pressure in combination with friction, shearing forces, and moisture. Risk factors include age 65, impaired circulation and tissue perfusion, immobilization, undernutrition, decreased sensation, and incontinence. […] The main factors contributing to pressure injuries are […] Pressure: When soft tissues are compressed for prolonged periods between bony prominences and external surfaces, microvascular occlusion with tissue ischemia and hypoxia occurs. […] Friction: Friction (rubbing against clothing or bedding) can help trigger skin ulceration by causing local erosion and breaks in the epidermis and superficial dermis.

• #19 Bedsore Causes in Nursing Homes – Learn Common Causes

  https://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/nursing-home-injuries/bedsores/causes/

  Prolonged pressure is one of the most common bedsore causes. […] Shear, another notable bedsore cause, describes the movement of two surfaces in opposite directions. […] Elderly nursing home residents are at a high risk of bedsores from friction because their skin is typically more fragile and vulnerable to injury. […] The biggest risk factor for bedsore causes is limited mobility. If an elderly person has trouble moving on their own, it is all too easy for their skin to suffer from excess pressure, friction, and shear. […] Nursing home staff members should take special care with at-risk patients to avoid common bedsore causes and risk factors.

• #20

  https://www.crh.org/healthy-tomorrow/story/healthy-tomorrow/2016/10/25/what-causes-bed-sores-and-how-can-they-be-prevented

  Moisture: Increased Moisture over prolonged periods can lead to skin maceration and cause skin to be more prone to injury from pressure and other forces. […] Friction/Shear: Friction or shear-induced ulcers or skin tears can be another potential etiology for a bed sore and comes from moving skin over the surface of a fixed object.

• #21 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Friction. Friction occurs when the skin rubs against clothing or bedding. It can make fragile skin more vulnerable to injury, especially if the skin also is moist. […] Shear. Shear occurs when two surfaces move in the opposite direction. For example, when a bed is raised at the head, a person can slide down in bed. As the tailbone moves down, the skin over the bone might stay in place, pulling in the opposite direction.

• #22 Bedsores (pressure ulcers) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bed-sores/symptoms-causes/syc-20355893

  Friction. Friction occurs when the skin rubs against clothing or bedding. It can make fragile skin more vulnerable to injury, especially if the skin also is moist. […] Shear. Shear occurs when two surfaces move in the opposite direction. For example, when a bed is raised at the head, a person can slide down in bed. As the tailbone moves down, the skin over the bone might stay in place, pulling in the opposite direction.

• #23 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Shearing forces: Shearing forces (eg, when a patient is placed on an inclined surface) stress and damage supporting tissues by causing forces of muscles and subcutaneous tissues that are drawn down by gravity to oppose the more superficial tissues that remain in contact with external surfaces. […] Moisture: Moisture (eg, perspiration, incontinence) leads to tissue breakdown and maceration, which can initiate or worsen pressure injuries. […] Pressure injury has also been reported in children with severe neurologic impairments such as spina bifida, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injury. […] Several scales (eg, The Norton Scale for Predicting Pressure Ulcer Risk, the Braden Scale) have been developed to predict risk. […] The Norton Scale is used to determine whether a patient is at high risk of pressure ulcer development based on the sum of the scores of five criteria: physical condition, mental condition, activity, mobility, and incontinence.

• #24 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Shearing forces: Shearing forces (eg, when a patient is placed on an inclined surface) stress and damage supporting tissues by causing forces of muscles and subcutaneous tissues that are drawn down by gravity to oppose the more superficial tissues that remain in contact with external surfaces. […] Moisture: Moisture (eg, perspiration, incontinence) leads to tissue breakdown and maceration, which can initiate or worsen pressure injuries. […] Pressure injury has also been reported in children with severe neurologic impairments such as spina bifida, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injury. […] Several scales (eg, The Norton Scale for Predicting Pressure Ulcer Risk, the Braden Scale) have been developed to predict risk. […] The Norton Scale is used to determine whether a patient is at high risk of pressure ulcer development based on the sum of the scores of five criteria: physical condition, mental condition, activity, mobility, and incontinence.

• #25 Part 1. Causes of pressure ulcers | Nursing Times

  https://www.nursingtimes.net/archive/part-1-causes-of-pressure-ulcers-14-03-2002/

  Areas particularly prone to pressure damage are bony prominences, such as the heels, ankles, hips and elbows, which have a thin covering of soft tissue. […] The most serious pressure damage usually occurs as a result of the deformation in the deep tissues near the underlying bony prominence. […] Shearing of soft tissue occurs when forces moving in different directions are applied to the same tissue mass. […] Friction, as well as pressure and shear, is also frequently cited as a cause of pressure ulcers. […] There are three potential causes of pressure ulcers: loss of movement, failure of reactive hyperaemia and loss of sensation. […] Immobility, in the absence of additional factors, is rarely the primary cause of pressure ulcers. […] In patients with a failure of reactive hyperaemia, the tissues are no longer able to recover from ischaemic episodes, and pressure ulcer prevention is probably most difficult in this group.

• #26 10 Parts of the Body Affected by Bed Sores

  https://www.thewoundpros.com/post/10-parts-of-the-body-affected-by-bed-sores

  Friction occurs when the skin rubs against a surface, such as bedding or clothing, leading to abrasions or skin tears. In individuals with compromised mobility, friction can exacerbate the development of bed sores by further damaging the skin’s protective barrier and increasing susceptibility to injury. […] Shear forces occur when adjacent tissue layers move in opposite directions, causing stretching and tearing of blood vessels and tissues. In bed sores, shear forces commonly happen when a person is pulled or slid across a surface, such as when repositioning in bed or transferring to a chair. […] Moisture from sweat, urine, or feces can increase the risk of bed sore formation by softening the skin and increasing susceptibility to breakdown. Prolonged exposure to moisture can lead to skin maceration, making it more prone to friction and damage.

• #27 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Shearing forces: Shearing forces (eg, when a patient is placed on an inclined surface) stress and damage supporting tissues by causing forces of muscles and subcutaneous tissues that are drawn down by gravity to oppose the more superficial tissues that remain in contact with external surfaces. […] Moisture: Moisture (eg, perspiration, incontinence) leads to tissue breakdown and maceration, which can initiate or worsen pressure injuries. […] Pressure injury has also been reported in children with severe neurologic impairments such as spina bifida, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injury. […] Several scales (eg, The Norton Scale for Predicting Pressure Ulcer Risk, the Braden Scale) have been developed to predict risk. […] The Norton Scale is used to determine whether a patient is at high risk of pressure ulcer development based on the sum of the scores of five criteria: physical condition, mental condition, activity, mobility, and incontinence.

