Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w

  Human pediculosis remains a public health issue affecting millions of people worldwide. […] Human pediculosis is caused by hematophagous lice, which are transmitted between individuals via direct and/or indirect contact. […] The aim of this review was to summarize the biology, epidemiology, diagnosis, and control of lice infestation in humans. […] Human pediculosis is a public health problem affecting millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing countries. […] Human pediculosis remains a worldwide public health problem with an estimated 19% global prevalence of head lice among school children and 2% prevalence of pubic lice in adult populations. […] Head louse infestation has historically been and is likely to remain a worldwide problem because head lice can infest people of all ages, and various social and economic status.

• #1 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview

  Pediculosis is very common; a report from 2000 estimates that 6-12 million Americans aged 3-11 years are infested each year. […] Head louse infestation is more common in the warmer months, whereas pubic louse infestation is more common in the cooler months. […] Head louse infestation is most common in urban areas and may occur in all socioeconomic groups. […] The reported prevalence ranges from 10-40% in US schools. […] One study estimates that 12-24 million days of school are lost because of „no-nit” school policies. […] Pediculosis has a worldwide distribution and is endemic in both developing and developed countries. […] A review of 39 studies involving 105,383 primary school children in low- and middle-income countries revealed a high prevalence of head lice infestation, estimated at 19.96%.

• #1 Worldwide Prevalence of Head Lice

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2603110/

  Most studies had been conducted in Asia; Turkey was overrepresented. Prevalence varied from 0.7% to 59% and was higher in girls and women. […] In Europe, prevalence varied from 0.48% to 22.4%. However, 1 study reported a much higher annual incidence (37.4%) in England. […] Data from Africa, with the exception of 1 study in South Africa, were derived from Egypt. Prevalence varied from 0% to 58.9% and was higher in females. […] Most studies in the Americas were conducted in Brazil, although we also found data from the United States, Cuba, and Argentina. Prevalence varied from 3.6% to 61.4% and was higher in females. […] Our review shows that pediculosis capitis is widespread throughout the world and does not discriminate on socioeconomic status grounds. […] Most studies underestimate overall prevalence by assessing it in a specific timeframe; to the contrary, head lice infestation is a dynamic process that can spread hypergeometrically in closed environments such as schools and in the community.

• #1 Pediculosis (head lice)

  https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/pediculosis-head-lice

  Head lice is very common in children. The prevalence of head lice on Australian primary school aged children could be 60 per cent in some areas. […] Head lice have been associated with humans for 10,000 years. Head lice occur worldwide. Anyone can get lice, and, given the opportunity, head lice will move from head to head without discrimination. They are frequently associated with children girls are more frequently infested than boys. […] The prevalence of head lice in primary school-aged children in other parts of Australia is reported to be up to 60 per cent. […] Head lice are not vectors of infectious disease.

• #1

  https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/headlice/Pages/default.aspx

  Head lice are most common among primary school aged children. […] The NSW Health Nitbuster program has found that when sampled, more than 23 per cent of primary school aged children in New South Wales had head lice. […] Infestations appear to be on the increase, due to factors such as: resistance to the common chemicals used in head lice products, inappropriate use of the treatments, changing social and school practices. […] While head lice are not known to carry disease, they are a nuisance for parents and children. […] The Nitbusters Program addresses treatment issues and teaches participants how to handle the problem in a community setting.

• #1 About Head Lice | Lice | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/lice/about/head-lice.html

  Head lice, or Pediculus humanus capitis, are parasitic insects that feed on human blood. […] In the United States, infestation with head lice is most common among preschool- and elementary school-age children and their household members and caretakers. […] There is not reliable data on how many people get head lice each year in the United States; however, an estimated 6-12 million infestations occur each year in the United States among children 3-11 years of age. […] The most common way to get head lice is by head-to-head contact with a person who already has head lice. […] Head lice mainly spread by direct contact with the hair of a person infested with lice. […] Head lice can survive under water for several hours but are unlikely to spread in a swimming pool. […] To help control a head lice outbreak in a community, school, or camp, teach children to avoid activities that may spread head lice. […] Misdiagnosis of head lice infestation is common. Finding a live nymph (baby louse) or adult louse on the scalp or hair is the best way to diagnose a head lice infestation.

• #1 Head Lice

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5165061/

  Head lice occur almost exclusively in vulnerable groups: school children, homeless people, refugees, and slum dwellers. […] The spread of head lice depends on spatial and temporal factors, including the number of susceptible hosts, the duration of the infestation, and the duration and nature of hair-to-hair contact. The result is the occurrence of outbreaks of head lice infestation in kindergartens and schools. […] In Germany, head lice infestations show a seasonal rhythm, with a peak between the middle of September and the end of October (after the summer holidays). […] Prevalence studies do not, therefore, reflect the true prevalence of this parasitosis in the population. […] Head lice infestation was associated with densely populated areas, more children or people in one household, longer hair, female sex, and brown hair color.

• #1 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview

  The prevalence of pediculosis capitis is usually higher in girls and women and varies from 0.7-59% in Turkey, 0.48-22.4% in Europe, 37.4% in England, 13% in Australia, up to 58.9% in Africa, and 3.6-61.4% in the Americas. […] The prevalence of body lice ranges from 4.1% to 35% among homeless individuals globally. […] Current medical literature does not strongly indicate that race or ethnicity affect the rate of infestation. […] Children aged 3-11 years are most likely to become infested with head lice because of close contact in classrooms and day care facilities. […] Head lice are much less common after puberty. […] Body lice are more common in adults, but can affect all ages. […] P pubis infestation is more common in people aged 14-40 years who are sexually active.

• #1

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/head-lice.html

  Head lice can be passed from person to person through direct contact. […] Once present in a home, school or institutional environment, head lice usually spread rapidly. […] The prevalence of head lice infestation is no different in individuals with long hair than in those with short hair. […] Head lice infest persons from all socioeconomic levels, without regard for age, race, sex or standards of personal hygiene. […] Objects that are able to harbor head lice and serve as vehicles of transmission should be treated.