• #28 10 Parts of the Body Affected by Bed Sores

  https://www.thewoundpros.com/post/10-parts-of-the-body-affected-by-bed-sores

  Friction occurs when the skin rubs against a surface, such as bedding or clothing, leading to abrasions or skin tears. In individuals with compromised mobility, friction can exacerbate the development of bed sores by further damaging the skin’s protective barrier and increasing susceptibility to injury. […] Shear forces occur when adjacent tissue layers move in opposite directions, causing stretching and tearing of blood vessels and tissues. In bed sores, shear forces commonly happen when a person is pulled or slid across a surface, such as when repositioning in bed or transferring to a chair. […] Moisture from sweat, urine, or feces can increase the risk of bed sore formation by softening the skin and increasing susceptibility to breakdown. Prolonged exposure to moisture can lead to skin maceration, making it more prone to friction and damage.

• #29 Pressure sores | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/pressure-sores

  Anyone confined to a bed or chair for a long time is at risk of developing a pressure sore. […] Pressure sores are areas of damage to the skin and the underlying tissue caused by constant pressure or friction. […] A pressure sore is caused by constant pressure applied to the skin over a period of time. […] The skin of older people tends to be thinner and more delicate, which means an older person has an increased risk of developing a pressure sore during a prolonged stay in bed. […] Other risk factors for pressure sores include: immobility and paralysis for example due to a stroke or a severe head injury, being restricted to either sitting or lying down, impaired sensation or impaired ability to respond to pain or discomfort. […] Skin exposed to urine or faeces is more susceptible to irritation and damage.

• #30 Pressure Sores – Skin Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/skin-disorders/pressure-sores/pressure-sores

  Moisture can increase skin friction and weaken or damage the protective outer layer of skin if the skin is exposed to it for a long time. […] Pressure sores can occur in people of any age who are confined to bed or a chair, or who are unable to reposition themselves. […] Inadequate nutrition increases the risk of developing pressure sores and slows the healing process of sores that do develop. […] Aging itself does not cause pressure sores. But it causes changes in tissues that make pressure sores more likely to develop.

• #31

  https://www.crh.org/healthy-tomorrow/story/healthy-tomorrow/2016/10/25/what-causes-bed-sores-and-how-can-they-be-prevented

  Bed sores are pressure ulcers and are some of the most commonly encountered medical conditions in patients requiring long-term care. […] Pressure ulcers develop for several reasons which tend to lead to or cause increased risk with periods of prolonged pressure and are typically treated by reducing such factors. […] Malnutrition: Poor nutritional status can cause loss of fatty tissue which serves as a cushion over pressure sensitive areas, it also leads to decreased resilience of skin tissue and decreased exposure time to develop a pressure ulcer. […] Poor Skin Perfusion (or decreased blood flow): Any reduction in blood flow to the skin can cause hypoxia (decreased oxygen) in skin tissues causing decreased exposure time to develop a pressure ulcer. […] Bed sores can also arise from several other etiologies that are not pressure-induced but are important to be aware of.

• #32 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Blood flow to the paralyzed limbs decreases due to the lack of muscle movement and results in a reduction in nutrients and oxygen getting to the skin. […] Illness or poor overall health. […] Moisture. […] Dry, flaky skin can crack and become inflamed and infected. […] Aging causes skin to become thinner, dryer, and more fragile. […] Previous skin breakdown. […] Spasticity can cause your arms or legs to bump against an object and be injured, or rub against a surface (such as the sheets on your bed), which could produce an open sore. […] Alcohol (or drug) use often causes people to neglect their pressure reliefs and other personal care needs. […] Depression is also a risk factor for pressure sores.

• #33 Pressure ulcers: Current understanding and newer modalities of treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4413488/

  To put it more simply, any individual, with or without a medical condition, who is incapable of avoiding prolonged periods of an uninterrupted compression, is at a risk of pressure ulcers. […] The creation of a pressure ulcer can involve one or a combination of these factors. […] Age-related physiological alterations can lower the threshold for pressure-induced injury in elderly patients. […] Any condition that is associated with prolonged, impaired wound healing such as diabetes mellitus, which affects 11% of adults over the age of 70 years. […] Oxygen is required for all stages of wound healing thus any condition that is associated with a low tissue oxygen tension is a major cause of pressure ulcers. […] Pressure ulcers are largely preventable in nature, and their management depends on their severity. […] The available literature about severity of pressure ulcers, their classification and medical care protocols have been described in this paper.

• #34 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #35 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  The EPUAP emphasized the link between the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and the development of pressure ulcers. The panel attributed the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, abundant in COVID-19 patients, as a contributor to the onset and maintenance of inflammation following cell death and the formation of a pressure ulcer. […] The treatment of decubitus ulcers has its basis in the following: Prevention of additional ulcers, Decreasing pressure on the wound, Wound management, Surgical intervention, Improving the nutritional status.

• #36

  https://www.crh.org/healthy-tomorrow/story/healthy-tomorrow/2016/10/25/what-causes-bed-sores-and-how-can-they-be-prevented

  Bed sores are pressure ulcers and are some of the most commonly encountered medical conditions in patients requiring long-term care. […] Pressure ulcers develop for several reasons which tend to lead to or cause increased risk with periods of prolonged pressure and are typically treated by reducing such factors. […] Malnutrition: Poor nutritional status can cause loss of fatty tissue which serves as a cushion over pressure sensitive areas, it also leads to decreased resilience of skin tissue and decreased exposure time to develop a pressure ulcer. […] Poor Skin Perfusion (or decreased blood flow): Any reduction in blood flow to the skin can cause hypoxia (decreased oxygen) in skin tissues causing decreased exposure time to develop a pressure ulcer. […] Bed sores can also arise from several other etiologies that are not pressure-induced but are important to be aware of.

• #37 Bedsores (Decubitus Ulcers) – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/bedsores-decubitus-ulcers-a-to-z

  Bedsores, also called pressure ulcers or decubitus ulcers, are areas of broken skin that can develop in people who: […] Bedsores form where the weight of the person’s body presses the skin against the firm surface of the bed. […] This pressure temporarily cuts off the skin’s blood supply. This injures skin cells. Unless the pressure is relieved and blood flows to the skin again, the skin soon begins to show signs of injury. […] Although pressure on the skin is the main cause of bedsores, other factors often contribute to the problem. These include: […] Bedsores are more likely to develop in people who don’t get enough protein, vitamins and minerals. […] Elderly people, especially those over 85, are more likely to develop bedsores because skin usually becomes more fragile with age. […] Bedsores can lead to severe medical complications, including bone and blood infections.

• #38 What Causes Bed Sores? | 24/7 Free Consults | Nursing Home Law Center

  https://www.nursinghomelawcenter.org/bed-sores-in-nursing-home/causes-of-bed-sores/

  Patients who have limited mobility or are completely bedridden have an increased risk of developing a sore. […] Nursing home patients may be malnourished or dehydrated, which can cause their skin to lose elasticity and become damaged. […] Patients suffering from incontinence can face a high risk of developing bedsores. […] Some other risk factors include medical conditions can increase a persons likelihood of developing pressure-related skin injuries. […] Age can be another contributing factor to the development of pressure-induced skin injuries. […] Reduced blood flow and experiencing immobility for long periods of time can cause pressure-related sores in the elderly. […] Pressure-related sores are preventable, but if they occur, it can be a good indication of nursing home neglect. […] Bed sore causes include restricted blood flow and immobility in elderly patients.

• #39 Pressure Injuries | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/p/bedsores.html

  Being bedridden, unconscious, unable to sense pain, or unable to move raises the risk that a pressure injury will develop. […] Poor nutrition and skin care also increase risk. […] You are at higher risk if you have diabetes or circulation problems, are underweight or overweight, don’t have control of your bowels or bladder, or are malnourished. […] Once a pressure injury develops, it can take days, months, or even years to heal. […] It can also become infected, causing fever and chills. […] An infected pressure injury can take a long time to clear up, or even turn into a chronic wound that doesn’t heal. […] Pressure injuries can be prevented by inspecting the skin for areas of redness every day. […] Without enough calories, vitamins, minerals, fluids, and protein, pressure injuries cant heal, no matter how well you care for the sore.

• #40 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

• #41 Pressure ulcers | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/skin-hair-and-nails/pressure-ulcers/

  Pressure ulcers are caused by something putting pressure on your skin. It can also happen if something rubs the skin. For example, a bed or a wheelchair. […] Youre more likely to get pressure ulcers if you have difficulty moving. For example, if youre confined to lying in a bed or sitting for long periods of time. […] Pressure ulcers can happen to anyone, but its more common if you have problems moving. This is because the weight of your body puts pressure on the same areas of skin which can damage it. […] You have a higher chance of getting a pressure ulcer if you have: problems moving, had a pressure ulcer before, been seriously ill in intensive care, recently had surgery, swollen, sweaty or broken skin, poor circulation, fragile skin, problems feeling sensation or pain. […] Pressure ulcers usually come on gradually, but sometimes appear quite quickly. […] If arent treated theyll continue to get worse, and might deepen to reach muscle or bone.

• #42 Pressure Injuries (Pressure Ulcers) and Wound Care: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/190115-overview

  Impaired mobility is probably the most common reason why patients are exposed to the prolonged uninterrupted pressure that causes pressure injuries. […] Prolonged immobility may lead to muscle and soft tissue atrophy, decreasing the bulk over which bony prominences are supported. […] Contractures and spasticity often contribute to ulcer formation by repeatedly exposing tissues to trauma through flexion of a joint. […] Inability to perceive pain, whether from neurologic impairment or from medication, contributes to pressure injuries by removing one of the most important stimuli for repositioning and pressure relief. […] The quality of the skin also influences whether pressure leads to ulceration. […] Incontinence or the presence of a fistula contributes to ulceration in several ways.

• #43 Pressure Injuries (Pressure Ulcers) and Wound Care: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/190115-overview

  Impaired mobility is probably the most common reason why patients are exposed to the prolonged uninterrupted pressure that causes pressure injuries. […] Prolonged immobility may lead to muscle and soft tissue atrophy, decreasing the bulk over which bony prominences are supported. […] Contractures and spasticity often contribute to ulcer formation by repeatedly exposing tissues to trauma through flexion of a joint. […] Inability to perceive pain, whether from neurologic impairment or from medication, contributes to pressure injuries by removing one of the most important stimuli for repositioning and pressure relief. […] The quality of the skin also influences whether pressure leads to ulceration. […] Incontinence or the presence of a fistula contributes to ulceration in several ways.

• #44 Pressure Sores | Bedsores | Pressure Ulcers | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/pressuresores.html

  Pressure sores are areas of damaged skin caused by staying in one position for too long. […] You are at risk if you are bedridden, use a wheelchair, or are unable to change your position. […] Pressure sores can cause serious infections, some of which are life-threatening. […] You can prevent the sores by: Keeping skin clean and dry, Changing position every two hours, Using pillows and products that relieve pressure. […] Pressure sores have a variety of treatments. Advanced sores are slow to heal, so early treatment is best.

• #45 What Causes Bed Sores? | 24/7 Free Consults | Nursing Home Law Center

  https://www.nursinghomelawcenter.org/bed-sores-in-nursing-home/causes-of-bed-sores/

  According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, more than 2.5 million Americans will develop bed sores annually. This condition disproportionately impacts the elderly and those with limited mobility because it is caused by restricted blood flow. […] Bed sores, or pressure sores, occur when prolonged pressure is applied to the skin. This lowers blood flow and damages the skin, causing an underlying soft tissue injury. […] Patients who are bedbound or limited to wheelchairs are often seated in the same position for prolonged periods. This causes extended pressure on the skin, leading to pressure wounds due to friction (which damages blood vessels), shear forces, skin tears, and more. […] Nursing homes will do a risk assessment of a patient to determine if theyre likely to develop these injuries. Some of the risk factors include:

• #46 Pressure Injuries (Pressure Ulcers) and Wound Care: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/190115-overview

  Impaired mobility is probably the most common reason why patients are exposed to the prolonged uninterrupted pressure that causes pressure injuries. […] Prolonged immobility may lead to muscle and soft tissue atrophy, decreasing the bulk over which bony prominences are supported. […] Contractures and spasticity often contribute to ulcer formation by repeatedly exposing tissues to trauma through flexion of a joint. […] Inability to perceive pain, whether from neurologic impairment or from medication, contributes to pressure injuries by removing one of the most important stimuli for repositioning and pressure relief. […] The quality of the skin also influences whether pressure leads to ulceration. […] Incontinence or the presence of a fistula contributes to ulceration in several ways.

• #47 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers) – Symptoms, Stages, Causes, Treatment

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/skin-hair-and-nails/bedsores

  Without adequate blood and oxygen supply, cells die and the skin can break down, leaving it exposed and vulnerable to infection. […] Bedsores typically occur in areas of bony prominences that are not padded by muscle and fat. These areas include the: hip bones, tailbone (base of the spine), heels of the feet, ankles, shoulder blades, sides of the knees, back of the head, buttocks. […] Decreased mobility is the biggest risk factor for bedsores. Other risk factors include: Decreased sensory perception: People with spinal cord injuries, diabetes, or other medical conditions may not feel pain and discomfort due to nerve damage. As a result, they may not change positions often enough to avoid bedsores. […] Medical conditions affecting blood flow: Peripheral arterial disease, venous insufficiency, and diabetes are a few of the medical conditions that can decrease blood flow and oxygen supply to the skin, increasing the risk of bedsores.