• #1 Head Lice | Spokane Regional Health District

  https://srhd.org/health-topics/environmental-health/head-lice

  The health district’s Communicable Disease Epidemiology program offers limited technical consultation on head lice to school and child care professionals only. […] In the United States, head lice infestations are seen most often among preschool children attending child care, elementary school children, and household members of infested children, including adults. […] It is estimated that in the U.S., 6 million to 12 million infestations occur each year among children 3 11 years of age. […] Head lice are spread by direct contact with the hair of an infested person. […] Personal hygiene or cleanliness of the infested persons home or school has nothing to do with getting head lice. […] Head lice and their eggs, called nits, are found almost exclusively on the scalp, particularly around and behind the ears and along the neckline at the back of a persons head. […] Head lice do not spread disease.

• #1 Head Lice

  https://www.michigan.gov/emergingdiseases/home/head-lice

  Head lice are tiny (about the size of a sesame seed), wingless parasitic insects that must live on a person (usually on the scalp) to survive. […] Human head lice (Pediculus humanus capitus) have been associated with humans for thousands of years. […] The majority of head lice infestations occur by direct head-to-head contact with an infested person. […] Anyone can get head lice, but some people are at greater risk than others. […] Children between the ages of 3 and 11 years […] Girls are more likely to get head lice than boys, possibly because of their play styles and sharing of personal items. […] People with long or short hair can contract head lice. […] Studies show that children of African-American descent are less likely to become infested. […] Symptoms of head lice including scabs, scars, and nits.

• #1 Head Lice

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5165061/

  The main transmission route for head lice is therefore close head-to-head contact. The main place where this occurs is in children during play. […] Transmission via objects is a rare exception and is epidemiologically irrelevant. […] Synchronized treatment is therefore essential to prevent a series of overlapping infestations within a group. […] In Germany, the presence of head lice is not a notifiable disease- or pathogen-specific condition under the Infection Protection Act (IfSG, Infektionsschutzgesetz). However, according to paragraph 34, section 6, of the IfSG, senior managers of community facilities must notify the relevant health authority immediately if an outbreak of head lice occurs in either members of the public or personnel.

• #1 Douglas County Health Department – Head Lice

  https://www.douglascountyhealth.com/infectious-disease/diseases-and-conditions/head-lice

  Head lice have no wings and do not fly or jump, but they can run through hair quickly. […] Shared school lockers and unassigned wall hooks for coats have been associated with higher rates of infestation than individual lockers. […] When head lice are present in a community, parents are encouraged to check their children’s heads for lice on a regular basis throughout the year. Parents should not depend on someone else to check their child’s head, this may delay treatment and result in further spread. Remember, if one person in a family, camp, or school has head lice, there’s a chance others will too.

• #1 HeadLice.Org – Univ. of Miami School of Medicine research on head lice infestations

  https://www.headlice.org/news/classics/field-epidemiology.htm

  For more than five years, the Field Epidemiology Research Team (F.E.R.T.) at the University of Miami School of Medicine has conducted research on head lice infestations. This team has personally treated over two thousand cases of pediculosis, examined more than 15,000 nits or eggs, and we have extensively studied the biology of the human head louse. We have, therefore, gained considerable experience and are generally considered the experts with the most hands on knowledge of the subject. […] Our most important finding is that viable eggs (nits) shed from the scalp on hairs remain viable until hatched. We can transport collected eggs thousands of miles, and obtain over 90% hatching a week to ten days later. Within 30 seconds of hatching, the new born nymphs can move quickly to the nearest person and start to take the first blood meal.

• #1 HeadLice.Org – Univ. of Miami School of Medicine research on head lice infestations

  https://www.headlice.org/news/classics/field-epidemiology.htm

  Conclusion: Viable eggs shed into the environment, or on combs, brushes, head gear, etc., remain capable of hatching up to 10 or 12 days. […] Lice normally take a blood meal every three to four hours, but they can survive up to 8 hours between feedings, and can do so off the body. They can travel up to 12 inches per minute, and are attracted to warmth and body odor. Thus lice hiding in scarves, head gear, etc., placed on coat hooks or in lockers will quickly move to the next warm item placed nearby, throughout the school day. […] Conclusion: Head lice can be transferred by inanimate objects and clothing. […] Parents, teachers and school nurses usually lack the experience to distinguish a viable from a non-viable egg. Teachers and health care personnel are reluctant to lay hands on infested children in order to conduct the careful examination required to rule out infestation. A new born nymph is almost transparent, and no larger than the period at the end of this sentence. The responsibility of finding lice and removing nits, therefore, rests with parents and older siblings. […] Conclusion: We support the National Pediculosis Association’s 'No Nit Policy. It is an important factor in limiting epidemics, and is the only practical method of ensuring that children are free of viable eggs.

• #1 What’s New

  https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/pages/headlice.aspx

  Head lice spread from head-to-head (or hair-to-hair) contact with someone who actively has head lice. Head lice can also spread from sharing personal items that come in contact with a person’s head. […] Head lice are common among school-aged children, but anyone can get head lice. Head lice are more likely to spread at home, daycare, or at a friend’s house than at school. […] Over-the-counter and prescription medications are used to treat head lice. Combing hair to remove nits is also an important way to get rid of head lice. […] To prevent getting head lice, avoid head-to-head contact with someone who has head lice, and do not share hats, scarves, coats, and other personal items. […] Head lice usually spread from head-to-head (or hair-to-hair) contact with a person that already has head lice. Head lice can also spread by sharing combs, hats, clothes, hair clips, scarves, or other personal items that come in contact with a person’s head.