• #48 Pressure Ulcers: Causes, Symptoms, Stages and Treatment

  https://www.woundcaresurgeons.org/blogs/all-you-need-to-know-about-pressure-ulcers

  Lack Of Sensory Perception – People with loss of sensation due to spinal cord injury, or neurological diseases are more prone to an increased risk of developing a pressure ulcer. […] Changes In Mental Status – If a person is suffering from dementia or other cognitive disorders may be unable to understand the given instructions helpful in preventing pressure ulcers. […] Incontinence – It can lead to skin damage which can further increase the risks of developing pressure ulcers. […] Poor Nutrition And Hydration – People who do not have sufficient and enough intake of fluids, calories, protein, vitamins, and minerals in their diet are compromised nutritionally and are at higher risks of developing pressure ulcers.

• #49 Pressure Ulcers | Bed Sores | MaineHealth

  https://www.mainehealth.org/care-services/wound-care-ostomy-care/pressure-ulcers-bed-sores

  Pressure ulcers are painful skin injuries due to long periods of pressure on the affected area. […] A pressure ulcer is a skin injury that often happens to people who are in a chair or in bed for long periods without changing positions. […] Pressure ulcers often are called bed sores, because they may develop in people confined to their bed for long periods of time. […] Some people are at higher risk of getting a pressure ulcer. Here are risk factors for getting pressure ulcers: […] Age: As part of the natural aging process, your skin gets thinner and weaker. This makes it more easily injured. People who are 70 and older are more likely to get pressure ulcers. […] Lack of movement: Staying in one position for a long period of time puts pressure on your skin that can result in a sore. People who are not mobile are more likely to get pressure ulcers, including people confined to beds or wheelchairs.

• #50 Pressure ulcers: Current understanding and newer modalities of treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4413488/

  To put it more simply, any individual, with or without a medical condition, who is incapable of avoiding prolonged periods of an uninterrupted compression, is at a risk of pressure ulcers. […] The creation of a pressure ulcer can involve one or a combination of these factors. […] Age-related physiological alterations can lower the threshold for pressure-induced injury in elderly patients. […] Any condition that is associated with prolonged, impaired wound healing such as diabetes mellitus, which affects 11% of adults over the age of 70 years. […] Oxygen is required for all stages of wound healing thus any condition that is associated with a low tissue oxygen tension is a major cause of pressure ulcers. […] Pressure ulcers are largely preventable in nature, and their management depends on their severity. […] The available literature about severity of pressure ulcers, their classification and medical care protocols have been described in this paper.

• #51 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Blood flow to the paralyzed limbs decreases due to the lack of muscle movement and results in a reduction in nutrients and oxygen getting to the skin. […] Illness or poor overall health. […] Moisture. […] Dry, flaky skin can crack and become inflamed and infected. […] Aging causes skin to become thinner, dryer, and more fragile. […] Previous skin breakdown. […] Spasticity can cause your arms or legs to bump against an object and be injured, or rub against a surface (such as the sheets on your bed), which could produce an open sore. […] Alcohol (or drug) use often causes people to neglect their pressure reliefs and other personal care needs. […] Depression is also a risk factor for pressure sores.

• #52 What Causes a Decubitus Ulcer or a Pressure Ulcer? | Fernandez Firm Accident Injury Attorneys

  https://www.fernandezfirm.com/decubitus-ulcer-causes/

  Getting older: Those who are 85 years and older are more prone to decubitus ulcers because the skin becomes more fragile as we age. […] Less sensation: People who have nerve problems and a decreased ability to feel discomfort or pain are more likely to get decubitus ulcers. […] Decubitus ulcers often lead to serious and intense pain. However, they can also result in more significant medical complications, such as blood infections and bone infections, which can become deadly without proper medical treatment. […] Pressure ulcers are common in the ill and elderly in the United States and around the world. […] If an individual is seriously ill cannot move by themselves, they are at risk of developing pressure ulcers. […] There are two main reasons that staff members don’t provide proper care to prevent ulcers:

• #53 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

• #54 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

• #55 Pressure ulcers: Current understanding and newer modalities of treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4413488/

  To put it more simply, any individual, with or without a medical condition, who is incapable of avoiding prolonged periods of an uninterrupted compression, is at a risk of pressure ulcers. […] The creation of a pressure ulcer can involve one or a combination of these factors. […] Age-related physiological alterations can lower the threshold for pressure-induced injury in elderly patients. […] Any condition that is associated with prolonged, impaired wound healing such as diabetes mellitus, which affects 11% of adults over the age of 70 years. […] Oxygen is required for all stages of wound healing thus any condition that is associated with a low tissue oxygen tension is a major cause of pressure ulcers. […] Pressure ulcers are largely preventable in nature, and their management depends on their severity. […] The available literature about severity of pressure ulcers, their classification and medical care protocols have been described in this paper.

• #56 Risk Factors for Pressure Ulcers

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/pressure-ulcers-knowing-the-risks-1131984

  Moisture is a common problem in people who have become incontinent and have to wear diapers. […] Incontinence of bowel movements and urine creates moisture on the skin and increases the risk of tissue breakdown. […] Poor nutrition can lead to weight loss, which can then increase the pressure on bony areas of the body. […] As a person ages, the skin becomes thinner and more fragile, increasing the risk of skin breakdown. […] Cardiovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and diabetes, all cause impaired circulation, increasing the risk of pressure injuries. […] And long stays In intensive care or long surgical procedures can lead to prolonged skin tissue pressure.

• #57 Pressure Injuries (Pressure Ulcers) and Wound Care: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/190115-overview

  Impaired mobility is probably the most common reason why patients are exposed to the prolonged uninterrupted pressure that causes pressure injuries. […] Prolonged immobility may lead to muscle and soft tissue atrophy, decreasing the bulk over which bony prominences are supported. […] Contractures and spasticity often contribute to ulcer formation by repeatedly exposing tissues to trauma through flexion of a joint. […] Inability to perceive pain, whether from neurologic impairment or from medication, contributes to pressure injuries by removing one of the most important stimuli for repositioning and pressure relief. […] The quality of the skin also influences whether pressure leads to ulceration. […] Incontinence or the presence of a fistula contributes to ulceration in several ways.