• #1 Pediculosis (Head Lice Infestation) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/pediculosis-head-lice-infestation/

  Anyone can get head lice. In the United States, infestation with head lice is common among children attending childcare and elementary school and their household members and caretakers. According to CDC, about 612 million infestations occur every year among children 311 years old. […] Head lice can be spread as long as lice or eggs remain alive on the person with head lice or in their clothing. […] Head lice infestation is diagnosed by finding a live, crawling louse on the scalp or hair of a person. […] Head lice infestation is commonly misdiagnosed because nits can look like other hair particles (for example, dandruff, hair spray droplets, and dirt particles). […] To prevent re-infestation and spread of head lice, everyone in the household should be checked. Everyone with head lice should be treated on the same day.

• #1 Head Lice Management Guidelines–UC IPM

  https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/head-lice/pest-notes/

  The head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis, can infest people of all ages, but most commonly affects children 4 to 12 years of age since they often play in close contact with one another. […] Many families with young children have at least one encounter with head lice. While head lice infestation causes limited health impacts for most people, it can cause a great deal of anxiety and embarrassment. Head lice are not a health hazard and do not transmit disease-causing pathogens, nor do they indicate poor hygiene. […] Head lice are mainly acquired through direct head-to-head contact with an infested person’s hair. […] Diagnosis of a head lice infestation requires the detection of a living louse crawling on the scalp. The presence of nits is not a reliable indication of an active infestation that needs to be treated.

• #1 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation) Workup: Approach Considerations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-workup

  The diagnosis of head lice relies on the identification of living lice. […] Nits, which are more frequently observed, are oval, grayish-white eggs attached to the base of hair shafts. […] Each adult female louse lays 3 to 5 eggs per day, resulting in a significantly higher number of nits compared to lice, which does not indicate the severity of the infestation. […] Because the diagnosis of infestation requires identification of a live louse and/or a viable nit, examining suggestive particles under the microscope confirms the diagnosis. […] A Wood’s lamp examination of the area considered to be infested shows yellow-green fluorescence of lice and nits. […] Infestation with P pubis is an STD, and 30% of these patients have an additional STD. […] Thus, it is appropriate to screen these patients for other STDs, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, genital herpes, and trichomoniasis.

• #1 Vector Control Services – Introduction

  http://www.acgov.org/ehs/vector_control/head_lice/lice.htm

  Head lice infestations are an on-going problem in our schools. To limit this problem a proactive approach is needed to reduce the impact of head lice on our community. By developing a partnership between parents and school personnel, with the intent of stamping out head lice, we can win the war against these tenacious parasites. Parent volunteers’ 'who assist the community at school by performing head lice checks are a valuable asset, without whose help the head lice problem could persist un-checked. […] Diagnosis is more often made on the basis of finding nits (eggs). Nits are tiny, yellowish-white oval eggs attached to the hair shafts. […] The old quarter-inch from the scalp rule has given way to new evidence suggesting that viable (live) nits may be found at any distance from the scalp.

• #1 Managing Head Lice in School Settings and at Home | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/texas-school-health/skilled-procedures-texas-school-health/managing-head-lice-school

  No law in Texas addresses excluding children with head lice from school. The Department of State Health Services (DSHS) does not have authority to impose a set policy on the exclusion or inclusion of students with head lice in school districts. DSHS urges school districts to ensure that its policies and procedures do not unnecessarily cause children to miss class. School districts policies and procedures should not encourage the embarrassment and isolation of students who have repeated cases of head lice. […] Lice are not a public health threat. DSHS does not monitor or track cases of head lice because they do not carry disease. It is up to each school district to create head lice policies and procedures if they choose. Talk with the school nurse or school administration to determine the school district’s policy and procedures. The „Setting Policies for School Districts” header below has policy suggestions.

• #1

  https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/head-lice

  Head lice (also known as pediculosis capitis) is not a notifiable condition and head lice do not transmit any infectious diseases. Head lice are transmitted by having head-to-head contact with someone who has head lice. This happens frequently in families, schools and childcare centres. […] The minimum period of exclusion from primary schools and children’s services centres for infectious diseases cases and contacts is regulated by the Public Health and Wellbeing Regulations 2019. Exclusion periods are used to protect public health by preventing or containing outbreaks of infectious conditions common in schools/children’s service centres. […] Although head lice do not spread disease, they are included on the school exclusion table. The exclusion criteria for head lice should be interpreted as: At the end of the school day, provide the child with a note to take home to tell their parents that they have head lice. Children may return to school after treatment has commenced. […] There is no requirement in the Regulations for a clearance certificate to be issued either by a general practitioner or a municipal council.

• #1 Lice and Scabies: Treatment Update | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0515/p635.html

  Pediculosis and scabies are caused by ectoparasites. Pruritus is the most common presenting symptom. Head and pubic lice infestations are diagnosed with visualization of live lice. Nits (lice eggs or egg casings) alone are not sufficient to diagnose a current infestation. A no-nit policy for return to school is not recommended because nits can remain even after successful treatment. […] The American Academy of Pediatrics does not recommend no-nit policies at schools and day cares because nits alone do not indicate an active infestation. Children should not be kept out of school during treatment, even with active infestation, because the likelihood of transmission is low, and this can result in significant absences. […] Body lice should be suspected in patients with pruritus who live in crowded conditions or have poor hygiene.

• #1 American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Head Lice Infestation

  https://www.ajmc.com/view/sep04-1892ps269-s272

  The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) established diagnosis and treatment guidelines for pediculosis in 2002. […] AAP guidelines also state that no-nit policies in schools are detrimental, causing lost time in the classroom, inappropriate allocation of the school nurse’s time for lice screening, and a response to infestations that is out of proportion to their medical significance. […] Safety and efficacy are the key concerns of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) when the organization establishes treatment guidelines. […] The first challenge in effectively managing head lice infestation is obtaining a correct diagnosis. […] Routine screening for nits and lice is not an effective means of reducing the incidence of infestation. […] The AAP is working with school nurses to discourage no-nit policies.

• #1 Head lice infestations: A clinical update | Canadian Paediatric Society

  https://cps.ca/documents/position/head-lice

  Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) infestations are not a primary health hazard or a vector for disease, but they are a societal problem with substantial costs. […] Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are a persistent and easily communicable cause of infestations, particularly in school-aged children. […] Unlike body lice, head lice are not a primary health hazard, a sign of poor hygiene or a vector for disease, but they are a common societal problem and relatively expensive to treat. […] The annual cost of treating head lice in the United States is estimated to be at least US$500 million. […] Definitive diagnosis of head lice infestation requires the detection of a living louse. […] The presence of nits indicates a past infestation that may not be currently active. […] Misdiagnosis of head lice infestations is common. Diagnosis requires detection of live head lice. Detecting nits alone does not indicate active infestation. […] Environmental cleaning or disinfection following the detection of a head lice case is not warranted. Head lice or nits do not survive for long away from the scalp. […] Excluding children with nits or live lice from school or child care has no rational medical basis and is not recommended.

• #1 Head Lice (‘Ukus) | Disease Outbreak Control Division

  https://health.hawaii.gov/docd/disease_listing/head-lice-ukus/

  Head lice are small (the size of a sesame seed), usually tan to grayish-white colored insects that live and reproduce in the hair on human heads. […] Head lice can be found on the head, eyebrows, and eyelashes of people. […] Head lice are not known to spread diseases. […] Infestations are most common among preschool and elementary school-aged children as well as the household members of infested children. […] There are no statistics on how many people have been infected with head lice in Hawaii. In the United States, an estimated 6 to 12 million infestations occur each year among children 3 to 11 years of age. […] Reduce the risk of catching head lice by avoiding both direct head-to-head contact and sharing of clothing or items such as hats, hair ribbons, brushes, towels, etc. […] No-nit policies that require a child to be free of nits before they can return to school should be discontinued. Instead, a student should finish the school day, receive appropriate treatment, and then return to school. No healthy child should be excluded from or allowed to miss school time because of head lice.

• #1 Head Lice Management Guidelines–UC IPM

  https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/head-lice/pest-notes/

  Individuals, families, schools, and employers all incur substantial costs as a result of head lice treatment expenses, school absenteeism, and missed workdays. The annual cost of treating head lice in the U.S. is estimated to be up to $1 billion. […] Lice infestations are very commonly misdiagnosed, leading to unnecessary treatment with pesticide-containing shampoos.

• #1 Head Lice | InfantRisk Center

  https://infantrisk.com/content/head-lice

  Head lice or Pediculus humanus capitis, attack as many as 12 million children every year. Lice are spread by direct contact with infested hair. Sharing combs, brushes, beds, and hats may also contribute to the spread of these parasites. Lice infestations in the U.S. are more frequent in girls and lead to stigma and absenteeism from school or day care. […] Head lice during pregnancy and breastfeeding can be treated with pediculicides including permethrin, malathion, and ivermectin. There are studies providing evidence that these agents do not increase the risk of birth defects. […] Permethrin is preferred for breastfeeding and pregnant mothers because it is non-toxic, and there is minimal absorption through the skin (2%). […] Regardless of what medication is used, if any, some careful infection-control measures are necessary to prevent re-infestation. […] If no pediculicide is used, repeat sessions may be necessary every three to four days for several weeks.

• #1 Head Lice | South Dakota Department of Health

  https://doh.sd.gov/diseases/head-lice/

  Head lice infestations are frequently found in homes, day care, school settings or institutions. […] Head lice transmission can occur during direct contact with an infested individual. […] Head lice can be spread as long as lice or eggs remain alive on the infested person. […] Educate persons involved on the transmission and the treatment of head lice. Where large scale infestations involve several families, the importance of coordination of treatment and prevention efforts is important.

• #1 Head Lice (Pediculosis) | Mass.gov

  https://www.mass.gov/info-details/head-lice-pediculosis

  Head lice are most commonly spread by direct head-to-head contact with hair of other people who have head lice. […] Head lice are commonly spread within households. […] People with head lice can continue to spread head lice to other people until they complete a course of treatment that kills all the head lice and their eggs. […] Head lice are not known to spread infectious diseases from person to person and should not be thought of as a medical problem. […] Identification of a head lice infestation is usually made by detecting nits attached to the hair close to the scalp. […] Children should be checked regularly and treated when head lice are found. […] Household and other close contacts should be examined and treated if head lice are found. […] Many school departments and child care sites require that children be free of nits before returning to school and parents should be familiar with their own school or daycare’s head lice policy.

• #1

  http://www.ongov.net/health/headlice.html

  Head lice are usually located on the scalp, crab lice in the pubic area and body lice along seams of clothing. […] Pediculosis is easily transmitted from person to person during direct contact. Head lice infestations are frequently found in school settings or institutions. […] For both head lice and body lice, transmission can occur during direct contact with an infested individual. […] Usually, the first indication of an infestation is the itching or scratching in the area of the body where the lice feed. […] Pediculosis can be spread as long as lice or eggs remain alive on the infested person or clothing. […] Medicated shampoos or cream rinses containing pyrethrins or permethrin are preferred for treating people with head lice. […] Physical contact with infested individuals and their belongings, especially clothing, headgear and bedding, should be avoided.

• #1 Pediculosis (lice, head lice, body lice, pubic lice, cooties, crabs)

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/pediculosis/fact_sheet.htm

  Pediculosis is an infestation of the hairy parts of the body or clothing with the eggs, larvae or adults of lice. […] Head lice infestations are frequently found in school settings or institutions. […] For both head lice and body lice, transmission can occur during direct contact with an infested individual. […] Health education on the life history of lice, proper treatment and the importance of laundering clothing and bedding in hot water or dry cleaning to destroy lice and eggs is extremely valuable. […] In addition, regular direct inspection of children for head lice, and when indicated, of body and clothing, particularly of children in schools, institutions, nursing homes and summer camps, is important.