• #58 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

• #59 Risk Factors for Pressure Ulcers

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/pressure-ulcers-knowing-the-risks-1131984

  Moisture is a common problem in people who have become incontinent and have to wear diapers. […] Incontinence of bowel movements and urine creates moisture on the skin and increases the risk of tissue breakdown. […] Poor nutrition can lead to weight loss, which can then increase the pressure on bony areas of the body. […] As a person ages, the skin becomes thinner and more fragile, increasing the risk of skin breakdown. […] Cardiovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and diabetes, all cause impaired circulation, increasing the risk of pressure injuries. […] And long stays In intensive care or long surgical procedures can lead to prolonged skin tissue pressure.

• #60 Pressure Ulcers (Pressure Injuries) | Sepsis Alliance

  https://www.sepsis.org/sepsisand/pressure-ulcers-pressure-injuries/

  Any pressure sore where the skin has broken is susceptible to infection, but the risk is higher when the sore is located around the coccyx (tailbone) or buttocks, particularly if the patient is incontinent, unable to control bowel or bladder. […] Anyone can develop a pressure ulcer, but some people should be monitored more closely for signs of skin breakdown. […] Hospital-acquired pressure injuries, HAPI are pressure ulcers that develop while you during hospitalization. […] The earlier we notice a pressure ulcer, the easier it usually is to treat. […] The only way to prevent pressure sores is to ensure there is no or little pressure on specific parts of the body for prolonged periods. […] If a pressure ulcer develops, the earlier its caught, the better. Keeping all pressure off the area will help the skin heal. […] If the skin has broken, its vital to watch for signs of infection.

• #61 Causes and prevention of pressure sores | Coping with cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/coping/physically/skin-problems/pressure-sores/causes-and-prevention

  Pressure sores are wounds that develop when constant pressure or friction on one area of the body damages the skin. Constant pressure on an area of skin stops blood from flowing normally, so the cells die, and the skin breaks down. […] Pressure sores happen if you cant move around and so stay in one position for a long time. […] People who are unable to move around tend to put pressure on the same areas of the body for a long time. If you are ill, bedridden or in a wheelchair, you are at risk of getting pressure sores. […] Several things can increase your risk of pressure sores, including: being unable to move around easily due to old age, illness, being unconscious, having a spinal cord injury or recovering from surgery; weight loss – you may have less padding over bony areas; sliding down in a bed or chair – pressure on the skin cuts off blood supply because the skin is being pulled in different directions (called shearing); friction or rubbing of the skin, for example, against sheets; a poor diet; lack of fluid (dehydration); moist skin – for example, due to sweating or incontinence; thin, dry or weak skin; other medical conditions, such as diabetes; having had a previous pressure ulcer or having one at the moment; smoking; low levels of red blood cells (anaemia); cancer drugs, anti inflammatory drugs, steroids or blood thinners (anticoagulants); severe mental health problems.

• #62 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Blood flow to the paralyzed limbs decreases due to the lack of muscle movement and results in a reduction in nutrients and oxygen getting to the skin. […] Illness or poor overall health. […] Moisture. […] Dry, flaky skin can crack and become inflamed and infected. […] Aging causes skin to become thinner, dryer, and more fragile. […] Previous skin breakdown. […] Spasticity can cause your arms or legs to bump against an object and be injured, or rub against a surface (such as the sheets on your bed), which could produce an open sore. […] Alcohol (or drug) use often causes people to neglect their pressure reliefs and other personal care needs. […] Depression is also a risk factor for pressure sores.

• #63 Pressure ulcers | informedhealth.org

  https://www.informedhealth.org/pressure-ulcers.html

  Circulation disorders, possibly due to narrowed blood vessels (arteriosclerosis), make it even more difficult for blood to reach vulnerable areas of skin. […] Malnutrition is an additional risk factor for people who are bedridden. This is because people who hardly have any body fat and drink and eat very little have thinner and less resistant skin, with poor blood circulation. […] Friction and shear (the forces caused by two layers of skin rubbing against each other) can damage the skin further. […] Skin that is exposed to urine (pee), feces (poop) or sweat for hours is more prone to irritation and damage. […] If someone has already had a pressure ulcer in the past, they are more likely to develop another one in the same place. […] Open, poorly healing wounds also act as gateways for germs, which may lead to an infection. If the germs spread further into the body, the wound cant heal properly, resulting in blood poisoning (septicemia).

• #64 Pressure Injuries (Pressure Ulcers) and Wound Care: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/190115-overview

  Impaired mobility is probably the most common reason why patients are exposed to the prolonged uninterrupted pressure that causes pressure injuries. […] Prolonged immobility may lead to muscle and soft tissue atrophy, decreasing the bulk over which bony prominences are supported. […] Contractures and spasticity often contribute to ulcer formation by repeatedly exposing tissues to trauma through flexion of a joint. […] Inability to perceive pain, whether from neurologic impairment or from medication, contributes to pressure injuries by removing one of the most important stimuli for repositioning and pressure relief. […] The quality of the skin also influences whether pressure leads to ulceration. […] Incontinence or the presence of a fistula contributes to ulceration in several ways.

• #65 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Blood flow to the paralyzed limbs decreases due to the lack of muscle movement and results in a reduction in nutrients and oxygen getting to the skin. […] Illness or poor overall health. […] Moisture. […] Dry, flaky skin can crack and become inflamed and infected. […] Aging causes skin to become thinner, dryer, and more fragile. […] Previous skin breakdown. […] Spasticity can cause your arms or legs to bump against an object and be injured, or rub against a surface (such as the sheets on your bed), which could produce an open sore. […] Alcohol (or drug) use often causes people to neglect their pressure reliefs and other personal care needs. […] Depression is also a risk factor for pressure sores.

• #66 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers) — DermNet

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pressure-ulcer

  Pressure ulcers are skin and soft tissue injuries sustained from prolonged pressure. Specifically, they involve a breakdown of the skin, subcutaneous tissues and sometimes even deeper structures (tendons, muscle, bone) caused by cumulative pressure and are often related to pre-existing health conditions or injuries. […] The most important cause of pressure ulcers is external pressure at a skin site for prolonged periods, although the exact mechanism is complex and poorly understood. […] A proposed mechanism involves a complex interplay of local tissue ischaemia, reperfusion injury, increased capillary permeability, increased autophagy, and cell senescence causing direct insult to skin cells. […] Identifying external and internal risk factors is important to prevent or minimise pressure ulcers.

• #67 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #68 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #69 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers) — DermNet

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pressure-ulcer

  Pressure ulcers are skin and soft tissue injuries sustained from prolonged pressure. Specifically, they involve a breakdown of the skin, subcutaneous tissues and sometimes even deeper structures (tendons, muscle, bone) caused by cumulative pressure and are often related to pre-existing health conditions or injuries. […] The most important cause of pressure ulcers is external pressure at a skin site for prolonged periods, although the exact mechanism is complex and poorly understood. […] A proposed mechanism involves a complex interplay of local tissue ischaemia, reperfusion injury, increased capillary permeability, increased autophagy, and cell senescence causing direct insult to skin cells. […] Identifying external and internal risk factors is important to prevent or minimise pressure ulcers.