• #1 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w

  The prevalence of head louse has significantly declined in developed countries due to the use of medications. […] In developing countries, and places where insecticides are not readily available, the prevalence has probably remained unchanged. […] Since the 1970s, the prevalence of lice has increased in many countries, and hundreds of millions of people have been infested globally, ranging from zero to 78.6% in different countries and areas. […] Body lice are predominantly prevalent in the homeless people, refugees and people living in crowded and/or unsanitary conditions. […] They are transmitted among humans via close body-to-body contact, and their prevalence often reflects the socioeconomic status of the infested population. […] Although less information is available about the distribution of crab lice, there is an indication that this species is widely distributed.

• #1 Head lice infestation – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_lice_infestation

  Head lice infestation, also known as pediculosis capitis, is the infection of the head hair and scalp by the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis). It is estimated between 1 and 20% of specific groups in Europe are infected. The number of cases of human louse infestations (or pediculosis) has increased worldwide since the mid-1960s, reaching hundreds of millions annually. Despite improvements in medical treatment and prevention of human diseases during the 20th century, head louse infestation remains stubbornly prevalent. In 1997, 80% of American elementary schools reported at least one outbreak of lice. About 612 million children between the ages of 3 and 11 are treated annually for head lice in the United States alone. High levels of louse infestations have also been reported from all over the world, including Israel, Denmark, Sweden, U.K., France, and Australia. The United Kingdom’s National Health Service report that lice have no preference for any type of hair be it clean, dirty, or short. The number of children per family, the sharing of beds and closets, hair washing habits, local customs and social contacts, healthcare in a particular area (e.g. school), and socioeconomic status were found to be factors in head louse infestation in Iran. Children between 4 and 13 years of age are the most frequently infested group. Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) infestation is most frequent on children aged 3-10 and their families.

• #1 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w

  Approximately 2% of adults are infested worldwide. […] The use of insecticides plays a crucial part in the treatment and prevention of louse infestation. […] However, repeated insecticide applications can contribute to the emergence of resistance. […] The efficacy of many insecticides has been reduced by the emergence of insecticide-resistant lice, which to some extent underpins the increasing incidence of head louse infestations in many geographic regions.

• #1 Head Lice Management Guidelines–UC IPM

  https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/head-lice/pest-notes/

  Head lice are the most prevalent human parasitic infestation in industrialized countries. The problem can be so significant among preschool and school-aged children that often schools must work together with many families to control an infestation. […] A 1997 Centers for Disease Control (CDC) report based on sales of insecticides estimated that between 6 to 12 million head louse infestations occur annually in the United States among children 3 to 11 years of age, but this number is considered to be an overestimation of the actual number of infestations that occur because many infestations are incorrectly diagnosed based on non-viable nits observed in the hair. […] However, head lice infestation incidence is indeed increasing due to widespread resistance to many of the commonly used over-the-counter pyrethrin or pyrethroid-based insecticidal shampoos.

• #1 Head Lice (11.11.2016)

  https://di.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/183660

  Prevalence studies do not, therefore, reflect the true prevalence of this parasitosis in the population. […] Head lice infestation was associated with densely populated areas, more children or people in one household, longer hair, female sex, and brown hair color. […] Transmission routes: Pediculosis humanus capitis, the human head louse, is a highly specialized parasite of the human scalp. The main transmission route for head lice is therefore close head-to-head contact. […] Transmission depends on temporal and spatial factors. […] Synchronized treatment is therefore essential to prevent a series of overlapping infestations within a group.

• #1 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera

  Other pathogens have also been identified in head lice (Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Acinetobacter baumannii) but the role of head lice in their transmission is unknown. […] Louse-borne diseases are relatively neglected in Europe compared to other vector-borne diseases in terms of targeted surveillance, research and control. […] One of the main knowledge gaps in understanding the risks of pathogen transmission from lice to humans is the lack of studies on the prevalence of body-lice in risk groups across most of the EU and the lack of surveillance of louse-borne pathogens.

• #1 Worldwide Prevalence of Head Lice

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2603110/

  Although socioeconomic status seems to be an indicator of the magnitude of lice infestation, more specific determinants are the dynamic processes of hygienic status and overcrowding. […] Variations in reported prevalence were found even in data from the same country. These differences can result from surveys being conducted during different seasons, various examination techniques, reporting of active infestation or presence of nits, and potential introduction of effective pediculicides. […] Although head lice account for a substantial number of missed schooldays in children, among others, it is surprising that pediculosis capitis is not monitored and prevalence is not regularly reported. Although we cannot extinguish the parasite, effective monitoring and planning will enable us to limit the prevalence and distribution of this parasitosis.

• #2 Pediculosis (Head Lice Infestation) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/pediculosis-head-lice-infestation/

  Anyone can get head lice. In the United States, infestation with head lice is common among children attending childcare and elementary school and their household members and caretakers. According to CDC, about 612 million infestations occur every year among children 311 years old. […] Head lice can be spread as long as lice or eggs remain alive on the person with head lice or in their clothing. […] Head lice infestation is diagnosed by finding a live, crawling louse on the scalp or hair of a person. […] Head lice infestation is commonly misdiagnosed because nits can look like other hair particles (for example, dandruff, hair spray droplets, and dirt particles). […] To prevent re-infestation and spread of head lice, everyone in the household should be checked. Everyone with head lice should be treated on the same day.

• #2 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview

  The prevalence of pediculosis capitis is usually higher in girls and women and varies from 0.7-59% in Turkey, 0.48-22.4% in Europe, 37.4% in England, 13% in Australia, up to 58.9% in Africa, and 3.6-61.4% in the Americas. […] The prevalence of body lice ranges from 4.1% to 35% among homeless individuals globally. […] Current medical literature does not strongly indicate that race or ethnicity affect the rate of infestation. […] Children aged 3-11 years are most likely to become infested with head lice because of close contact in classrooms and day care facilities. […] Head lice are much less common after puberty. […] Body lice are more common in adults, but can affect all ages. […] P pubis infestation is more common in people aged 14-40 years who are sexually active.