• #70 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #71 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Prolonged pressure on tissues can cause capillary bed occlusion, reducing oxygen levels in the area. Over time, the ischemic tissue begins to accumulate toxic metabolites. Subsequently, tissue ulceration and necrosis occur. […] The dysfunction of nervous regulatory mechanisms responsible for regulating local blood flow is also somewhat culpable in forming these ulcers. […] The initial change occurs in the vessels of the papillary dermis, followed by the necrosis of skin structures. […] Decubitus ulcer formation is multifactorial, but these ulcers result in a common pathway to ischemia and necrosis. Tissues can sustain an abnormal amount of external pressure, but constant pressure exerted over a prolonged period is the main culprit. […] The pressure must be greater than the venous capillary closing pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg to impair venous blood return. Sustaining pressure above these values leads to tissue ischemia and necrosis.

• #72 Part 1. Causes of pressure ulcers | Nursing Times

  https://www.nursingtimes.net/archive/part-1-causes-of-pressure-ulcers-14-03-2002/

  Areas particularly prone to pressure damage are bony prominences, such as the heels, ankles, hips and elbows, which have a thin covering of soft tissue. […] The most serious pressure damage usually occurs as a result of the deformation in the deep tissues near the underlying bony prominence. […] Shearing of soft tissue occurs when forces moving in different directions are applied to the same tissue mass. […] Friction, as well as pressure and shear, is also frequently cited as a cause of pressure ulcers. […] There are three potential causes of pressure ulcers: loss of movement, failure of reactive hyperaemia and loss of sensation. […] Immobility, in the absence of additional factors, is rarely the primary cause of pressure ulcers. […] In patients with a failure of reactive hyperaemia, the tissues are no longer able to recover from ischaemic episodes, and pressure ulcer prevention is probably most difficult in this group.

• #73 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  The EPUAP emphasized the link between the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and the development of pressure ulcers. The panel attributed the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, abundant in COVID-19 patients, as a contributor to the onset and maintenance of inflammation following cell death and the formation of a pressure ulcer. […] The treatment of decubitus ulcers has its basis in the following: Prevention of additional ulcers, Decreasing pressure on the wound, Wound management, Surgical intervention, Improving the nutritional status.

• #74 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  The EPUAP emphasized the link between the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and the development of pressure ulcers. The panel attributed the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, abundant in COVID-19 patients, as a contributor to the onset and maintenance of inflammation following cell death and the formation of a pressure ulcer. […] The treatment of decubitus ulcers has its basis in the following: Prevention of additional ulcers, Decreasing pressure on the wound, Wound management, Surgical intervention, Improving the nutritional status.

• #75 Pressure Ulcers (Pressure Injuries) | Sepsis Alliance

  https://www.sepsis.org/sepsisand/pressure-ulcers-pressure-injuries/

  Any pressure sore where the skin has broken is susceptible to infection, but the risk is higher when the sore is located around the coccyx (tailbone) or buttocks, particularly if the patient is incontinent, unable to control bowel or bladder. […] Anyone can develop a pressure ulcer, but some people should be monitored more closely for signs of skin breakdown. […] Hospital-acquired pressure injuries, HAPI are pressure ulcers that develop while you during hospitalization. […] The earlier we notice a pressure ulcer, the easier it usually is to treat. […] The only way to prevent pressure sores is to ensure there is no or little pressure on specific parts of the body for prolonged periods. […] If a pressure ulcer develops, the earlier its caught, the better. Keeping all pressure off the area will help the skin heal. […] If the skin has broken, its vital to watch for signs of infection.

• #76 Risk Factors for Pressure Ulcers

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/pressure-ulcers-knowing-the-risks-1131984

  Moisture is a common problem in people who have become incontinent and have to wear diapers. […] Incontinence of bowel movements and urine creates moisture on the skin and increases the risk of tissue breakdown. […] Poor nutrition can lead to weight loss, which can then increase the pressure on bony areas of the body. […] As a person ages, the skin becomes thinner and more fragile, increasing the risk of skin breakdown. […] Cardiovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, and diabetes, all cause impaired circulation, increasing the risk of pressure injuries. […] And long stays In intensive care or long surgical procedures can lead to prolonged skin tissue pressure.

• #77 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers) — DermNet

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pressure-ulcer

  External factors include: Trauma to the skin (eg, skin tears from dressings, lacerations), Amputations, Physical restraints or chemical sedation, worsening immobility, Inadequate changes in the positioning of immobile patients, Ill-fitted medical devices (eg, Jewett braces, orogastric and nasogastric tubes, tracheostomy tubes, prosthetics, casts, and splints). […] Internal factors include: Neurological diseases (both motor and sensory), Metabolic syndromes (eg, obesity, diabetes mellitus), Cardiovascular disease, Peripheral arterial occlusive disease, Malnutrition, Advanced age.

• #78 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers) — DermNet

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/pressure-ulcer

  External factors include: Trauma to the skin (eg, skin tears from dressings, lacerations), Amputations, Physical restraints or chemical sedation, worsening immobility, Inadequate changes in the positioning of immobile patients, Ill-fitted medical devices (eg, Jewett braces, orogastric and nasogastric tubes, tracheostomy tubes, prosthetics, casts, and splints). […] Internal factors include: Neurological diseases (both motor and sensory), Metabolic syndromes (eg, obesity, diabetes mellitus), Cardiovascular disease, Peripheral arterial occlusive disease, Malnutrition, Advanced age.

• #79 Symptoms & Treatments of Pressure ulcers on heel

  https://legsmatter.org/information-and-support/types-of-ulcers/pressure-ulcers/

  When a person is immobilised for extended periods, for example, in the supine position, the pressure and shear forces cause tissue deformation, inflammatory oedema, and ischaemia, leading to pressure ulceration in bony anatomical sites, such as the sacrum, ischium, elbows, and heels. […] Medical device-related pressure ulcers result from the use of devices designed and applied for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes (such as continuous positive airway pressure masks, nasogastric tubes, cervical collars, or splints). […] The tolerance of soft tissue for sustained deformations differs by tissue type and may also be affected by age, health status, microclimate, comorbidities, and conditions of the soft tissues. […] Anyone can get a pressure ulcer, but the following things can make them more likely to form: Marked foot deformity with arthritis / bony prominences, such as the heel bone.

• #80 What Causes a Decubitus Ulcer or a Pressure Ulcer? | Fernandez Firm Accident Injury Attorneys

  https://www.fernandezfirm.com/decubitus-ulcer-causes/

  Improper training; and […] Understaffing in the care facility. […] Too often, hospitals and nursing homes don’t provide their staff with proper training on how to prevent pressure ulcers. […] If you believe a decubitus ulcer developed because of a caregiver’s negligence, it’s important to seek out legal help.

• #81 Stage 3 Bedsores – Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.nursinghomeabusecenter.com/nursing-home-injuries/bedsores/stages/stage-3/

  Understaffing often leads to stage 3 bedsores, as caregivers are delayed in noticing and treating early-stage bedsores. […] A stage 3 ulcer can be excruciating and cause great suffering. Complications can even lead to death. […] Stage 3 pressure sores, like most nursing home injuries, are largely preventable with proper care. If your loved one developed severe bedsores in a nursing home, it may be the result of nursing home abuse or neglect.

• #82 What Causes a Decubitus Ulcer or a Pressure Ulcer? | Fernandez Firm Accident Injury Attorneys

  https://www.fernandezfirm.com/decubitus-ulcer-causes/

  Improper training; and […] Understaffing in the care facility. […] Too often, hospitals and nursing homes don’t provide their staff with proper training on how to prevent pressure ulcers. […] If you believe a decubitus ulcer developed because of a caregiver’s negligence, it’s important to seek out legal help.

• #83 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Shearing forces: Shearing forces (eg, when a patient is placed on an inclined surface) stress and damage supporting tissues by causing forces of muscles and subcutaneous tissues that are drawn down by gravity to oppose the more superficial tissues that remain in contact with external surfaces. […] Moisture: Moisture (eg, perspiration, incontinence) leads to tissue breakdown and maceration, which can initiate or worsen pressure injuries. […] Pressure injury has also been reported in children with severe neurologic impairments such as spina bifida, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injury. […] Several scales (eg, The Norton Scale for Predicting Pressure Ulcer Risk, the Braden Scale) have been developed to predict risk. […] The Norton Scale is used to determine whether a patient is at high risk of pressure ulcer development based on the sum of the scores of five criteria: physical condition, mental condition, activity, mobility, and incontinence.

• #84 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  The Braden scale is used to assess risk based on the sum of the scores of six categories: sensory perception, moisture, activity, mobility, nutrition, and friction/shear. […] Although use of these scales is considered standard care, they have not been shown to result in fewer pressure injuries than skilled clinical assessment alone. […] Nevertheless, use of a risk assessment scale along with skilled clinical assessment is recommended.

• #85 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  The Braden scale is used to assess risk based on the sum of the scores of six categories: sensory perception, moisture, activity, mobility, nutrition, and friction/shear. […] Although use of these scales is considered standard care, they have not been shown to result in fewer pressure injuries than skilled clinical assessment alone. […] Nevertheless, use of a risk assessment scale along with skilled clinical assessment is recommended.

• #86 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  Shearing forces: Shearing forces (eg, when a patient is placed on an inclined surface) stress and damage supporting tissues by causing forces of muscles and subcutaneous tissues that are drawn down by gravity to oppose the more superficial tissues that remain in contact with external surfaces. […] Moisture: Moisture (eg, perspiration, incontinence) leads to tissue breakdown and maceration, which can initiate or worsen pressure injuries. […] Pressure injury has also been reported in children with severe neurologic impairments such as spina bifida, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injury. […] Several scales (eg, The Norton Scale for Predicting Pressure Ulcer Risk, the Braden Scale) have been developed to predict risk. […] The Norton Scale is used to determine whether a patient is at high risk of pressure ulcer development based on the sum of the scores of five criteria: physical condition, mental condition, activity, mobility, and incontinence.

• #87 Pressure Injuries – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/pressure-injury/pressure-injuries

  The Braden scale is used to assess risk based on the sum of the scores of six categories: sensory perception, moisture, activity, mobility, nutrition, and friction/shear. […] Although use of these scales is considered standard care, they have not been shown to result in fewer pressure injuries than skilled clinical assessment alone. […] Nevertheless, use of a risk assessment scale along with skilled clinical assessment is recommended.

• #88 Bedsores: Causes, Staging and Treatment | Rosenbaum & Associates

  https://www.rosenbauminjuryfirm.com/practice-areas/bedsores-causes-staging-treatment/

  Bedsores, also called pressure ulcers or pressure sores, are injuries to the skin and underlying tissue due to prolonged body pressure. […] The application of prolonged pressure reduces blood flow to the bodys tissues and set off a cascade of biochemical reactions that lead to inflammation and bruising. […] Anyone with limited mobility can develop pressure ulcers, but patients who are confined to their bed, whether suffering from an age-related condition or recovering from an injury, face special vulnerabilities. […] Certain illnesses especially those that restrict blood flow and compromise the immune system increase risk. […] Smoking affects your circulation and keeps necessary nutrients from reaching tissues. […] Bedsores can be mild to advanced and can have serious complications.

• #89 Pressure sores | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/pressure-sores

  Malnutrition can lead to skin thinning and poor blood supply, meaning that skin is more fragile. […] Obesity being overweight in combination with, for example, immobility or being restricted to sitting or lying down can place extra pressure on capillaries. […] Smoking reduces blood flow to the skin and, in combination with reduced mobility, can lead to pressure sores.

• #90 Prevalence of pressure ulcers and associated factors among adult patients admitted at Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia, 2023 | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-67026-5

  This study revealed that the smoking status of patients was significantly associated with the development of pressure ulcers; patients being smoked were 7.46 times more likely to develop pressure ulcers. […] According to the current study, bedridden status was significantly associated with the development of pressure ulcers, and patients were nearly four times more likely to develop pressure ulcers. […] This study also demonstrated that the likelihood of developing a pressure ulcer among patients who reported pain was 3.20 times greater than that among those who reported no pain. […] Patients who had a problem with friction and shear were 5.71 times more at high risk of developing pressure ulcers than those who had no apparent problem with friction or shear.

• #91 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Blood flow to the paralyzed limbs decreases due to the lack of muscle movement and results in a reduction in nutrients and oxygen getting to the skin. […] Illness or poor overall health. […] Moisture. […] Dry, flaky skin can crack and become inflamed and infected. […] Aging causes skin to become thinner, dryer, and more fragile. […] Previous skin breakdown. […] Spasticity can cause your arms or legs to bump against an object and be injured, or rub against a surface (such as the sheets on your bed), which could produce an open sore. […] Alcohol (or drug) use often causes people to neglect their pressure reliefs and other personal care needs. […] Depression is also a risk factor for pressure sores.