• #2 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview

  Pediculosis is very common; a report from 2000 estimates that 6-12 million Americans aged 3-11 years are infested each year. […] Head louse infestation is more common in the warmer months, whereas pubic louse infestation is more common in the cooler months. […] Head louse infestation is most common in urban areas and may occur in all socioeconomic groups. […] The reported prevalence ranges from 10-40% in US schools. […] One study estimates that 12-24 million days of school are lost because of „no-nit” school policies. […] Pediculosis has a worldwide distribution and is endemic in both developing and developed countries. […] A review of 39 studies involving 105,383 primary school children in low- and middle-income countries revealed a high prevalence of head lice infestation, estimated at 19.96%.

• #2 Head Lice: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/head-lice-pro

  How common are head lice? (Epidemiology) […] There is little information on the current prevalence of head lice infestation in the UK. In a survey of 31 primary schools in Wales, live head lice were detected in 8.3% of children. […] Head lice can affect any age, but is most common in children aged 4-11 years (peak age is 7-8 years), and is more common in girls than in boys. […] A 2020 systematic review to determine the worldwide prevalence of head lice in school children found a total prevalence of 19%, with male prevalence 7%, and female prevalence 19%. The highest prevalence countries were Central and South America (33%) and the lowest prevalence countries were in Europe (5%).

• #2

  https://www.clinicalpediatrics.com/parent-resources/head-lice/

  Head lice infestation is most common among pre-school and elementary school aged children, but all ages can be affected. […] Infestation is not influenced by hair length or frequent brushing or shampooing. In cultures such as the U.S., where daily hair brushing is routine, infested individuals rarely have more than a dozen live lice. […] The major focus of control activities should be to reduce the number of lice on the head and to reduce head-to-head contact. […] If a person is identified with head lice, all family members should be checked and those found with live lice or nits within 1 cm of the scalp should be treated. It is prudent to treat family members who share a bed with the infested person even if no live lice are found. […] While transmission on shared items is less likely than head-to-head contact, cleaning hair care items, pillow cases seems prudent. […] The presence of nits greater than 1 cm from the scalp should NOT be a reason for school exclusion.

• #2

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/head-lice.html

  Head lice can be passed from person to person through direct contact. […] Once present in a home, school or institutional environment, head lice usually spread rapidly. […] The prevalence of head lice infestation is no different in individuals with long hair than in those with short hair. […] Head lice infest persons from all socioeconomic levels, without regard for age, race, sex or standards of personal hygiene. […] Objects that are able to harbor head lice and serve as vehicles of transmission should be treated.

• #2 Head Lice (11.11.2016)

  https://di.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/183660

  In Germany, outbreaks of head lice mainly occur among 5- to 13-year-olds returning to school after the summer vacation. […] Normally, the prevalence of head lice in the general population of industrialized countries is low. Infestations occur almost exclusively in vulnerable groups: school children, homeless people, refugees, and slum dwellers (prevalence 0.7% to 61%). […] The spread of head lice depends on spatial and temporal factors, including the number of susceptible hosts, the duration of the infestation, and the duration and nature of hair-to-hair contact. The result is the occurrence of outbreaks of head lice infestation in kindergartens and schools. […] In Germany, head lice infestations show a seasonal rhythm, with a peak between the middle of September and the end of October (after the summer holidays).

• #2 What’s New

  https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/pages/headlice.aspx

  Head lice spread from head-to-head (or hair-to-hair) contact with someone who actively has head lice. Head lice can also spread from sharing personal items that come in contact with a person’s head. […] Head lice are common among school-aged children, but anyone can get head lice. Head lice are more likely to spread at home, daycare, or at a friend’s house than at school. […] Over-the-counter and prescription medications are used to treat head lice. Combing hair to remove nits is also an important way to get rid of head lice. […] To prevent getting head lice, avoid head-to-head contact with someone who has head lice, and do not share hats, scarves, coats, and other personal items. […] Head lice usually spread from head-to-head (or hair-to-hair) contact with a person that already has head lice. Head lice can also spread by sharing combs, hats, clothes, hair clips, scarves, or other personal items that come in contact with a person’s head.

• #2 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180

  Head lice are tiny insects that feed on blood from the human scalp. Head lice most often affect children. The insects usually spread through direct transfer from the hair of one person to the hair of another. […] Head lice crawl, but they can’t jump or fly. Head lice often spread from one person to another by direct head-to-head contact, often within a family or among children who have close contact at school or play. […] Head lice are spread primarily by direct head-to-head contact. So the risk of spreading head lice is greatest among children who play or go to school together. In the United States, cases of head lice most often occur in children in preschool through elementary school.

• #2 About Head Lice | Lice | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/lice/about/head-lice.html

  Head lice, or Pediculus humanus capitis, are parasitic insects that feed on human blood. […] In the United States, infestation with head lice is most common among preschool- and elementary school-age children and their household members and caretakers. […] There is not reliable data on how many people get head lice each year in the United States; however, an estimated 6-12 million infestations occur each year in the United States among children 3-11 years of age. […] The most common way to get head lice is by head-to-head contact with a person who already has head lice. […] Head lice mainly spread by direct contact with the hair of a person infested with lice. […] Head lice can survive under water for several hours but are unlikely to spread in a swimming pool. […] To help control a head lice outbreak in a community, school, or camp, teach children to avoid activities that may spread head lice. […] Misdiagnosis of head lice infestation is common. Finding a live nymph (baby louse) or adult louse on the scalp or hair is the best way to diagnose a head lice infestation.

• #2 Lice infestation – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/lice-infestation/

  Epidemiology: most common in children (affects 12% of children in the United States) [1][2] […] Epidemiology: most common in people living in crowded, unsanitary living conditions [2] […] Epidemiology: most common in teenagers and young adults [2] […] Body lice are most often found in clothing seams rather than on the skin. [2] […] Identification of 1 viable louse is necessary for diagnostic confirmation of head lice; detection of nits alone is insufficient. [1][3] […] Individuals with head lice do not need to be excluded from school. [2] […] Diagnosis is confirmed if the following are visualized: [2] 1 viable louse for head lice infestation; nits and/or lice for body lice, pubic lice, and eyelash lice infestations.

• #2 Managing Head Lice in School Settings and at Home | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/texas-school-health/skilled-procedures-texas-school-health/managing-head-lice-school

  No law in Texas addresses excluding children with head lice from school. The Department of State Health Services (DSHS) does not have authority to impose a set policy on the exclusion or inclusion of students with head lice in school districts. DSHS urges school districts to ensure that its policies and procedures do not unnecessarily cause children to miss class. School districts policies and procedures should not encourage the embarrassment and isolation of students who have repeated cases of head lice. […] Lice are not a public health threat. DSHS does not monitor or track cases of head lice because they do not carry disease. It is up to each school district to create head lice policies and procedures if they choose. Talk with the school nurse or school administration to determine the school district’s policy and procedures. The „Setting Policies for School Districts” header below has policy suggestions.

• #2

  https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/head-lice

  Head lice (also known as pediculosis capitis) is not a notifiable condition and head lice do not transmit any infectious diseases. Head lice are transmitted by having head-to-head contact with someone who has head lice. This happens frequently in families, schools and childcare centres. […] The minimum period of exclusion from primary schools and children’s services centres for infectious diseases cases and contacts is regulated by the Public Health and Wellbeing Regulations 2019. Exclusion periods are used to protect public health by preventing or containing outbreaks of infectious conditions common in schools/children’s service centres. […] Although head lice do not spread disease, they are included on the school exclusion table. The exclusion criteria for head lice should be interpreted as: At the end of the school day, provide the child with a note to take home to tell their parents that they have head lice. Children may return to school after treatment has commenced. […] There is no requirement in the Regulations for a clearance certificate to be issued either by a general practitioner or a municipal council.

• #2 American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Head Lice Infestation

  https://www.ajmc.com/view/sep04-1892ps269-s272

  The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) established diagnosis and treatment guidelines for pediculosis in 2002. […] AAP guidelines also state that no-nit policies in schools are detrimental, causing lost time in the classroom, inappropriate allocation of the school nurse’s time for lice screening, and a response to infestations that is out of proportion to their medical significance. […] Safety and efficacy are the key concerns of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) when the organization establishes treatment guidelines. […] The first challenge in effectively managing head lice infestation is obtaining a correct diagnosis. […] Routine screening for nits and lice is not an effective means of reducing the incidence of infestation. […] The AAP is working with school nurses to discourage no-nit policies.

• #2 Head Lice | InfantRisk Center

  https://infantrisk.com/content/head-lice

  Head lice or Pediculus humanus capitis, attack as many as 12 million children every year. Lice are spread by direct contact with infested hair. Sharing combs, brushes, beds, and hats may also contribute to the spread of these parasites. Lice infestations in the U.S. are more frequent in girls and lead to stigma and absenteeism from school or day care. […] Head lice during pregnancy and breastfeeding can be treated with pediculicides including permethrin, malathion, and ivermectin. There are studies providing evidence that these agents do not increase the risk of birth defects. […] Permethrin is preferred for breastfeeding and pregnant mothers because it is non-toxic, and there is minimal absorption through the skin (2%). […] Regardless of what medication is used, if any, some careful infection-control measures are necessary to prevent re-infestation. […] If no pediculicide is used, repeat sessions may be necessary every three to four days for several weeks.

• #2 Head Lice (11.11.2016)

  https://di.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/183660

  Prevalence studies do not, therefore, reflect the true prevalence of this parasitosis in the population. […] Head lice infestation was associated with densely populated areas, more children or people in one household, longer hair, female sex, and brown hair color. […] Transmission routes: Pediculosis humanus capitis, the human head louse, is a highly specialized parasite of the human scalp. The main transmission route for head lice is therefore close head-to-head contact. […] Transmission depends on temporal and spatial factors. […] Synchronized treatment is therefore essential to prevent a series of overlapping infestations within a group.

• #2 Head Lice

  https://www.michigan.gov/emergingdiseases/home/head-lice

  Parents, teachers, and other care givers should be aware of the signs and symptoms of a head lice infestation because young children may not be able to express their discomfort directly. […] Head lice may be brought home after a person has had direct head-to-head contact with someone who has an active head lice infestation. […] Whenever one person in the family has been identified to have lice, everyone living in the home should be checked. […] The standard for identifying head lice is finding a live louse on the head. […] Treatment should be considered only if lice or viable eggs are observed. […] It is very important to treat all affected members in a household at the same time. […] The following are steps that can be taken to help prevent and control the spread of head lice: […] To help control a head lice outbreak in a community, school, or camp, children can be taught to avoid activities that may spread head lice.

• #2 Pediculosis (lice, head lice, body lice, pubic lice, cooties, crabs)

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/pediculosis/fact_sheet.htm

  Pediculosis is an infestation of the hairy parts of the body or clothing with the eggs, larvae or adults of lice. […] Head lice infestations are frequently found in school settings or institutions. […] For both head lice and body lice, transmission can occur during direct contact with an infested individual. […] Health education on the life history of lice, proper treatment and the importance of laundering clothing and bedding in hot water or dry cleaning to destroy lice and eggs is extremely valuable. […] In addition, regular direct inspection of children for head lice, and when indicated, of body and clothing, particularly of children in schools, institutions, nursing homes and summer camps, is important.