• #92 Causes Of Bedsores In Nursing Homes – Knowledge Base – Justpoint

  https://justpoint.com/knowledge-base/causes-of-bedsores-in-nursing-homes/

  Incontinence: Fluids on the skin surface increase the occurrence of these pressure sores. […] Poor Nutrition: A lack of some essential nutrients can cause weight loss, predisposing seniors to pressure ulcers. […] Diabetes: Diabetic people have lower blood flow in their blood vessels, giving them an increased risk of developing pressure sores. […] A Low Or High Body Mass Index: The body’s fat is a telling factor in the emergence of bedsores. If it is too little, there won’t be enough padding for the bones. On the other hand, the excessive weight of a person with a high BMI would increase the pressure on the skin, leading to pressure injuries. […] Poor Hygiene: When a patient isn’t cleaned properly, pressure ulcers can occur. […] Age: Older people have less elastic and fragile skin susceptible to pressure sores. They are also more likely to be victims of the other causes of bedsores.

• #93

  https://www.crh.org/healthy-tomorrow/story/healthy-tomorrow/2016/10/25/what-causes-bed-sores-and-how-can-they-be-prevented

  Bed sores are pressure ulcers and are some of the most commonly encountered medical conditions in patients requiring long-term care. […] Pressure ulcers develop for several reasons which tend to lead to or cause increased risk with periods of prolonged pressure and are typically treated by reducing such factors. […] Malnutrition: Poor nutritional status can cause loss of fatty tissue which serves as a cushion over pressure sensitive areas, it also leads to decreased resilience of skin tissue and decreased exposure time to develop a pressure ulcer. […] Poor Skin Perfusion (or decreased blood flow): Any reduction in blood flow to the skin can cause hypoxia (decreased oxygen) in skin tissues causing decreased exposure time to develop a pressure ulcer. […] Bed sores can also arise from several other etiologies that are not pressure-induced but are important to be aware of.

• #94 Causes Of Bedsores In Nursing Homes – Knowledge Base – Justpoint

  https://justpoint.com/knowledge-base/causes-of-bedsores-in-nursing-homes/

  Incontinence: Fluids on the skin surface increase the occurrence of these pressure sores. […] Poor Nutrition: A lack of some essential nutrients can cause weight loss, predisposing seniors to pressure ulcers. […] Diabetes: Diabetic people have lower blood flow in their blood vessels, giving them an increased risk of developing pressure sores. […] A Low Or High Body Mass Index: The body’s fat is a telling factor in the emergence of bedsores. If it is too little, there won’t be enough padding for the bones. On the other hand, the excessive weight of a person with a high BMI would increase the pressure on the skin, leading to pressure injuries. […] Poor Hygiene: When a patient isn’t cleaned properly, pressure ulcers can occur. […] Age: Older people have less elastic and fragile skin susceptible to pressure sores. They are also more likely to be victims of the other causes of bedsores.

• #95 Causes and Risks of Pressure Sores After SCI | MSKTC

  https://msktc.org/sci/factsheets/causes-and-risks

  Blood flow to the paralyzed limbs decreases due to the lack of muscle movement and results in a reduction in nutrients and oxygen getting to the skin. […] Illness or poor overall health. […] Moisture. […] Dry, flaky skin can crack and become inflamed and infected. […] Aging causes skin to become thinner, dryer, and more fragile. […] Previous skin breakdown. […] Spasticity can cause your arms or legs to bump against an object and be injured, or rub against a surface (such as the sheets on your bed), which could produce an open sore. […] Alcohol (or drug) use often causes people to neglect their pressure reliefs and other personal care needs. […] Depression is also a risk factor for pressure sores.

• #96 Pressure Ulcer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553107/

  Pressure injuries are localized skin and soft tissue injuries that develop due to prolonged pressure exerted over specific areas of the body, typically bony prominences. […] The development of pressure injuries is complex and multifactorial. External and internal factors co-occur to form these ulcers. Externally, prolonged pressure, friction, shear force, and moisture can lead to tissue deformation and ischemia. Internal factors such as malnutrition, anemia, and endothelial dysfunction can speed up the process of tissue damage. […] Decreased mobility, skin moisture, poor nutritional status, and loss of sensory perception stand out as the most common risk factors. However, researchers have also identified older age, cognitive impairment, and comorbid conditions affecting tissue healing.

• #97 Pressure ulcers: Current understanding and newer modalities of treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4413488/

  This article reviews the mechanism, symptoms, causes, severity, diagnosis, prevention and present recommendations for surgical as well as non-surgical management of pressure ulcers. […] Pressure ulcers develop primarily from pressure and shear; are progressive in nature and most frequently found in bedridden, chair bound or immobile people. […] There are many factors that can contribute to the development of pressure ulcers, but the final common pathway to ulceration is tissue ischaemia. […] Pressure ulcers can develop when a large amount of pressure is applied to an area of skin over a short period. […] The majority of people affected with pressure sores are those having health conditions (mental or physical) that encourage immobility, especially those who are confined to bed or chair for prolonged periods of time.

• #98 Pressure Ulcers: Prevention, Evaluation, and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/1115/p1186.html/1000

  A pressure ulcer is a localized injury to the skin or underlying tissue, usually over a bony prominence, as a result of unrelieved pressure. […] Pressure ulcers are caused by unrelieved pressure, applied with great force over a short period (or with less force over a longer period), that disrupts blood supply to the capillary network, impeding blood flow and depriving tissues of oxygen and nutrients. This external pressure must be greater than arterial capillary pressure to lead to inflow impairment and resultant local ischemia and tissue damage. […] The most common sites for pressure ulcers are the sacrum, heels, ischial tuberosities, greater trochanters, and lateral malleoli.

• #99 Bedsores (Pressure Ulcers): Symptoms, Staging & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17823-bedsores-pressure-injuries

  People who are older, immobile or bedridden are most at risk for bedsores. […] These pressure ulcers occur when theres prolonged pressure on your skin. […] Friction, moisture and traction (pulling on skin) also lead to bedsores. […] Bedsores occur when pressure reduces or cuts off blood flow to your skin. […] This lack of blood flow can cause a pressure wound injury to develop in as little as two hours. […] Bedsores are more likely to develop when theres pressure along with moisture from sweat, urine (pee) or stool (poop). […] People who have thinner skin and people who have limited (or no) ability to move are more likely to develop bedsores. […] Children and adults with certain health conditions are more likely to develop bedsores. […] These conditions include: Cancer, Cerebral palsy, Chronic venous insufficiency, Dementia, Diabetes, Heart failure, Kidney failure, Malnutrition, Peripheral artery disease, Spinal cord injury or spina bifida. […] Bedsores increase your risk of potentially life-threatening bacterial infections like cellulitis and septicemia. […] You may develop sepsis or require an amputation. […] Worldwide, bedsores lead to the deaths of more than 24,000 people each year.

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