• #2 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w

  The prevalence of head louse has significantly declined in developed countries due to the use of medications. […] In developing countries, and places where insecticides are not readily available, the prevalence has probably remained unchanged. […] Since the 1970s, the prevalence of lice has increased in many countries, and hundreds of millions of people have been infested globally, ranging from zero to 78.6% in different countries and areas. […] Body lice are predominantly prevalent in the homeless people, refugees and people living in crowded and/or unsanitary conditions. […] They are transmitted among humans via close body-to-body contact, and their prevalence often reflects the socioeconomic status of the infested population. […] Although less information is available about the distribution of crab lice, there is an indication that this species is widely distributed.

• #2 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w

  Approximately 2% of adults are infested worldwide. […] The use of insecticides plays a crucial part in the treatment and prevention of louse infestation. […] However, repeated insecticide applications can contribute to the emergence of resistance. […] The efficacy of many insecticides has been reduced by the emergence of insecticide-resistant lice, which to some extent underpins the increasing incidence of head louse infestations in many geographic regions.

• #2 Worldwide Prevalence of Head Lice

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2603110/

  Most studies had been conducted in Asia; Turkey was overrepresented. Prevalence varied from 0.7% to 59% and was higher in girls and women. […] In Europe, prevalence varied from 0.48% to 22.4%. However, 1 study reported a much higher annual incidence (37.4%) in England. […] Data from Africa, with the exception of 1 study in South Africa, were derived from Egypt. Prevalence varied from 0% to 58.9% and was higher in females. […] Most studies in the Americas were conducted in Brazil, although we also found data from the United States, Cuba, and Argentina. Prevalence varied from 3.6% to 61.4% and was higher in females. […] Our review shows that pediculosis capitis is widespread throughout the world and does not discriminate on socioeconomic status grounds. […] Most studies underestimate overall prevalence by assessing it in a specific timeframe; to the contrary, head lice infestation is a dynamic process that can spread hypergeometrically in closed environments such as schools and in the community.

• #2 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera

  Other pathogens have also been identified in head lice (Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Acinetobacter baumannii) but the role of head lice in their transmission is unknown. […] Louse-borne diseases are relatively neglected in Europe compared to other vector-borne diseases in terms of targeted surveillance, research and control. […] One of the main knowledge gaps in understanding the risks of pathogen transmission from lice to humans is the lack of studies on the prevalence of body-lice in risk groups across most of the EU and the lack of surveillance of louse-borne pathogens.

• #3 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w

  Human pediculosis remains a public health issue affecting millions of people worldwide. […] Human pediculosis is caused by hematophagous lice, which are transmitted between individuals via direct and/or indirect contact. […] The aim of this review was to summarize the biology, epidemiology, diagnosis, and control of lice infestation in humans. […] Human pediculosis is a public health problem affecting millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing countries. […] Human pediculosis remains a worldwide public health problem with an estimated 19% global prevalence of head lice among school children and 2% prevalence of pubic lice in adult populations. […] Head louse infestation has historically been and is likely to remain a worldwide problem because head lice can infest people of all ages, and various social and economic status.

• #3 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview

  Pediculosis is very common; a report from 2000 estimates that 6-12 million Americans aged 3-11 years are infested each year. […] Head louse infestation is more common in the warmer months, whereas pubic louse infestation is more common in the cooler months. […] Head louse infestation is most common in urban areas and may occur in all socioeconomic groups. […] The reported prevalence ranges from 10-40% in US schools. […] One study estimates that 12-24 million days of school are lost because of „no-nit” school policies. […] Pediculosis has a worldwide distribution and is endemic in both developing and developed countries. […] A review of 39 studies involving 105,383 primary school children in low- and middle-income countries revealed a high prevalence of head lice infestation, estimated at 19.96%.

• #3 Head Lice

  https://www.michigan.gov/emergingdiseases/home/head-lice

  Head lice are tiny (about the size of a sesame seed), wingless parasitic insects that must live on a person (usually on the scalp) to survive. […] Human head lice (Pediculus humanus capitus) have been associated with humans for thousands of years. […] The majority of head lice infestations occur by direct head-to-head contact with an infested person. […] Anyone can get head lice, but some people are at greater risk than others. […] Children between the ages of 3 and 11 years […] Girls are more likely to get head lice than boys, possibly because of their play styles and sharing of personal items. […] People with long or short hair can contract head lice. […] Studies show that children of African-American descent are less likely to become infested. […] Symptoms of head lice including scabs, scars, and nits.

• #3 Lice and Scabies: Treatment Update | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0515/p635.html

  Pediculosis and scabies are caused by ectoparasites. Pruritus is the most common presenting symptom. Head and pubic lice infestations are diagnosed with visualization of live lice. Nits (lice eggs or egg casings) alone are not sufficient to diagnose a current infestation. A no-nit policy for return to school is not recommended because nits can remain even after successful treatment. […] The American Academy of Pediatrics does not recommend no-nit policies at schools and day cares because nits alone do not indicate an active infestation. Children should not be kept out of school during treatment, even with active infestation, because the likelihood of transmission is low, and this can result in significant absences. […] Body lice should be suspected in patients with pruritus who live in crowded conditions or have poor hygiene.

• #4 Worldwide Prevalence of Head Lice

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2603110/

  Most studies had been conducted in Asia; Turkey was overrepresented. Prevalence varied from 0.7% to 59% and was higher in girls and women. […] In Europe, prevalence varied from 0.48% to 22.4%. However, 1 study reported a much higher annual incidence (37.4%) in England. […] Data from Africa, with the exception of 1 study in South Africa, were derived from Egypt. Prevalence varied from 0% to 58.9% and was higher in females. […] Most studies in the Americas were conducted in Brazil, although we also found data from the United States, Cuba, and Argentina. Prevalence varied from 3.6% to 61.4% and was higher in females. […] Our review shows that pediculosis capitis is widespread throughout the world and does not discriminate on socioeconomic status grounds. […] Most studies underestimate overall prevalence by assessing it in a specific timeframe; to the contrary, head lice infestation is a dynamic process that can spread hypergeometrically in closed environments such as schools and in the community.

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